492:
conditions, management decisions, or the enforcement of unpopular rules. Wildcat strikes are characterized by their grassroots, rebellious nature and usually challenge both the employer’s authority and the official structures of the labor movement. Grievances defined as pertaining to the labor contract are considered as "legitimate," but complaints defined as outside of the contract such as election and placement of supervisors and schedule of operations might be "talked over," but plant officials were cautioned against taking official cognizance of them. Gouldner writes, "as a consequence, some of the very issues which precipitated the strike, the changing speed of the machine, the demotion of the old supervisors and their replacement with new ones, were defined by management as non-legitimate. As a result, the attempt to alleviate the underlying tensions by resorting to a new formal definition of role relations did not eliminate the tensions but only caged them in and initiated a vicious circle." Wildcat Strike is a research report interpreted by role analysis within a structure function framework. Theory and research are blended so successfully that industrial sociology becomes here, as it should, a contribution to general sociology.
481:
democratic associations but omits science and technology as revolutionary universals. Gouldner held the view that
Parsons had an objective of proving the superiority of America over the Soviet block of nations. In his view, the US institutionalized some evolutionary universals such as money and markets, legal codes, and democratic associations, which were not fully developed within totalitarian systems. However, totalitarian societies did possess science and technology and compared favorably with the United States. Yet, Rhoads believes that Gouldner’s opinion that Parsons is attempting to demonstrate American superiority is wrong. He highlights how Parsons does include technology as a universal: “These four features of even the simplest system - “religion,” communication with language, social organization through kinship, and technology - may be regarded as an integrated set of evolutionary universals at even the earliest human level. No known human society has existed without all four in relatively definite relations to each other.”
477:
Berger believed that
Parsonianism never dominated American sociology and that sociologists of that era followed their own preset tracks. Additionally, Berger points out how the most popular books during the 1950’s were non-Parsonian. Berger sees Gouldner’s criticism of Parsons as superficial, with Berger pointing out how Gouldner implies that Parsons is a fraud and that his reputation rests on his Harvard association. Furthermore, Berger claims Gouldner makes claims with no evidence, like that Parsons initially opposed government intervention for social reform. Gouldner’s criticism isn't without a nuanced approach however, as he trained under one of Parsons' students, Robert Merton. Berger points out how Gouldner uses this to not only a critique of Parsons' most basic ideas, but as a basis for a sociological analysis of the biographical sources of those ideas and their relevance to issues associated with laissez-faire capitalism in the 1930's and the problems of Welfare State capitalism in the 1950's and 1960's.
517:(1979), Alvin Gouldner describes the rise of a new class of technical intelligentsia and humanistic intellectuals that have altered previous traditional systems and structures of power. Gouldner states that this class originated during significant historical societal shifts, such as the loss of the church’s control over knowledge and the shift away from Latin to common languages. These changes allowed intellectuals to integrate more into everyday life. Additionally, feudalism’s decline and the market economy’s growing prominence gave this New Class more separation and independence from the traditional elite, and the rise of public education systems further pushed them to shape society beyond the rule of local authority.
496:
marginalized or oppressed by those structures. When a pattern of work conditions not specified in the contract, but which the workers had every reason to count on, was destroyed, the resultant dissatisfaction and insecurity generated a wildcat strike and its "illegitimate" demands. Some of these principles seem obvious truisms clothed pretentiously, but all ring true, and many provide genuine insight toward the author's goal of erecting a bridge between pure and applied sociology. In his study of the gypsum plant, Gouldner identified that when management imposed stricter bureaucratic rules and tried to enforce greater control, workers reacted with forms of informal resistance, including wildcat strikes.
617:, and its role in the social system established by Parsons. Since reciprocity is the mutual exchange of obligations and benefits between individuals, it becomes essential to the social stability experienced within the society. However, Gouldner proposes that reciprocity can bring social stability, yet by itself is not enough to ensure this. Combining autonomy with reciprocity is the key component to which Gouldner suggests stability within a social system, creating a balance between mutual exchange and a sense of personal independence while trying to avoid power imbalances among individuals and institutions.
268:. This work argued that sociology must turn away from producing objective truths and understand the subjective nature of sociology and knowledge in general and how it is bound up with the context of the times. This book was used by many schools of sociology as analysis of their own theory and methods. However, Gouldner was not the first sociologist to be critical of objective knowledge of society, see for example
510:(1979) is Alvin Gouldner’s class-analysis based answer to the question: “Why are there intellectuals and what are they good for?” In addition to Marx’s two previously defined classes in the capitalist society, there is a New Class that provides technical services and expertise that facilitate capitalist production. Gouldner argues that this group is crucial to the functioning and efficiency of capitalism.
22:
581:; the first of which recapitulates Gouldner’s “New Class” and refers to the intelligentsia’s dialectical stratification; the second of which details the historical, political, and theoretical contexts of Marxism as well as contemporary focalized theories; the last of which accounts for the rationality of Marxism and asks why the theory was widely accepted at the time.
561:, published posthumously by Janet Gouldner and Cornelis Disco, was Gouldner’s final book. The final work was mostly complete upon his death, but editing and logical composition content of his original passages were finalized by Karen Lucas, Mary Grove (Gouldner’s secretary), Janet Gouldner, and Cornelis Disco.
585:
questions
Gouldner’s motivations behind his ideas, particularly of his deeming the intelligentsia as the potential last class; he also questions whether Gouldner’s framing of Marxist theory could be structured differently and if that framing is more plausible in society. Sociologist James J. Chriss summarizes
524:
the class is described as more trustworthy and selfless, differing from
Gouldner’s view that the class acts often in their self-interest. Another common thread throughout the different theses of the New Class is their association and alliance with the traditional elite class. In some viewpoints, such
495:
In the context of
Gouldner’s work, wildcat strikes represent a form of worker resistance against bureaucratic authority and control. He viewed them as examples of the tension between formal structures of power (such as management and unions) and the informal, everyday experiences of workers who feel
476:
Gouldner devotes the largest portion of his book to
Talcott Parsons and to the Parsonian brand of functionalism, which in his eyes dominated American sociological thinking in the 1930’s, 40’s, and 50’s. However, many, including the late sociologist Bennett Berger, find faults in Gouldner’s argument.
472:
Gouldner primarily argued that there would be a new class of sociologists emerging consisting of radical students, who rebel against what they see as the conservatism of their previous professors. The book consists of multiple parts: an attack on “objective,” “value-free” social science, a sociology
458:
Punishment-centered bureaucracy: this type of program was initiated by management and generated many tensions. Management viewed workers as deliberately willing to be absent. Therefore, punishment was installed in order to force the workers not to be absent. For example, the "no-absenteeism" rule is
281:
Subsequently, much of
Gouldner's work was concerned with critiquing modern sociology and the nature of the intellectual. He argued that ideology often produced false premises and was used as a tool by a ruling elite and that therefore critical subjective thought is much more important than objective
609:
surrounding the structure of a society. Functionalist theory is the idea that society is a system that is composed of various bodies and social institutions, each providing a good or service necessary for the society to function. What keeps these institutions functioning is the role of individuals,
584:
The work was met critically by others at the time. Historian Martin Jay contended that the work thwarted itself into dichotomies and fragments while attempting to unifying a single social theory because of
Gouldner’s deep confliction with Marxist contradictions and gaps. Historian Walter L. Adamson
542:, identifying the New Class as “elitist and self-seeking”, using their unique set of skills and knowledge to increase their control and influence. Moreover, he details the tensions within the class itself, noting the internal divisions between technical intelligentsia and humanistic intellectuals.
450:
Mock bureaucracy: this type comes from outside agency and is implemented officially, but not in daily behaviors. Both management and workers agree in this case to act the same way. The rules are not enforced in this case, neither by management, nor by the workers. No conflict seem to emerge in this
549:
are based on two primary arguments. The first points out that the timing of
Gouldner’s thesis was too late, and by the time the book was published the middle-class radicalism he mentions was already fading, being replaced by a “new conservatism” that many educated youth adopted. Additionally, many
533:
the class is seen as a group that uplifts and serves the old moneyed elite class. These ideas go on to say that the New Class will eventually become combined with the aforementioned traditional elites, creating a refined high society superior to its predecessors. Gouldner rejects this statement as
491:
Wildcat strike is at once a research report and a theoretical statement of group processes. It refers to a spontaneous, unplanned work stoppage initiated by workers without the approval of the official union leadership. These strikes often occur in response to immediate grievances, such as working
480:
Another criticism
Gouldner beams at Parsons’s discussion of change is Parsons’s alleged failure to give technology the place it deserves. John Rhoads, a late sociology professor from Northern Illinois University, highlights Gouldner’s view that Parsons lists cultural legitimation, money, and
454:
Representative bureaucracy: both management and workers enforced this rule and it generated very few tensions. In this context, the focus was on the education of workers as management considered them as ignorant and careless regarding security rules. The safety program is an example of
565:
combines what was originally supposed to be three volumes of distinct Marxism critique into a single volume that views Marxism in its totality – how the contextual origins of Marxism led to the acceptance of the theory and its interpretable meaning.
589:
as a work where Gouldner’s ideas are picked apart for understanding at one level but are found to hold contradictions at another, the limitations being the inability to show complexity wholly and still being able to see what may be forgotten.
983:
The future of intellectuals and the rise of the new class: a frame of reference, theses, conjectures, arguments, and an historical perspective on the role of intellectuals and intelligentsia in the international class contest of the modern
407:
The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class: A Frame of Reference, Theses, Conjectures, Arguments, and an Historical Perspective on the Role of Intellectuals and Intelligentsia in the International Class Contest of the Modern
294:, then a graduate student at Washington University, who Gouldner suspected of hanging a satirical cartoon poster criticizing Gouldner on the sociology department bulletin board. He died of a heart attack at age 60 in 1981.
966:
McGowan, J. (2016). The Future of the Intellectuals: Was Alvin Gouldner Right?. In: Di Leo, J.R., Hitchcock, P. (eds) The New Public Intellectual. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-58162-4_7
455:
representative. Meetings happened regularly to implement this program and it was as well the occasion to voice some concerns for workers. For the management, this program was a way to tighten the control over workers.
242:. In 1968, he became the Max Weber Research Professor of Social Theory there and chair of the department. He was the president of the Society for the Study of Social Problems (1962) and professor of sociology at the
446:. He analyzed how after the appointment of a new manager the bureaucratization process emerged. Gouldner identified three types of bureaucracy in his studies with very specific patterns:
1305:
1187:
253:
can be seen as important as they worked within the existing fields of sociology but adopted the principles of a critical intellectual. This can be seen more clearly in his 1964 work
1019:
Grusky, D. (2011). The Inequality Reader: Contemporary and Foundational Readings in Race, Class, and Gender (2nd ed.) Routledge. pp 117-123. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429494468
1285:
1300:
550:
critics argue if the New Class should even be described as a class due to its lack of economic foundation that defines the traditional Marxist definition of a class.
538:
as he believed that both groups would act in their own interests and would be willing to “exploit the other”. Finally, Gouldner reveals his own viewpoint,
610:
each having an important role to play. In essence, the interaction between individuals performing their roles creates what is known as a social system.
1215:
A. Gouldner, `Reciprocity and Autonomy in Functional Theory’ in L. Gross (ed.), Symposium on Sociological Theory ( Row, Peterson, Evanston, 1959 )
775:
671:
1280:
1166:
991:
1120:"Against Fragmentation: The Origins of Marxism and the Sociology of the Intellectuals. Alvin W. Gouldner , Janet Gouldner , Cornelis Disco"
1275:
199:
1252:
419:
239:
69:
727:
235:
614:
51:
32:
1310:
1270:
1071:
207:
473:
of the history of sociology and a critique of Talcott Parsons, culminating in his own proposal for a new sociology.
520:
Throughout the piece, Gouldner mentions various “distinguishable conceptions” of the New Class. In many, such as
1257:
E.P. Hollander & R.G. Hunt : Perspectives in Social Psychology. New York, Oxford University Press. 1963
602:
47:
1089:""Against Fragmentation" Against Itself: Contradictions and Anomalies in the Development of Gouldner's Theory"
243:
451:
case. "Smoking" is in this case seen as inevitable. The no-smoking rule is an example of mock-bureaucracy.
646:
613:
One of the main limitations that Gouldner highlights within the functionalist theory is the idea behind
227:
1295:
1290:
1253:
http://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1023&context=clsoc_crim_facpub
274:
211:
146:
676:
1236:
1227:
238:
in the 1940s and 1950s. In 1957, he joined the joint Anthropology and Sociology department of
1162:
1139:
1100:
1067:
987:
882:
735:
638:
443:
423:
412:
402:
393:
384:
375:
366:
357:
348:
339:
330:
321:
312:
303:
269:
1131:
874:
825:
171:
704:
606:
464:
The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology & Gouldner's Critique of Talcott Parsons (1970)
231:
1247:
1231:
1119:
862:
559:
Against Fragmentation: The Origins of Marxism and the Sociology of Intellectuals (1985)
398:
The Dialectic of Ideology and Technology: The Origins, Grammar and Future of Ideology.
291:
203:
43:
1264:
114:
681:
650:
439:
428:
Against Fragmentation: The Origins of Marxism and the Sociology of Intellectuals
158:
290:
Gouldner achieved public prominence when he was accused of beating and kicking
141:
1143:
1104:
886:
739:
642:
813:
258:
223:
187:
417:
The Two Marxisms: Contradictions and Anomalies in the Development of Theory
1031:
Szelenyi, Ivan, and Bill Martin. “The Three Waves of New Class Theories.”
1052:, by Alvin Ward Gouldner, Oxford University Press, 1985, pp. vii-viii.
601:(1959), is an analytical essay in which Gouldner centers his focus on
1088:
153:
1135:
878:
829:
442:
in a mine and identified there various patterns of bureaucracy and
257:, where he claimed that sociology could not be objective and that
672:"Alvin Gouldner, 60, A Radical Sociologist, Dies of Heart Attack"
486:
Wildcat Strike: A Study in Worker-Management Relationships (1954)
264:
He is probably most remembered in the academy for his 1970 work
954:, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45308696. Accessed 28 Sept. 2024.
776:"The Coming Crisis in Western Sociology, by Alvin W. Gouldner"
605:(or functionalist theory), a sociological theory developed by
134:
15:
1039:, http://www.jstor.org/stable/657634. Accessed 30 Sept. 2024.
1239:
938:, http://www.jstor.org/stable/833. Accessed 28 Sept. 2024.
918:, https://doi.org/10.2307/2089132. Accessed 28 Sept. 2024.
814:"The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology Alvin W. Gouldner"
326:
Wildcat Strike: A Study in Worker-Management Relationships
547:
The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class
515:
The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class
508:
The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class
501:
The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class
1248:
Alvin Gouldner on Intellectuals and the Social Totality
39:
1237:
Stalinism: A Study of Internal Colonialism (Full Text)
1161:(Reissued 2018 ed.). Routledge. pp. 176–77.
389:
For Sociology: Renewal and Critique in Sociology Today
353:
The Norm of Reciprocity : a Preliminary Statement
594:
Reciprocity and Autonomy in Functional Theory (1959)
186:(July 29, 1920 – December 15, 1980) was an American
705:"Anti-Minotaur: The Myth of a Value-Free Sociology"
167:
152:
140:
130:
125:
103:
91:
84:
463:
459:an example of the punishment-centered bureaucracy.
1159:Alvin W. Gouldner: Sociologist and Outlaw Marxist
50:, and by adding encyclopedic text written from a
728:"Sociology Professor Accused of Beating Student"
198:Gouldner was born in New York City. He earned a
1306:University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign faculty
1188:"Notes on Structural Functionalism and Parsons"
534:well, for similar reasons to his opposition to
362:Anti-Minotaur: The Myth of Value-Free Sociology
255:Anti-Minotaur: The Myth of Value Free Sociology
1087:Jay, Martin (1986). Gouldner, Alvin W. (ed.).
1048:Disco, Cornelis, and Janet Gouldner Preface.
986:. A continuum book. New York: Seabury Press.
726:Times, Special to The New York (1968-06-10).
599:Reciprocity and Autonomy in Functional Theory
344:Reciprocity and Autonomy in Functional Theory
8:
863:"On Gouldner's Crisis of Western Sociology"
1286:Washington University in St. Louis faculty
81:
715:(3): 199–213 – via Oxford Academic.
434:Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy (1954)
261:had never intended to make such a claim.
70:Learn how and when to remove this message
1244:34 (Winter 1978). New York: Telos Press.
637:(PhD). Columbia University. p. ii.
1301:American expatriates in the Netherlands
950:, vol. 27, no. 156, 1954, pp. 128–128.
625:
569:The text is split into three sections:
470:The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology,
1211:
1209:
1207:
666:
664:
662:
660:
380:The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology
266:The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology
1182:
1180:
1178:
1066:. New York: Oxford University Press.
1027:
1025:
1015:
1013:
1011:
1009:
1007:
1005:
1003:
976:
974:
972:
962:
960:
934:, vol. 45, no. 3, 1955, pp. 473–473.
926:
924:
7:
1035:, vol. 17, no. 5, 1988, pp. 645–67.
914:, vol. 21, no. 5, 1956, pp. 650–51.
906:
904:
902:
900:
898:
896:
856:
854:
852:
850:
848:
846:
807:
805:
803:
801:
799:
797:
795:
769:
767:
812:Berger, Bennett M. (October 1970).
540:New Class as Flawed Universal Class
31:contains text that is written in a
889:– via Journals.Uchicago.edu.
759:Patterns of industrial bureaucracy
703:Alvin W., Gouldner (Winter 1962).
317:Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy
251:Patterns in Industrial Bureaucracy
240:Washington University in St. Louis
190:, lecturer and radical activist.
14:
545:The most prominent criticisms of
522:New Class as Benign Technocrats,
236:University of Illinois at Urbana
210:and M.A. and Ph.D. degrees from
20:
774:Rothman, Stanley (1970-12-01).
536:New Class as Benign Technocrats
531:New Class as Servants of Power,
1:
1281:University at Buffalo faculty
1124:American Journal of Sociology
1062:Gouldner, Alvin Ward (1985).
981:Gouldner, Alvin Ward (1979).
867:American Journal of Sociology
861:Rhoads, John K. (July 1972).
633:Gouldner, Alvin Ward (1954).
571:Marxism and the Intellectuals
932:The American Economic Review
912:American Sociological Review
554:Against Fragmentation (1985)
527:New Class as Old Class Ally,
1228:Why Mills and Not Gouldner?
1118:Adamson, Walter L. (1987).
208:City University of New York
1327:
1276:Columbia University alumni
1157:Chriss, James J. (1999).
177:
121:
635:Industry and Bureaucracy
603:structural functionalism
249:His early works such as
160:Industry and Bureaucracy
575:The Ecology of Marxism,
335:Organizational Analysis
286:Personal life and death
244:University of Amsterdam
1311:Baruch College alumni
1271:American sociologists
1064:Against Fragmentation
1050:Against Fragmentation
587:Against Fragmentation
579:Against Fragmentation
563:Against Fragmentation
308:Studies in Leadership
228:University at Buffalo
52:neutral point of view
44:promotional language
910:Miller, Delbert C.
780:Commentary Magazine
275:Negative Dialectics
212:Columbia University
184:Alvin Ward Gouldner
147:Columbia University
126:Academic background
86:Alvin Ward Gouldner
1093:Theory and Society
1033:Theory and Society
839:– via JSTOR.
761:, p.216-217 (1954)
732:The New York Times
684:. January 10, 1981
677:The New York Times
440:ethnographic study
46:and inappropriate
1168:978-1-138-31480-1
993:978-0-8164-9358-6
444:bureaucratization
270:Theodor W. Adorno
181:
180:
107:December 15, 1980
98:New York City, US
80:
79:
72:
1318:
1216:
1213:
1202:
1201:
1199:
1198:
1184:
1173:
1172:
1154:
1148:
1147:
1130:(5): 1228–1229.
1115:
1109:
1108:
1084:
1078:
1077:
1059:
1053:
1046:
1040:
1029:
1020:
1017:
998:
997:
978:
967:
964:
955:
945:
939:
930:Kennedy, Van D.
928:
919:
908:
891:
890:
858:
841:
840:
838:
836:
809:
790:
789:
787:
786:
771:
762:
756:
750:
749:
747:
746:
723:
717:
716:
700:
694:
693:
691:
689:
668:
655:
654:
630:
438:Gouldner led an
222:Gouldner taught
202:degree from the
172:Robert K. Merton
168:Doctoral advisor
110:
82:
75:
68:
64:
61:
55:
33:promotional tone
24:
23:
16:
1326:
1325:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1261:
1260:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1205:
1196:
1194:
1186:
1185:
1176:
1169:
1156:
1155:
1151:
1117:
1116:
1112:
1086:
1085:
1081:
1074:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1047:
1043:
1030:
1023:
1018:
1001:
994:
980:
979:
970:
965:
958:
948:Current History
946:
942:
929:
922:
909:
894:
860:
859:
844:
834:
832:
818:Social Problems
811:
810:
793:
784:
782:
773:
772:
765:
757:
753:
744:
742:
725:
724:
720:
709:Social Problems
702:
701:
697:
687:
685:
670:
669:
658:
632:
631:
627:
623:
607:Talcott Parsons
596:
556:
505:
489:
466:
436:
300:
288:
232:Antioch College
220:
196:
117:
112:
108:
99:
96:
87:
76:
65:
59:
56:
37:
25:
21:
12:
11:
5:
1324:
1322:
1314:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1298:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1263:
1262:
1259:
1258:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1234:
1232:Charles Lemert
1223:
1222:External links
1220:
1218:
1217:
1203:
1174:
1167:
1149:
1136:10.1086/228638
1110:
1099:(4): 583–591.
1079:
1072:
1054:
1041:
1021:
999:
992:
968:
956:
940:
920:
892:
879:10.1086/225298
873:(1): 136–154.
842:
830:10.2307/799587
824:(2): 275–280.
791:
763:
751:
718:
695:
656:
624:
622:
619:
595:
592:
555:
552:
504:
498:
488:
483:
465:
462:
461:
460:
456:
452:
435:
432:
431:
430:
421:
410:
400:
391:
382:
373:
364:
355:
346:
337:
328:
319:
310:
299:
296:
292:Laud Humphreys
287:
284:
219:
216:
204:Baruch College
195:
192:
179:
178:
175:
174:
169:
165:
164:
156:
150:
149:
144:
138:
137:
132:
128:
127:
123:
122:
119:
118:
113:
111:(aged 60)
105:
101:
100:
97:
93:
89:
88:
85:
78:
77:
48:external links
28:
26:
19:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1323:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1268:
1266:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1243:
1242:
1238:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1226:
1225:
1221:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1204:
1193:
1189:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1164:
1160:
1153:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1114:
1111:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1083:
1080:
1075:
1069:
1065:
1058:
1055:
1051:
1045:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1016:
1014:
1012:
1010:
1008:
1006:
1004:
1000:
995:
989:
985:
977:
975:
973:
969:
963:
961:
957:
953:
949:
944:
941:
937:
933:
927:
925:
921:
917:
913:
907:
905:
903:
901:
899:
897:
893:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
857:
855:
853:
851:
849:
847:
843:
835:September 23,
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
808:
806:
804:
802:
800:
798:
796:
792:
781:
777:
770:
768:
764:
760:
755:
752:
741:
737:
733:
729:
722:
719:
714:
710:
706:
699:
696:
683:
679:
678:
673:
667:
665:
663:
661:
657:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
629:
626:
620:
618:
616:
611:
608:
604:
600:
593:
591:
588:
582:
580:
576:
572:
567:
564:
560:
553:
551:
548:
543:
541:
537:
532:
528:
523:
518:
516:
511:
509:
502:
499:
497:
493:
487:
484:
482:
478:
474:
471:
457:
453:
449:
448:
447:
445:
441:
433:
429:
425:
422:
420:
418:
414:
411:
409:
404:
401:
399:
395:
392:
390:
386:
383:
381:
377:
374:
372:
368:
365:
363:
359:
356:
354:
350:
347:
345:
341:
338:
336:
332:
329:
327:
323:
320:
318:
314:
311:
309:
305:
302:
301:
297:
295:
293:
285:
283:
279:
277:
276:
271:
267:
262:
260:
256:
252:
247:
246:(1972–1976).
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
217:
215:
213:
209:
205:
201:
193:
191:
189:
185:
176:
173:
170:
166:
162:
161:
157:
155:
151:
148:
145:
143:
139:
136:
133:
129:
124:
120:
116:
115:Madrid, Spain
106:
102:
95:July 29, 1920
94:
90:
83:
74:
71:
63:
60:November 2023
53:
49:
45:
41:
35:
34:
29:This article
27:
18:
17:
1240:
1195:. Retrieved
1191:
1158:
1152:
1127:
1123:
1113:
1096:
1092:
1082:
1063:
1057:
1049:
1044:
1036:
1032:
982:
951:
947:
943:
935:
931:
915:
911:
870:
866:
833:. Retrieved
821:
817:
783:. Retrieved
779:
758:
754:
743:. Retrieved
731:
721:
712:
708:
698:
686:. Retrieved
682:New York, NY
675:
634:
628:
612:
598:
597:
586:
583:
578:
574:
570:
568:
562:
558:
557:
546:
544:
539:
535:
530:
526:
521:
519:
514:
512:
507:
506:
500:
494:
490:
485:
479:
475:
469:
467:
437:
427:
416:
406:
397:
388:
379:
370:
361:
352:
343:
334:
325:
316:
307:
289:
280:
273:
265:
263:
254:
250:
248:
221:
197:
183:
182:
163: (1954)
159:
109:(1980-12-15)
66:
57:
42:by removing
38:Please help
30:
1296:1980 deaths
1291:1920 births
615:reciprocity
371:Enter Plato
298:Major works
188:sociologist
1265:Categories
1197:2024-09-30
1192:uregina.ca
1073:0195033035
785:2024-09-23
745:2023-11-09
688:August 30,
621:References
234:, and the
194:Early life
142:Alma mater
40:improve it
1144:0002-9602
1105:0304-2421
887:0002-9602
740:0362-4331
651:301971802
643:216894962
282:thought.
259:Max Weber
224:sociology
131:Education
647:ProQuest
226:at the
206:of the
1165:
1142:
1103:
1070:
990:
885:
738:
649:
641:
503:(1979)
218:Career
200:B.B.A.
154:Thesis
1241:Telos
1037:JSTOR
952:JSTOR
936:JSTOR
916:JSTOR
1163:ISBN
1140:ISSN
1101:ISSN
1068:ISBN
988:ISBN
883:ISSN
837:2024
736:ISSN
690:2019
639:OCLC
577:and
529:and
424:1985
413:1980
403:1979
394:1976
385:1973
376:1970
367:1966
358:1964
349:1960
340:1959
331:1959
322:1954
313:1954
304:1950
104:Died
92:Born
1230:by
1132:doi
984:era
875:doi
826:doi
525:as
513:In
468:In
408:Era
272:'s
135:PhD
1267::
1206:^
1190:.
1177:^
1138:.
1128:92
1126:.
1122:.
1097:15
1095:.
1091:.
1024:^
1002:^
971:^
959:^
923:^
895:^
881:.
871:78
869:.
865:.
845:^
822:18
820:.
816:.
794:^
778:.
766:^
734:.
730:.
711:.
707:.
680:.
674:.
659:^
645:.
573:,
426::
415::
405::
396::
387::
378::
369::
360::
351::
342::
333::
324::
315::
306::
278:.
230:,
214:.
1200:.
1171:.
1146:.
1134::
1107:.
1076:.
996:.
877::
828::
788:.
748:.
713:9
692:.
653:.
73:)
67:(
62:)
58:(
54:.
36:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.