274:, sometimes referred to as the PNR, is the point on a flight at which a plane has just enough fuel, plus any mandatory reserve, to return to the airfield from which it departed. Beyond this point that option is closed, and the plane must proceed to some other destination. Alternatively, with respect to a large region without airfields, e.g. an ocean, it can mean the point before which it is closer to turn around and after which it is closer to continue. Similarly, the Equal time point, referred to as the ETP (also critical point), is the point in the flight where it would take the same time to continue flying straight, or track back to the departure aerodrome. The ETP is not dependent on fuel, but wind, giving a change in ground speed out from, and back to the departure aerodrome. In Nil wind conditions, the ETP is located halfway between the two aerodromes, but in reality it is shifted depending on the windspeed and direction.
673:(NDBs) on the ground to drive a display which shows the direction of the beacon from the aircraft. The pilot may use this bearing to draw a line on the map to show the bearing from the beacon. By using a second beacon, two lines may be drawn to locate the aircraft at the intersection of the lines. This is called a cross-cut. Alternatively, if the track takes the flight directly overhead a beacon, the pilot can use the ADF instrument to maintain heading relative to the beacon, though "following the needle" is bad practice, especially in the presence of a strong cross wind – the pilot's actual track will spiral in towards the beacon, not what was intended. NDBs also can give erroneous readings because they use very long
45:. Air navigation differs from the navigation of surface craft in several ways; Aircraft travel at relatively high speeds, leaving less time to calculate their position en route. Aircraft normally cannot stop in mid-air to ascertain their position at leisure. Aircraft are safety-limited by the amount of fuel they can carry; a surface vehicle can usually get lost, run out of fuel, then simply await rescue. There is no in-flight rescue for most aircraft. Additionally, collisions with obstructions are usually fatal. Therefore, constant awareness of position is critical for aircraft pilots.
379:(LSALT), bearings (in both directions), and distance marked for each route. IFR pilots may fly on other routes but they then must perform all such calculations themselves; the LSALT calculation is the most difficult. The pilot then needs to look at the weather and minimum specifications for landing at the destination airport and the alternate requirements. Pilots must also comply with all the rules including their legal ability to use a particular instrument approach depending on how recently they last performed one.
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823:(Captain and First Officer), resulting in a downsizing in the number of aircrew positions for commercial flights. As the installation of electronic navigation systems into the Captain's and FO's instrument panels was relatively straight forward, the navigator's position in commercial aviation (but not necessarily military aviation) became redundant. (Some countries task their air forces to fly without navigation aids during
290:(air pressure) of those regions. Finally, the pilot should have in mind some alternative plans in case the route cannot be flown for some reason – unexpected weather conditions being the most common. At times the pilot may be required to file a flight plan for an alternate destination and to carry adequate fuel for this. The more work a pilot can do on the ground prior to departure, the easier it will be in the air.
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499:) to ensure that the track is being followed although adjustments are generally calculated and planned. Usually, the pilot will fly for some time as planned to a point where features on the ground are easily recognised. If the wind is different from that expected, the pilot must adjust heading accordingly, but this is not done by guesswork, but by mental calculation – often using the
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692:. The phase difference corresponds to the actual bearing relative to magnetic north (in some cases true north) that the receiver is from the station. The upshot is that the receiver can determine with certainty the exact bearing from the station. Again, a cross-cut is used to pinpoint the location. Many VOR stations also have additional equipment called DME (
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continuity, and functionality of the aggregate navigation aids present within the applicable airspace. Once these determinations have been made, the operator develops a route that is the most time and fuel efficient while respecting all applicable safety concerns—thereby maximizing both the aircraft's and the airspace's overall performance capabilities.
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696:) which will allow a suitable receiver to determine the exact distance from the station. Together with the bearing, this allows an exact position to be determined from a single beacon alone. For convenience, some VOR stations also transmit local weather information which the pilot can listen in to, perhaps generated by an
503:. For example, a two degree error at the halfway stage can be corrected by adjusting heading by four degrees the other way to arrive in position at the end of the leg. This is also a point to reassess the estimated time for the leg. A good pilot will become adept at applying a variety of techniques to stay on track.
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Under the PBN approach, technologies evolve over time (e.g., ground beacons become satellite beacons) without requiring the underlying aircraft operation to be recalculated. Also, navigation specifications used to assess the sensors and equipment that are available in an airspace can be cataloged and
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The final stage is to note which areas the route will pass through or over, and to make a note of all of the things to be done – which ATC units to contact, the appropriate frequencies, visual reporting points, and so on. It is also important to note which pressure setting regions will be entered, so
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In recent years, strict beacon-to-beacon flight paths have started to be replaced by routes derived through performance-based navigation (PBN) techniques. When operators develop flight plans for their aircraft, the PBN approach encourages them to assess the overall accuracy, integrity, availability,
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Once in flight, the pilot must take pains to stick to plan, otherwise getting lost is all too easy. This is especially true if flying in the dark or over featureless terrain. This means that the pilot must stick to the calculated headings, heights and speeds as accurately as possible, unless flying
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Commercial aircraft are not allowed to operate along a route that is out of range of a suitable place to land if an emergency such as an engine failure occurs. The ETP calculations serve as a planning strategy, so flight crews always have an 'out' in an emergency event, allowing a safe diversion to
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Some diversions can be temporary – for example to skirt around a local storm cloud. In such cases, the pilot can turn 60 degrees away his desired heading for a given period of time. Once clear of the storm, he can then turn back in the opposite direction 120 degrees, and fly this heading for the
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Civilian flight navigators (a mostly redundant aircrew position, also called 'air navigator' or 'flight navigator'), were employed on older aircraft, typically between the late-1910s and the 1970s. The crew member, occasionally two navigation crew members for some flights, was responsible for the
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The aircraft that is flying across the Ocean for example, would be required to calculate ETPs for one engine inoperative, depressurization, and a normal ETP; all of which could actually be different points along the route. For example, in one engine inoperative and depressurization situations the
232:. These figures are generally accurate and updated several times per day, but the unpredictable nature of the weather means that the pilot must be prepared to make further adjustments in flight. A general aviation (GA) pilot will often make use of either a
263:. The pilot also needs to take into account the slower initial airspeed during climb to calculate the time to top of climb. It is also helpful to calculate the top of descent, or the point at which the pilot would plan to commence the descent for landing.
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is a more sophisticated system, and is still the primary air navigation system established for aircraft flying under IFR in those countries with many navigational aids. In this system, a beacon emits a specially modulated signal which consists of two
259:(or declination). The variation that applies locally is also shown on the flight map. Once the pilot has calculated the actual headings required, the next step is to calculate the flight times for each leg. This is necessary to perform accurate
209:. The aim of all subsequent navigation is to follow the chosen track as accurately as possible. Occasionally, the pilot may elect on one leg to follow a clearly visible feature on the ground such as a railway track, river, highway, or coast.
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The flight time will depend on both the desired cruising speed of the aircraft, and the wind – a tailwind will shorten flight times, a headwind will increase them. The flight computer has scales to help pilots compute these easily.
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was also used by trained navigators on military bombers and transport aircraft in the event of all electronic navigational aids being turned off in time of war. Originally navigators used an astrodome and regular
811:. This was especially essential when trips were flown over oceans or other large bodies of water, where radio navigation aids were not originally available. (satellite coverage is now provided worldwide). As
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A = A, for angles less than 60° (when expressed in terms of a fraction of 60° – e.g. 30° is 1/2 of 60°, and sine 30° = 0.5), which is adequately accurate. A method for computing this mentally is the
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Successful air navigation involves piloting an aircraft from place to place without getting lost, not breaking the laws applying to aircraft, or endangering the safety of those on board or on the
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can then feed back information to the pilot to help establish position, or can actually tell the pilot the position of the aircraft, depending on the level of ATC service the pilot is receiving.
677:, which are easily bent and reflected by ground features and the atmosphere. NDBs continue to be used as a common form of navigation in some countries with relatively few navigational aids.
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prominently, as well as hazards to flying such as mountains, tall radio masts, etc. It also includes sufficient ground detail – towns, roads, wooded areas – to aid visual navigation. In the
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same length of time. This is a 'wind-star' maneuver and, with no winds aloft, will place him back on his original track with his trip time increased by the length of one diversion leg.
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aircraft would be forced to lower operational altitudes, which would affect its fuel consumption, cruise speed and ground speed. Each situation therefore would have a different ETP.
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Should the pilot be unable to complete a leg – for example bad weather arises, or the visibility falls below the minima permitted by the pilot's license, the pilot must
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from time to time, is because magnetic compasses are subject to errors caused by flight conditions and other internal and external interferences on the magnet system.
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that is not permitted for the flight, restricted areas, danger areas and so on. The chosen route is plotted on the map, and the lines drawn are called the
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to another route. Since this is an unplanned leg, the pilot must be able to mentally calculate suitable headings to give the desired new track. Using the
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in flight is usually impractical, so mental techniques to give rough and ready results are used. The wind is usually allowed for by assuming that
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Pilot's
Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, 2016, U.S. Department of Transportation - Federal Aviation Administration, pp. 8-24, 8-25, 8-26, 8-27
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approaches. Approaches having the lowest decision heights generally require that GNSS be augmented by a second system—e.g., the FAA's
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When an aircraft is in flight, it is moving relative to the body of air through which it is flying; therefore maintaining an accurate
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publishes a series of maps covering the whole of the UK at various scales, updated annually. The information is also updated in the
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The first step in navigation is deciding where one wishes to go. A private pilot planning a flight under VFR will usually use an
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shared to inform equipment upgrade decisions and the ongoing harmonization of the world's various air navigation systems.
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While the compass is the primary instrument used to determine one's heading, pilots will usually refer instead to the
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driven device which is much more stable than a compass. The compass reading will be used to correct for any drift (
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but the more streamlined periscopic sextant was used from the 1940s to the 1990s. From the 1970s airliners used
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1049:, Props, Pistons, Old Jets And the Good Ole Days of Flying website, January 7, 2009. Retrieved August 31, 2014.
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The aircraft in the picture is flying towards B to compensate for the wind from SW and reach point C.
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Finally, an aircraft may be supervised from the ground using surveillance information from e.g.
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forecast wind directions and speeds supplied by the meteorological authorities for the purpose
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provides very precise aircraft position, altitude, heading and ground speed information.
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FAA Handbook FAA-H-8083-18: Flight
Navigator Handbook; 2011; retrieved October 7, 2017;
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240:– or a purpose-designed electronic navigational computer to calculate initial headings.
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of the area which is published specifically for the use of pilots. This map will depict
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Many GA aircraft are fitted with a variety of navigation aids, such as
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726:, especially on inter-continental routes, until the shooting down of
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in the air will depend on whether the aircraft is flying under
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80:. In the former case, a pilot will largely navigate using "
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The primary instrument of navigation is the magnetic
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The pilot will choose a route, taking care to avoid
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764:makes navigation precision once reserved to large
1272:United Kingdom Global Navigation Satellite System
1033:Aviation History–Demise of the Flight Navigator
1015:Aviation History—Demise of the Flight Navigator
1061:Earth navigation calculator for Windows (free)
84:" combined with visual observations (known as
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756:in aircraft is becoming increasingly common.
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867:Automatic dependent surveillance – broadcast
427:introducing citations to additional sources
730:in 1983 prompted the US government to make
594:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
332:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
134:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
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548:during flight, apart from calibrating the
614:Learn how and when to remove this message
352:Learn how and when to remove this message
154:Learn how and when to remove this message
961:Bowditch, Nathaniel (1995). "Glossary".
922:Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring
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417:Relevant discussion may be found on the
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772:pilot. Recently, many airports include
544:Another reason for not relying on the
247:. The needle or card aligns itself to
72:such as beacons, or as directed under
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1485:Integrated standby instrument system
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768:-equipped aircraft available to the
592:adding citations to reliable sources
330:adding citations to reliable sources
132:adding citations to reliable sources
1066:Fly Away – Air Navigation tutorials
90:satellite based positioning systems
698:Automated Surface Observing System
661:Global navigation satellite system
25:
1460:Air data inertial reference unit
964:The American Practical Navigator
907:Guidance, navigation and control
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410:relies largely or entirely on a
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64:will navigate exclusively using
842:Air navigation service provider
803:trip navigation, including its
367:(IFR) navigation is similar to
286:that the pilot can ask for the
251:, which does not coincide with
60:(IFR). In the latter case, the
1424:Horizontal situation indicator
1383:Horizontal situation indicator
1047:Remember The Airline Navigator
1:
786:Wide Area Augmentation System
1102:Satellite navigation systems
734:available for civilian use.
694:distance measuring equipment
182:, radio navigation aids and
728:Korean Air Lines Flight 007
724:inertial navigation systems
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1429:Inertial navigation system
1419:Course deviation indicator
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641:Automatic direction finder
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912:Instrument landing system
657:VHF omnidirectional range
34:are identical to general
897:Flight management system
813:sophisticated electronic
282:their chosen alternate.
48:The techniques used for
30:The basic principles of
1388:Turn and slip indicator
776:instrument approaches.
707:Prior to the advent of
671:non-directional beacons
365:Instrument flight rules
226:compensate for the wind
58:instrument flight rules
27:Navigation for aviation
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927:Spherical trigonometry
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796:Further information:
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70:radio navigation aids
1439:Satellite navigation
932:Transatlantic flight
852:Air traffic obstacle
809:celestial navigation
714:Celestial Navigation
588:improve this section
423:improve this article
377:lowest safe altitude
326:improve this section
128:improve this section
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847:Air traffic control
645:inertial navigation
508:direction indicator
493:visual flight rules
369:visual flight rules
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180:controlled airspace
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54:visual flight rules
18:Altitude navigation
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1267:Kalman filter
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1141:IRNSS / NAVIC
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1136:GPS / NavStar
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1025:Bibliography
1016:
1010:
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987:on 2011-05-20
983:
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937:Wind triangle
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573:This section
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443:
440: –
439:
435:
434:Find sources:
428:
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420:
414:
413:
412:single source
408:This section
406:
402:
397:
396:
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384:
380:
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321:
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316:
311:This section
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198:, or NOTAMs.
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113:This section
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33:
19:
1407:Navigational
1332:Pitot-static
1024:
1023:
1009:
1000:
989:. Retrieved
982:the original
963:
956:
947:
946:
801:
751:
736:
712:
706:
679:
665:
638:
610:
601:
586:Please help
574:
543:
539:
522:
520:
505:
501:1 in 60 rule
489:
476:
466:
459:
452:
445:
433:
409:
385:
381:
363:
348:
339:
324:Please help
312:
294:IFR planning
284:
280:
276:
269:
265:
242:
236:– a type of
222:ground track
219:
206:
200:
173:
150:
141:
126:Please help
114:
47:
40:
31:
29:
1109:Operational
877:Drift meter
752:The use of
675:wavelengths
76:control by
66:instruments
1515:Categories
1500:Yaw string
1365:Gyroscopic
1355:Variometer
1150:Historical
991:2010-12-14
948:Citations
943:References
686:sine waves
659:(VOR) and
535:clock code
516:precession
449:newspapers
253:true north
238:slide rule
50:navigation
36:navigation
1350:Machmeter
1340:Altimeter
1202:(retired)
649:compasses
604:June 2021
575:does not
479:June 2021
419:talk page
391:In flight
342:June 2021
313:does not
184:airfields
144:June 2021
115:does not
56:(VFR) or
1495:V speeds
1236:StarFire
1231:SouthPAN
1167:Timation
857:Aircraft
831:See also
788:(WAAS).
663:(GNSS).
510:(DI), a
497:pilotage
86:pilotage
1277:Wavelet
1172:Tsiklon
1162:Transit
1131:GLONASS
1126:Galileo
862:Aircrew
825:wartime
798:Aircrew
720:sextant
643:(ADF),
596:removed
581:sources
463:scholar
334:removed
319:sources
245:compass
136:removed
121:sources
1116:BeiDou
974:
523:divert
491:under
465:
458:
451:
444:
436:
371:(VFR)
190:, the
43:ground
1282:RINEX
1221:NTRIP
1206:JPALS
1200:GPS·C
1195:GAGAN
1190:EGNOS
1121:DORIS
985:(PDF)
968:(PDF)
882:ETOPS
739:radar
702:TACAN
690:phase
669:uses
470:JSTOR
456:books
207:track
74:radar
62:pilot
1470:EFIS
1465:ECAM
1444:SIGI
1246:SDCM
1241:WAAS
1216:MSAS
1211:LAAS
972:ISBN
817:GNSS
815:and
807:and
782:GNSS
778:GNSS
774:GNSS
766:RNAV
762:GNSS
758:GNSS
754:GNSS
709:GNSS
579:any
577:cite
531:sine
442:news
317:any
315:cite
270:The
119:any
117:cite
68:and
747:ATC
741:or
732:GPS
681:VOR
667:ADF
590:by
425:by
328:by
288:QNH
192:CAA
130:by
1517::
770:GA
745:.
711:,
704:.
655:,
651:,
647:,
188:UK
92:.
1316:e
1309:t
1302:v
1094:e
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994:.
617:)
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602:(
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477:(
467:·
460:·
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349:(
344:)
340:(
336:.
322:.
157:)
151:(
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142:(
138:.
124:.
20:)
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