305:
Al/air electric vehicles (EVs) can be 15% (present stage) or 20% (projected), comparable to that of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEs) (13%). The design battery energy density is 1300 Wh/kg (present) or 2000 Wh/kg (projected). The cost of battery system chosen to evaluate is US$ 30/kW (present) or US$ 29/kW (projected). Al/air EVs life-cycle analysis was conducted and compared to lead/acid and nickel metal hydride (NiMH) EVs. Only the Al/air EVs can be projected to have a travel range comparable to ICEs. From this analysis, Al/air EVs are the most promising candidates compared to ICEs in terms of travel range, purchase price, fuel cost, and life-cycle cost.
870:
351:
Another problem is the cost of materials that need to be added to the battery to avoid power dropping. Aluminium is still very cheap compared to other elements used to build batteries. Aluminium costs $ 2.51 per kilogram while lithium and nickel cost $ 12.59 and $ 17.12 per kilogram respectively.
309:
Technical problems remain to be solved to make Al–air batteries suitable for electric vehicles. Anodes made of pure aluminium are corroded by the electrolyte, so the aluminium is usually alloyed with tin or other elements. The hydrated alumina that is created by the cell reaction forms a gel-like
332:
Traditional Al–air batteries had a limited shelf life, because the aluminium reacted with the electrolyte and produced hydrogen when the battery was not in use; this is no longer the case with modern designs. The problem can be avoided by storing the electrolyte in a tank outside the battery and
139:
released a video demonstration of an electric car using aluminium–air cells driven 330 km using a special cathode and potassium hydroxide. On May 27, 2013, the
Israeli channel 10 evening news broadcast showed a car with Phinergy battery in the back, claiming 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi)
304:
The Al/air battery system can generate enough energy and power for driving ranges and acceleration similar to gasoline powered cars...the cost of aluminium as an anode can be as low as US$ 1.1/kg as long as the reaction product is recycled. The total fuel efficiency during the cycle process in
375:
Research and development is taking place on alternative, safer, and higher performance electrolytes such as organic solvents and ionic liquids. Others such as AlumaPower are focusing on mechanical methods to mitigate many of the historical issues with Al-air batteries. AlumaPower's patent
121:, the battery will no longer produce electricity. However, it is possible to mechanically recharge the battery with new aluminium anodes made from recycling the hydrated aluminium oxide. Such recycling would be essential if aluminium–air batteries were to be widely adopted.
310:
substance at the anode and reduces the electricity output. This is an issue being addressed in the development work on Al–air cells. For example, additives that form the alumina as a powder rather than a gel have been developed.
387:) illustrates a method that rotates the anode which eliminates wear patterns and corrosion of the anode. The patent further claims that the design can use any scrap aluminium, including remelted soda cans and engine blocks.
101:
of all batteries, but they are not widely used because of problems with high anode cost and byproduct removal when using traditional electrolytes. This has restricted their use to mainly military applications. However, an
355:
Aluminium–air batteries may become an effective solution for marine applications due to their high energy density, low cost, and the abundance of aluminium, with no emissions at the point of use in boats and ships.
329:
film that prevents electrolyte leakage. The oxygen in the air passes through the PTFE then reacts with the water to create hydroxide ions. These cathodes work well, but they can be expensive.
548:
117:, i.e., non-rechargeable. Once the aluminium anode is consumed by its reaction with atmospheric oxygen at a cathode immersed in a water-based electrolyte to form hydrated
124:
Aluminium-powered vehicles have been under discussion for some decades. Hybridisation mitigates the costs, and in 1989 road tests of a hybridised aluminium–air/
672:
382:
352:
However, one other element typically used in aluminium air as a catalyst in the cathode is silver, which costs about $ 922 per kilogram (2024 prices).
767:
799:
276:
The specific voltage of the cell can vary depending upon the composition of the electrolyte as well as the structure and materials of the cathode.
604:
629:
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957:
411:
1290:
1110:
1120:
545:
287:, manganese-air, and sodium-air, some with a higher energy density. However, aluminium is attractive as the most stable metal.
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1048:
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792:
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372:
and several other commercial companies are working on commercial and military applications in the marine environment.
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Aluminium as a "fuel" for vehicles has been studied by Yang and
Knickle. In 2002, they concluded:
1285:
1145:
1016:
869:
827:
341:
357:
1219:
937:
907:
421:
445:
Yang, S. (2002). "Design and analysis of aluminum/air battery system for electric vehicles".
369:
273:
is used as the electrolyte. Saltwater electrolyte achieves approximately 0.7 volts per cell.
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114:
763:
Aluminium battery from
Stanford offers safe alternative to conventional batteries
1254:
1239:
977:
902:
513:
Parish, D. W.; Fitzpatrick, N. P.; Callaghan, W. B. O'; Anderson, W. M. (1989).
106:
with aluminium batteries has the potential for up to eight times the range of a
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38:
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322:
318:
314:
86:
526:
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is created by these reactions and is achievable in practice when
768:
Aluminium battery can charge phone in one minute, scientists say
514:
326:
74:
62:
781:
658:
481:
140:
range before replacement of the aluminium anodes is necessary.
1249:
623:
621:
90:
605:"Aluminum-Air Battery Developer Phinergy Partners With Alcoa"
515:"Demonstration of Aluminum-Air Fuel Cells in a Road Vehicle"
333:
transferring it to the battery when it is required for use.
85:(Al–air batteries) produce electricity from the reaction of
739:
128:
in an electric vehicle were reported. An aluminium-powered
697:
565:
480:
Fitzpatrick, N. P.; Smith, F.N.; Jeffrey, P. W. (1983).
673:"Aluminum-air batteries - game changer or hype?, Home"
655:"UK Finance Guide – Loans and finance news for the UK"
1207:
1179:
1001:
877:
815:
313:Modern air cathodes consist of a reactive layer of
279:Other metals can be used in a similar way, such as
69:
55:
45:
31:
302:
793:
440:
438:
436:
132:minivan was demonstrated in Ontario in 1990.
16:High-electrical energy density storage device
8:
26:
321:-grid current collector, a catalyst (e.g.,
800:
786:
778:
37:1300 (practical), 6000/8000 (theoretical)
110:with a significantly lower total weight.
675:. www.sparkanalytics.co. Archived from
432:
25:
7:
773:Simple homemade aluminum-air battery
630:"Al-air: a better battery for EVs?"
628:Brown, Richard (3 February 2020).
19:For the rechargeable battery, see
14:
868:
521:. Vol. 1. Papers.sae.org.
488:. Vol. 1. Papers.sae.org.
336:These batteries can be used as
97:. They have one of the highest
412:Metal–air electrochemical cell
1:
467:10.1016/S0378-7753(02)00370-1
325:), and a porous hydrophobic
225:The total reaction is 4Al +
113:Aluminium–air batteries are
186:reduction half-reaction is
1312:
519:SAE Technical Paper Series
486:SAE Technical Paper Series
482:"The Aluminum-Air Battery"
18:
958:Metal–air electrochemical
866:
587:Phinergy corporate video
447:Journal of Power Sources
719:"Phinergy Marine, Home"
83:Aluminium–air batteries
1260:Semipermeable membrane
1049:Lithium–iron–phosphate
307:
1281:Electrochemical cells
1131:Rechargeable alkaline
809:Electrochemical cells
607:. Greencarreports.com
417:Aluminium-ion battery
407:Potassium-ion battery
397:List of battery types
27:Aluminium–air battery
21:aluminium-ion battery
1296:Disposable batteries
1111:Nickel–metal hydride
634:Automotive Logistics
603:Edelstein, Stephen.
267:potential difference
70:Nominal cell voltage
1291:Metal–air batteries
1121:Polysulfide–bromide
963:Nickel oxyhydroxide
855:Thermogalvanic cell
661:on January 3, 2007.
459:2002JPS...112..162Y
342:telephone exchanges
271:potassium hydroxide
108:lithium-ion battery
28:
884:(non-rechargeable)
828:Concentration cell
551:2013-10-29 at the
1268:
1267:
422:Aluminium battery
338:reserve batteries
291:Commercialization
126:lead–acid battery
80:
79:
1303:
1064:Lithium–titanate
1009:
885:
872:
833:Electric battery
802:
795:
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779:
751:
750:
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747:
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730:
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709:
708:
706:
705:
700:. AlumaPower.com
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657:. Archived from
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566:"Phinergy, Home"
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510:
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402:Zinc–air battery
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265:About 1.2 volts
261:
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144:Electrochemistry
104:electric vehicle
99:energy densities
29:
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1301:
1300:
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1096:Nickel–hydrogen
1054:Lithium–polymer
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740:"RiAlAiR, Home"
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553:Wayback Machine
546:Plug-in highway
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379:US US10978758B2
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366:Log 9 Materials
362:Phinergy Marine
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135:In March 2013,
119:aluminium oxide
33:Specific energy
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1189:Atomic battery
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1163:
1161:Vanadium redox
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1136:Silver–cadmium
1133:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1106:Nickel–lithium
1103:
1098:
1093:
1091:Nickel–cadmium
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1067:
1066:
1061:
1059:Lithium–sulfur
1056:
1051:
1046:
1036:
1031:
1030:
1029:
1019:
1013:
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1008:(rechargeable)
1004:Secondary cell
1002:
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990:
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928:Edison–Lalande
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843:Trough battery
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757:External links
755:
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731:
721:. Phinergy.com
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689:
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568:. Phinergy.com
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527:10.4271/891690
505:
494:10.4271/830290
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453:(1): 162–201.
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179:+ 3e +2.31 V.
173:
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130:plug-in hybrid
78:
77:
71:
67:
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59:
57:Specific power
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47:Energy density
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1151:Sodium–sulfur
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1126:Potassium ion
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943:Lithium metal
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898:Aluminium–air
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823:Galvanic cell
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742:. rialair.com
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679:on 2021-12-13
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115:primary cells
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36:
34:
30:
22:
1166:Zinc–bromine
973:Silver oxide
908:Chromic acid
897:
880:Primary cell
860:Voltaic pile
838:Flow battery
744:. Retrieved
734:
723:. Retrieved
713:
702:. Retrieved
698:"AlumaPower"
692:
681:. Retrieved
677:the original
667:
659:the original
649:
637:. Retrieved
633:
609:. Retrieved
598:
581:
570:. Retrieved
560:
541:
530:. Retrieved
518:
508:
497:. Retrieved
485:
475:
450:
446:
374:
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346:backup power
335:
331:
312:
308:
303:
299:
278:
275:
264:
224:
181:
147:
134:
123:
112:
82:
81:
1255:Salt bridge
1240:Electrolyte
1171:Zinc–cerium
1156:Solid state
1141:Silver–zinc
1116:Nickel–zinc
1101:Nickel–iron
1076:Molten salt
1044:Dual carbon
1039:Lithium ion
1034:Lithium–air
993:Zinc–carbon
968:Silicon–air
948:Lithium–air
281:lithium-air
1275:Categories
1208:Cell parts
1199:Solar cell
1181:Other cell
1146:Sodium ion
1017:Automotive
746:2020-04-24
725:2020-04-24
704:2023-06-12
683:2021-12-13
611:2014-04-28
572:2014-04-29
532:2014-04-28
499:2014-04-28
428:References
358:AlumaPower
152:oxidation
1286:Aluminium
1245:Half-cell
1235:Electrode
1194:Fuel cell
1071:Metal–air
1022:Lead–acid
938:Leclanché
850:Fuel cell
348:sources.
262:+2.71 V.
222:+0.40 V.
95:aluminium
1225:Catalyst
1086:Nanowire
1081:Nanopore
1027:gel–VRLA
988:Zinc–air
893:Alkaline
549:Archived
391:See also
285:zinc-air
156:is Al +
137:Phinergy
1230:Cathode
983:Zamboni
953:Mercury
918:Daniell
592:YouTube
455:Bibcode
370:RiAlAiR
344:and as
317:with a
252:4Al(OH)
211:+ 4e →
184:cathode
89:in the
1220:Binder
978:Weston
903:Bunsen
639:14 May
384:
323:cobalt
319:nickel
315:carbon
296:Issues
169:Al(OH)
87:oxygen
1215:Anode
933:Grove
913:Clark
816:Types
150:anode
93:with
1250:Ions
641:2021
327:PTFE
182:The
148:The
73:1.2
61:200
923:Dry
590:on
523:doi
490:doi
463:doi
451:112
340:in
213:4OH
158:3OH
91:air
65:/kg
51:N/A
41:/kg
39:W·h
1277::
632:.
620:^
517:.
484:.
461:.
449:.
435:^
368:,
364:,
360:,
283:,
250:→
239:6H
237:+
227:3O
200:2H
198:+
167:→
801:e
794:t
787:v
749:.
728:.
707:.
686:.
643:.
614:.
575:.
555:.
535:.
525::
502:.
492::
469:.
465::
457::
376:(
257:3
248:O
244:2
232:2
209:O
205:2
193:2
188:O
174:3
75:V
63:W
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.