Ohlone - Knowledge (XXG)

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the present and future of their people". Only some sacred cultural narratives survive through the recording of stories told from various Ohlone elders living in the missions between 1769 and 1833. This makes analyzing pre-contact Ohlone sites so difficult because so much of the symbolism and ritual are unknown. Therefore, the Muwekma see their participation in archeological projects as a way to bring tribal members together as a unified community, and as a way to reestablish the link between the Ohlone people today and their pre-contact ancestors through their ability to analyze remains and be coauthors in the archeological reports. One major archeological site the Muwekma tribe actively helped excavate is the burial site CA-SCL-732 in San Jose, dating between 1500 and 2700 BCE. In this burial site, excavated in 1992, the remains of three ritually buried wolves were found among human remains. In other grave site, the skeletal remains of two more wolves were found with "braided, uncured yucca or soap root fiber cordage around their necks". There were many other fragments of remains of animals like deer, squirrel, mountain lion, grizzly bear, fox, badger, blue goose, and elk found as well. From the excavations it is clear that the animals were ritually buried, along with beads and other ornamentations.

1036:: There were "heated debates" between "the Spanish State and ecclesiastical bureaucracies" over the government authority of the missions. Setting the precedent in an interesting petition to the Governor in 1782, the Franciscan priests claimed the "Missions Indians" owned both land and cattle, and they represented the Natives in a petition against the San Jose settlers. The fathers mentioned the "Indians' crops" were being damaged by the San Jose settlers' livestock and also mentioned settlers "getting mixed up with the livestock belonging to the Indians from the mission." They also stated the Mission Indians had property and rights to defend it: "Indians are at liberty to slaughter such (San Jose pueblo) livestock as trespass unto their lands." "By law", the mission property was to pass to the Mission Indians after a period of about ten years, when they would become Spanish citizens. In the interim period, the Franciscans were mission administrators who held the land in trust for the Natives. 1815:, who in later life concluded there were 26,000 Ohlone and Salinans in the "Northern Mission Area". Per Cook, the "Northern Mission Area" means "the region inhabited by the Costanoans and Salinans between San Francisco Bay and the headwaters of the Salinas River. To this may be added for convenience the local area under the jurisdiction of the San Luis Obispo even though there is an infringement of the Chumash." In this model, the Ohlone people's territory was one half of the "Northern Mission Area". It was however known to be more densely populated than the southern Salinan territory, per Cook: "The Costanoan density was nearly 1.8 persons per square mile with the maximum in the Bay region. The Esselen was approximately 1.3, the Salinan must have been still lower." We can estimate that Cook meant about 18,200 Ohlone based on his own statements (70% of "Northern Mission Area"), plus or minus a few thousand margin for error, but he does not give an exact number. 765:, where a traditional sweat lodge, or Tupentak, has been built for the same ceremonial purposes. Along with the development of the sweat lodge in the early 1990s, the construction of an upen- tah-ruk, or round house/assembly house, was underway as well. These areas are meant to provide a gathering place for tribal meetings, traditional dances and ceremonies, and education activities. Indian Canyon is an important place because it is open to all Native American groups in the United States and around the world as a place to hold traditional native practices without federal restrictions. Indian Canyon is also home to many Ohlone people, specifically of the Mutsun band, and serves as an educational, cultural, and spiritual environment for all visitors. Indian Canyon allows Natives to reclaim their heritage and implement their ancestral beliefs and practices into their lives. 1692: 790:

the tribe. Because not all the Ohlone bands shared a unified identity, and therefore have varying religious and spiritual beliefs, the stories are unique to the tribe. Today, sacred narratives are still an important part of the Ohlone culture. Only a minimal number of sacred stories have survived Spanish colonization during the 1700s and 1800s due to ethnographic efforts in the Missions. Many Ohlone bands refer to anthropologic records to reconstruct their sacred narratives because some Ohlone people living in the missions acted as "professional consultants" for anthropologic research, and therefore told their past stories. The problem with this type of recording is that the stories are not always complete due to translation differences where meaning can be easily misunderstood.

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this was using known narratives of the Ohlone, as ascribed by previous ethnographers who recorded the sacred narratives of various Ohlone elders in the missions across the Bay, well as the narratives telling of other central California cosmologies to make references about what the meaning of the possible kinship between the animals and the Ohlone in these burials were. Together the archeological team made three hypotheses: animals served as "moieties, clans, lineages, families, and so on," animals were "dream helpers," or personal spirit allies for individuals, and lastly, the animals were representations of "sacred deity-like figures".

1627: 734:, while others have insisted that forced baptism was not recognized by the Catholic Church. All who have looked into the matter agree, however, that baptized Indians who tried to leave mission communities were forced to return. The first conversions to Catholicism were at Mission San Carlos Borromeo, alias Carmel, in 1771. In the San Francisco Bay area the first baptisms occurred at Mission San Francisco in 1777. Many first-generation Mission Era conversions to Catholicism were debatably incomplete and "external". 895:: "Careful study of artifacts found in central California mounds has resulted in the discovery of three distinguishable epochs or cultural 'horizons' in their history. In terms of our time-counting system, the first or 'Early Horizon' extends from about 4000 BCE to 1000 BCE in the Bay Area and to about 2000 BCE in the Central Valley. The second or Middle Horizon was from these dates to 700 CE, while the third or Late Horizon, was from 700 CE to the coming of the Spaniards in the 1770s." 2179: 2154: 951: 1128:, the state's first governor, was an open advocate of exterminating local California Indian tribes. By all estimates, the Ohlone were reduced to less than ten percent of their original pre-mission era population. By 1852 the Ohlone population had shrunk to about 864–1,000, and was continuing to decline. By the early 1880s, the northern Ohlone were virtually entirely gone, and the southern Ohlone people were severely impacted and largely displaced from their communal land grant in the 1941:, Robert F. Heizer (as the protege of Kroeber and also the curator of Merriam's work) states "both men disliked A. L. Kroeber." Harrington, independently working for the Smithsonian Institution cornered most of the Ohlone research as his own specialty, was "not willing to share his findings with Kroeber ... Kroeber and his students neglected the Chumash and Costanoans, but this was done because Harrington made it quite clear that he would resent Kroeber's 'muscling in. 738: 2037: 489: 50: 1169:

fortune in the afterlife. Many of these artifacts have been found in and around the shellmounds. They often include a wide variety of shell beads and ornaments as well as frequently used everyday items such as stone and bone tools. These burials also showcase genealogies and territorial rights. The mounds were seen as a cultural statement because the villages on top were clearly visible and their sacred aura was very dominant.

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San Francisco Bay area near marshlands, creeks, wetlands, and rivers. San Bruno Mountain is home to the nation's largest intact shellmound. These mounds are also thought to have served a practical purpose as well, since these shellmounds were usually near waterways or the ocean, they protected the village from high tide as well as to provide high ground for line of sight navigation for watercraft on San Francisco Bay. The

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community. Current projects include the preservation of Bay Area shellmounds, which are the sacred burial sites of the Ohlone Nation, whose homeland is the San Francisco Bay Area. Currently, IPOC has spread awareness throughout the community through shellmounds walks and has advocated for the preservation of sacred burial sites in the Emeryville Mall, Glen Cove Site, Hunters Point in San Francisco, just to name a few.

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shortages, resulting in alarming statistics of death and escapes from the missions. In pursuing the runaways, the Franciscans sent neophytes first and (as a last resort) soldiers to go round up the runaway "Christians" from their relatives, and bring them back to the missions. By running to tribes outside of the missions, escapees and those sent to bring them back to the mission spread illness outside of the missions.

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peopled lived and died and often buried. The mounds consist predominately of molluscan shells, with lesser amounts mammal and fish bone, vegetal materials and other organic material deposited by the Ohlone for thousands of years. These shellmounds are the direct result of village life. Archaeologists have examined the mounds and often refer to them as "middens," or "kitchen midden" meaning an accumulation of refuse.

348:, an unrecognized non-profit organization, are direct lineal descendants from Tamien speaking villages of the Santa Clara Valley. The Muwekma Ohlone Tribe has members from around the San Francisco Bay Area, and is composed of documented descendants of the Ohlones/Costanoans from the San Jose, Santa Clara, and San Francisco missions. The Ohlone/Costanoan Esselen Nation, consisting of descendants of intermarried 831: 1789: 1240:

Spanish. The Spanish eradicated and stripped the Ohlones of their cultural heritage by causing the death of ninety percent of the population, and forcing cultural assimilation with military fortification and Catholic reform. After the arrival of the Americans, many land grants were contested in court. Preserving their burial sites is a way to gain acknowledgment as a cultural group.

1571: 1066: 425: 1186:, located in Berkeley, California, is thought to be the site of the earliest known habitation in the San Francisco Bay Area. It was mostly removed by the early 20th century, but human remains and artifacts are still found in the area during construction projects. Local Ohlone groups have fought to have a portion of it protected and returned to their use. 916:

landholding groups prior to the arrival of the Spanish Missionaries. The Ohlone were able to thrive in this area by hunting, fishing, and gathering, in the typical pattern found in California coastal tribes. Each of the Ohlone villages interacted with each other through trade, intermarriage, and ceremonial events, as well as through occasional conflict.

1384:. Teixeira maintains Ohlone is the common usage since 1960, which has been traced back to the Rancho Oljon on the Pescadero Creek. Teixeira states in part: "A tribe that once existed along the San Mateo County coast." Milliken states the name came from: "A tribe on the lower drainages of San Gregorio Creek and Pescadero Creek on the Pacific Coast". 761:, for ceremonial and spiritual purification purposes. These lodges were built near stream banks because water was believed to be capable of great healing. Men and women would gather in the sweat lodges to "cleanse, purify, and empower themselves" for a task like hunting and spirit dancing. Today, there is a place located in Hollister called 651: 794:

ancestors, and ultimately for themselves as well. Additionally, through knowing sacred narratives and sharing them with the public through live performances or storytelling, the Ohlone people are able to create an awareness that their cultural group is not extinct, but actually surviving and wanting recognition.

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Mission name list only; dates from Knowledge (XXG) related article. Milliken 1995:69–70 discusses neophytes, mentions "first neophyte marriages" in 1778. For list of ethnicity at each mission: Levy, 1976:486. For Mission San Francisco details: Cook, 1976b:27–28. For detailed tribal migration records:

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With 397 enrolled members in 2000, the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe comprises "all of the known surviving Native American lineages aboriginal to the San Francisco Bay region who trace their ancestry through the Missions Dolores, Santa Clara and San Jose" and who descend from members of the historic Federally

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lineages from historic Tamien villages verified by a certified genealogist and are direct lineal dependents of/or are on the California Judgment Fund Rolls (CJFR) of 1953 and 1972, and have Certificates of Degree of Indian Blood (CDIB) issued by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Tamien Nation elders were

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Spanish mission culture soon disrupted and undermined the Ohlone social structures and way of life. Under Father Serra's leadership, the Spanish Franciscans erected seven missions inside the Ohlone region and brought most of the Ohlone into these missions to live and work. The missions erected within

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The storytelling of sacred narratives has been an important component of Ohlone indigenous culture for thousands of years, and continues to be of importance today. The narratives often teach specific moral or spiritual lessons, and are illustrative of the cultural, spiritual, and religious beliefs of

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and the Salinas Valley. Prior to Spanish contact, the Ohlone formed a complex association of approximately 50 different "nations or tribes" with about 50 to 500 members each, with an average of 200. Over 50 distinct Ohlone tribes and villages have been recorded. The Ohlone villages interacted through

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Milliken, Randall, Richard T. Fitzgerald, Mark G. Hylkema, Randy Groza, Tom Origer, David G. Bieling, Alan Leventhal, Randy S. Wiberg, Andrew Gottsfield, Donna Gillete, Viviana Bellifemine, Eric Strother, Robert Cartier, and David A. Fredrickson. 2007. "Punctuated Culture Change in the San Francisco

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These division designations are mostly derived from selected local tribe names. They were first offered in 1974 as direct substitutes for Kroeber's earlier designations based upon the names of local Spanish missions. The spellings are anglicized from forms first written down (often with a variety of

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stewardship and cultivating more active, reciprocal relationships with the land. It has also started a project called the Shuumi Land Tax, which asks that non-indigenous people living on Ohlone land to pay dues for the land that they live on. The tax has no legal ramifications and no connection with

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It is apparent that the pre-contact Ohlone had distinguished medicine persons among their tribe. Some of these people healed through the use of herbs, and some were shamans who were believed to heal through their ability to contact the spirit world. Some shamans typically engaged in more ritualistic

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For "heated debates" between church and state, Milliken, 1995:2n. For petition of 1782, Indians vs. settlers of San Jose, with quotations, see Milliken, 1995:72–73 (quoting Murguia and Pena 1955:400). For law of Spanish citizenship, and Franciscans held the land in trust for "10 years", see Beebe,

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For Spanish missionaries and colonization, Teixeira, 1997:3; Fink, 1972:29–30. For Sebastian Vizcaíno documenting Ohlone in 1602, Levy:486 (mentions "Rumsien were the first"); Teixeira, 1997:15; also Fink, 1972:20–22. For Mission Chain leaders Serra and Portolà arrival by foot in Monterey in 1769,

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One theory is that the massive amount of shellfish remains represent Ohlone ritual behavior, whereas they would spend months mourning their dead and feasting on large amounts of shellfish which were disposed of ever growing the girth and height of the mound. Shellmounds were once found all over the

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founded in 1786. The Spanish soldiers traditionally escorted the Franciscans on missionary outreach daytrips but declined to camp overnight. For the first twenty years, the missions accepted a few converts at a time, slowly gaining population. Between November 1794 and May 1795, a large wave of Bay

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Therefore, many Ohlone bands today feel responsible for re-adopting these narratives and discussing them with cultural representatives and other Ohlone people to decide what their meanings are. This process is important because the Ohlone can further piece together a cultural identity of their past

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Controlled burning as harvesting, Brown 1973:3,4,25; Levy 1978:491; Stanger, 1969:94; Bean and Lawton, 1973:11,30,39 (Lewis). Quotation, "A rough husbandry of the land", Brown 1973:4. Seafood, nuts and seeds, Levy 1978:491–492. Trapped small animals, Milliken, 1995:18. Food maintenance and natural

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Although the truth may not be known about exactly what these findings mean, the Muwekma and the archeological team analyzed the ritual burial of the animal remains as a way to learn what they may tell about the Ohlone cosmology and cultural system before pre-contact influence. One way the team did

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The Muwekma Ohlone tribe are active participants in the revival of Ohlone people across the East and South Bay. Key to their success is in their involvement in unearthing and analyzing their ancestral remains in ancient burial sites, which allows them to "recapture their history and to reconstruct

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The arrival of the Spanish in the 1776 decelerated the culture, sovereignty, religion, and language of the Ohlone. Before the Spanish invasion, the Ohlone had an estimated 500 shellmounds lining the sea and shores of the San Francisco Bay. Shellmounds are essentially Ohlone habitation sites where

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the native people and culture. Between the years 1769 and 1834, the number of Indigenous Californians dropped from 300,000 to 250,000. After California entered into the Union in 1850, the state government perpetrated massacres against the Ohlone people. Many of the leaders of these massacres were

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1791: Charquin, a chief of the Quiroste tribe, began leading an active resistance against the mission system soon after being baptized. After his capture in 1793, the Quirostes continued their resistance, ultimately launching the only direct attack on a Spanish mission in that December. Charquin

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The determination and passion to preserve sacred ground is largely influenced by the desire to revive and preserve the Ohlone cultural heritage. Natives today are engaging in extensive cultural research to bring back knowledge, narratives, beliefs, and practices of the post-contact days with the

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and all mission land and property (administered by the Franciscans) turned over to the government for redistribution. At this point, the Ohlone were supposed to receive land grants and property rights, but few did and most of the mission lands went to the secular administrators. In the end, even

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and moved into Mission Santa Clara and Mission San Francisco, including 360 people to Mission Santa Clara and the entire Huichun village populations of the East Bay to Mission San Francisco. In March 1795, this migration was followed almost immediately by the worst-seen epidemic, as well as food

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Costanoan speakers of Mission San Juan Bautista, inland from Monterey Bay. Most members of another group of Rumsien language, descendants from Mission San Carlos, the Costanoan Rumsien Carmel Tribe of Pomona/Chino, now live in southern California. These groups and others with smaller memberships

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The Ohlone/Costanoan Esselen Nation has approximately 500 enrolled members. Their tribal council claims enrolled membership is currently at approximately 500 people from thirteen core lineages that trace direct descendancy to the Missions San Carlos and Soledad. The tribe was formerly federally

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also subject to the Indian Relocation Act of 1956 (also known as Public Law 959) implemented by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Tamien Nation citizens are "living Indians" who continue to hunt, fish, gather Indigenous foods, process and eat acorns and participate in their religious ceremonies.

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Indians did not thrive when the missions expanded both their populations and operations in their geographical areas. "A total of 81,000 Indians were baptized and 60,000 deaths were recorded". The cause of death varied, but most were the result of European diseases such as smallpox, measles, and

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The Ohlone burial practices changed over time with cremation being preferred before the arrival of the Spanish. Once the cremation was complete the loved ones and friends would place ornaments as well as other valuables as an offering to the dead. Ohlone believed that this would give them good

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Nation, Ramaytush Ohlone and the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe (of the San Francisco Bay Area) are among the surviving groups of Ohlone today. The Esselen Nation also describes itself as Ohlone/Costanoan, although they historically spoke both the southern Costanoan (Rumsien) and an entirely different

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grouping of the Ramaytush included the villages surrounding Mission Dolores, Sitlintac and Chutchui on Mission Creek, Amuctac and Tubsinte in Visitation Valley, Petlenuc from near the Presidio, and to the southwest, the villages of Timigtac on Calera Creek and Pruristac on San Pedro Creek in

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Indian People Organizing for Change (IPOC) is a community-based organization in the San Francisco Bay Area. Its members, including Ohlone organization members and conservation activists, work together in order to accomplish social and environmental justice within the Bay Area American Indian

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The arrival of missionaries and Spanish colonizers in the mid-1700s had a negative impact on the Ohlone people who inhabited Northern California. The Ohlone territory consisted of the northern tip of the San Francisco Peninsula down to Big Sur in the south. There were more than fifty Ohlone

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Researchers are sensitive to limitations in historical knowledge, and careful not to place the spiritual and religious beliefs of all Ohlone people into a single unified worldview. Due to the displacement of Indian people in the Missions between 1769 and 1833, cultural groups are working as

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Costo & Costo, 1987, develop the argument for forced conversion; Sandos, 2004, emphasizes conversion through the attractions of modern technology and music; Milliken, 1995:67, discusses first baptisms and conversions to Catholicism at Mission San Francisco; Bean, 1994:279–281 discusses

1538:): Local bands of Chalon speakers resided along the upper course of the San Benito River and farther east in the Coast Range valleys of Silver and Cantua creeks. Kroeber also mapped them on the middle course of the Salinas River, but some recent studies give that area to the Esselen people. 805:

trickster spirit, as well as Eagle and Hummingbird (and in the Chochenyo region, a falcon-like being named Kaknu). The Coyote spirit was clever, wily, lustful, greedy, and irresponsible. He often competed with Hummingbird, who despite his small size regularly got the better of him. Ohlone

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For habitation region, Kroeber, 1925:462. For population and village count, Levy, 1978:485; also cited by Teixeira, 1997:1. Names of villages, Milliken, 1995:231–261, Appendix 1, "Encyclopedia of Tribal Groups". Intermarriages, internecine conflict and tribal trade, Milliken, 1995:23–24.

1468:, and the language was spoken in the Santa Clara Valley. (Linguistically, Chochenyo, Tamyen and Ramaytush were very close, perhaps to the point of being dialects of a single language.) The Tamyen village was near the original site of the first Mission Santa Clara located on the 687:

shared by many Central and Northern California tribes. Although, it is also possible that the Ohlone people learned Kuksu from other tribes while at the missions. Kuksu included elaborate acting and dancing ceremonies in traditional costume, an annual mourning ceremony, puberty

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Fink, 1972:64: "Land grants were scarce; In 1830 only 50 private ranches were held in Alta California, of which 7 were in the Monterey region." For number of land grants, see Cowan 1956:139–140. For Mission secularizarion to rancherias, Teixeira, 1997:3; Bean, 1994:234; Fink,

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from the San Francisco Bay and Pacific Ocean), were also important to their diet. These food sources were abundant in earlier times and maintained by careful work, and through active management of all the natural resources at hand. Animals in their mild climate included the

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A 6,000-year-old grave site was found at a KB Home construction site in the city of Santa Cruz. Protestors have picketed at the front gate of the Branciforte Creek construction site, holding signs, handing out flyers and engaging passersby to call attention to the site.

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diphtheria against which the Indians had no natural immunity. Other causes were a drastic diet change from hunter and gatherer fare to a diet high in carbohydrates and low in vegetables and animal protein, harsh lifestyle changes, and unsanitary living conditions.

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skirts, or shredded bark skirts. On cool days, they also wore animal skin capes. Both wore ornamentation of necklaces, shell beads and abalone pendants, and bone wood earrings with shells and beads. The ornamentation often indicated status within their community.

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Under Spanish rule, the intent for the future of the mission properties is difficult to ascertain. Property disputes arose over who owned the mission (and adjacent) lands, between the Spanish crown, the Catholic Church, the Natives and the Spanish settlers of

317:, and did not view themselves as a single unified group. They lived by hunting, fishing, and gathering, in the typical ethnographic California pattern. The members of these various bands interacted freely with one another. The Ohlone people practiced the 3252:

For language in general, see Forbes, 1968:184; also Milliken 2006 "Ethnohistory". For Father Pena letter, see Hylkema 1995:20; for close relationship among Chochenyo, Tamyen, and Ramaytush, see Callaghan 1997:44; location indicated on a map by Kroeber

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built Glen Cove Waterfront Park after years of protests from Ohlone people and their allies that the location was a sacred site known as Sogorea Te', one of the last native village sites in the San Francisco Bay that had escaped urban development.

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found in Mission San Francisco records. However, because of its tribal origin, Ohlone is not universally accepted by the native people, and some members prefer to either to continue to use the name Costanoan or to revitalize and be known as the

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ethnographers to discover for themselves their ancestral history, and what that information tells about them as a cultural group. Their religion is different depending on the band referred to, although they share components of their worldview.

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Blevins, Juliette, and Monica Arellano. 2004. "Chochenyo Language Revitalization: A First Report". Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas, January 2004, in Oakland,

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For population estimates, Cook, 1976a:183, 236–245. For decline and displacement, Cook, 1976a, all of California; Cook, 1976b all of California; Milliken, 1995 San Francisco Bay Area in detail. For Helen Hunt Jackson's account, Jackson,

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referred to the Costanoan groups as "Olhonean" in the early 20th century in his posthumously published field notes, and eventually, the term "Ohlone" has been adopted by most ethnographers, historians, and writers of popular literature.

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There was noticeable competition and some disagreement between the first scholars: Both Merriam and Harrington produced much in-depth Ohlone research in the shadow of the highly published Kroeber and competed in print with him. In the

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originally used the term "Costanoan" to refer to the linguistically similar but ethnically diverse Native American tribes in the San Francisco Bay Area. The term was based on the name of a group of Ramaytush speakers in the area of

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Some anthropologists think that these people migrated from the San Joaquin–Sacramento River system and arrived into the San Francisco and Monterey Bay Areas in about the 6th century CE, displacing or assimilating earlier

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healing in the form of dancing, ceremony, and singing. Some shamans were also believed to be able to tell and influence the future, therefore they were equally able to bring about fortune and misfortune among the community.

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Historians and research years, Teixeira, 1997, biographical articles; notably page 34: "John Peabody Harrington". Variances in data and interpretation can be noted in main published references Kroeber, Merriam, Harrington,

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The Ohlone lost the vast majority of their population between 1780 and 1850, because of an abysmal birth rate, high infant mortality rate, diseases and social upheaval associated with European immigration into California.

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Quotation "both men disliked Kroeber" said by Heizer, in "Editor's Intro" of Merriam (1979). Quotes Harrington's "cornering research" and "Harrington ... would resent Kroeber's 'muscling in'" said by Heizer 1975, in

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Recent Ohlone historians who have published new research are Lauren Teixeira, Randall Milliken and Lowell J. Bean. They all note the availability of mission records which allows for continual research and understanding.

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The Ohlone population after contact in 1769 with the Spaniards spiralled downwards. Cook describes rapidly declining indigenous populations in California between 1769 and 1900, in his posthumously published book,

1736:, South of Hollister, San Benito County, Only federally recognized "Indian Country" between Sonoma and Santa Barbara along central coastal California. "Indian Country", land held in trust recognizing Indian People 1848:

language phylum groups the Utian languages with other languages spoken in California, Oregon, and Washington. The most recent work suggests that Ohlone, Miwok, and Yokuts may all be sub-families within a single

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who researched the Ohlone languages from 1921 to 1939, and other aspects of Ohlone culture, leaving volumes of field notes at his death. Other research was added by Robert Cartier, Madison S. Beeler, and

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band has over 500 enrolled members and comprises "various surviving lineages who spoke the Hoomontwash or Mutsun Ohlone language." The majority descend from the native people baptized at Mission San Juan

1654:. On 21 September 2006, they received a favorable opinion from the U.S. District in Washington, D.C., of their court case to expedite the reaffirmation of the tribe as a federally recognized tribe. The 3460:

Kroeber, 1925:464. Kroeber says he was generalizing each "dialect group" had 1,000 people each in this model, and he only counted seven dialects. By his own methodology, his estimate should be 8,000.

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in December of that year. Despite Vizcaíno's positive reports, nothing further happened for more than 160 years. It was not until 1769 that the next Spanish expedition arrived in Monterey, led by

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2006: Ralph Allan Espinoza, Director and founder of the only non-profit, Native American affiliated food bank in the U.S., "God Provides - Pomona Valley Food Bank" located in Pomona, California.

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Published estimates of the pre-contact Ohlone population in 1769 range between 7,000 and 26,000 combined with Salinans. Historians differ widely in their estimates, as they do with the entire

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Construction crews at a Van Daele Homes luxury housing development unearthed 32 sets of Ohlone remains in 2017. The remains were reburied on-site under the supervision of a native consultant.

508:. "A rough husbandry of the land was practiced, mainly by annually setting of fires to burn-off the old growth in order to get a better yield of seeds—or so the Ohlone told early explorers in 4452: 3535:

For tribal membership rolls, Muwekma Ohlone Tribe homepage, 397 members; Amah-Mutsun Band homepage, over 500 members; and Ohlone/Costanoan—Esselen Nation homepage, approximately 500 members.

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All the animals, except waterfowl and quail, Teixeira, 1997:2. Waterfowl and quail, Levy 1978:291. Quotation from Crespi, Bean, 1994:15–16. Ducks in Chochenyo lore, Bean, 1994:106 & 119.

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Cook states in part: "Not until the population figures are examined does the extent of the havoc become evident." The population had dropped to about 10% of its original numbers by 1848.

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The Ohlone culture was relatively stable until the first Spanish soldiers and missionaries arrived with the double-purpose of Christianizing the Native Americans by building a series of

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Cupertino, California: De Anza College. Reprinted from a 1991 report titled "Ethnographic Background" as prepared with Laurie Crane, Cynthia Janes, Jon Reddington, and Allika Ruby, ed.

727:; he noted "if, as seems probable, the southerly Kuksu tribes (the Miwok, Costanoans, Esselen, and northernmost Yokuts) had no real society in connection with their Kuksu ceremonies." 1120:. In the 1840s a wave of United States settlers encroached into the area, and California became annexed to the United States. The new settlers brought in new diseases to the Ohlone. 3437: 2746:

For origin, arrival and displacement based on "linguistic evidence" in 500 CE per Levy, 1978:486, also Bean, 1994:xxi (cites Levy 1978). For Shell Mound dating, F.M. Stanger 1968:4.

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trees were accessible, they built conical houses from redwood bark attached to a frame of wood. Residents of Monterey recall Redwood houses. One of the main village buildings, the

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Ramirez, Louise (2003). "The Ohlone/Costanoan-Esselen Nation of Monterey, California: Dispossession, Federal Neglect, and the Bitter Irony of the Federal Acknowledgment Process".

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Ramirez, Louise (2003). "The Ohlone/Costanoan-Esselen Nation of Monterey, California:Dispossession, Federal Neglect, and the Bitter Irony of the Federal Acknowledgment Process".

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Bear Shamanism, Kroeber, 1925:472. Observation that Kuksu may have been learned at missions, Kroeber, 1925:470. Kuksu description and ceremony types, Kroeber, 1907b, online as

3706:

Bean, Lowell John and Lawton, Harry. 1976. "Some Explanations for the Rise of Cultural Complexity in Native California with Comments on Proto-Agriculture and Agriculture". in

611:

In general, along the bayshore and valleys, the Ohlone constructed dome-shaped houses of woven or bundled mats of tules, 6 to 20 feet (1.8 to 6 m) in diameter. In hills where

1546:

Within the divisions there were over 50 Ohlone tribes and villages who spoke the Ohlone-Costanoan languages in 1769, before being absorbed into the Spanish Missions by 1806.

4840: 3544:

Utian and Penutian classification: Levy, 1978:485–486 (citing Kroeber), Callaghan 1997, Golla 2007. Yok-Utian as a taxonomic category: Callaghan 1997, 2001; Golla 2007:76.

1987:

1877: Lorenzo Asisara was a Mission Santa Cruz man who provided three surviving narratives about life at the mission, primarily from stories told to him by his own father.

589:. Waterfowl were the most important birds in the people's diet, which were captured with nets and decoys. The Chochenyo traditional narratives refer to ducks as food, and 4845: 4825: 4835: 2481:

Field, L.W. (2003). ""What it Must Have Been Like!": Critical Considerations of Pre-Contact Ohlone Cosmology as Interpreted through Central California Ethnohistory".

4820: 1691: 344:

The Ohlone living today belong to various geographically distinct groups, most of which are still in their original home territory, though not all. Members of the

4850: 4445: 923:

and of expanding Spanish territorial claims. The Rumsien were the first Ohlone people to be encountered and documented in Spanish records when, in 1602, explorer

1965:

of Mission San Carlos in 1778. After his wife and child died, he fled to the Big Sur coast in 1780 to lead the first extensive Ohlone resistance to colonization.

1958:

1777: Xigmacse, chief of the local Yelamu tribe at the time of the establishment of the Mission San Francisco, and thus the earliest known San Francisco leader.

630:

Generally, men did not wear clothing in warm weather. In cold weather, they might don animal skin capes or feather capes. Women commonly wore deerskin aprons,

2584:

Teixiera, Lauren (1991). "Access to information on the Costanoan/Ohlone Indians of the San Francisco and Monterey Bay area: a descriptive guide to research".

4430: 2895:

For Rumsien revival and Isabella Meadows, see Hinton 2001:432. For Mutson and Chochenyo revival, see external links, language revival. See also Blevins 2004.

1655: 2452:

Bocek, Barbara R., 1984, Ethnobotany of Costanoan Indians, California, Based on Collections by John P. Harrington, Economic Botany 38(2):240–255, page 255

2109:"2020 Census Detailed Demographic and Housing Characteristics File A. American Indian and Alaska Native Tribes in the United States and Puerto Rico: 2020" 2735:

said, are the Wintuan, of the Sacramento Valley, the Miwokan, of the area north of San Francisco, and the Costanoan, of the area south of San Francisco.

1631: 4206: 2983:

The Ohlone/Costanoan-Esselen Nation of Monterey, California: Dispossession, Federal Neglect, and the Bitter Irony of the Federal Acknowledgment Process

1925:, to name a few. In many cases, the Ohlone names they used vary in spelling, translation and tribal boundaries, depending on the source. Each tried to 4855: 4438: 3952:

4:6. Berkeley, sections titled "Shamanism", "Public Ceremonies", "Ceremonial Structures and Paraphernalia", and "Mythology and Beliefs"; available at

963: 1217:

Ohlone remains were discovered in 1973 near Highway 87 during housing development. Some remains were removed during the construction of the highway.

1504:, middle Pajaro River, and San Felipe Creek) and along nearby creeks of the eastern Coast Range valleys (including San Luis and Ortigalita creeks). 3083: 2384:

Tule rush houses, redwood houses and sweat lodges, Teixeira, 1997:2. Redwood houses in Monterey, Kroeber, 1925:468. Tule boats, Kroeber, 1925:468.

1559: 1695:

Louise Miranda Ramirez, chairwoman of the Ohlone Costanoan Esselen Nation presided over the re-burial of Ohlone and Esselen remains found at the

1165:

is a site standing at over 60 feet (18 m) tall and 350 feet (105 m) in diameter, and was believed to be occupied between 400 and 2800 years ago.

979: 3011: 3234:

Levy, 1978:485–486; Teixeira, 1997:37–38, "Linguistics"; and Milliken, 1995:24–26, "Linguistic Landscape". The latter two both cite Levy 1978.

341:. Many are now leading a push for cultural and historical recognition of their tribe and what they have gone through and had taken from them. 4366: 4045: 4029: 3914: 3871: 3166: 3110:"What Must It Have Been Like!": Critical Considerations of Precontact Ohlone Cosmology as Interpreted through Central California Ethnohistory 2799:

For events of 1795–1796, Milliken, 1995:129–134 ("Mass Migration in Winter of 1794–95"). For runaways, Milliken, 1995:97 (cites Fages, 1971).

1049:

attempts by mission leaders to restore native lands were in vain. Before this time, 73 Spanish land grants had already been deeded in all of

730:

The conditions upon which the Ohlone joined the Spanish missions are subject to debate. Some have argued that they were forced to convert to

655: 271: 3134:

What Must It Have Been Like!": Critical Considerations of Precontact Ohlone Cosmology as Interpreted through Central California Ethnohistory

2718: 943:

missionaries, whose purpose was to establish a chain of missions to bring Christianity to the native people. Under the leadership of Father

1129: 3444: 2220: 2959: 2347:

Basket-weaving, body ornamentation and trade, Teixeira, 1997:2–3; also Milliken, 1995:18. Seasonal dancing ceremonies, Milliken, 1995:24.

4815: 3850: 903: 773: 3481:

Cook 1976b:42–43. In his earlier articles, Cook had estimated 10,000–11,000 (see 1976a:183, 236–245) but later retracted it as too low.

1447:): The Ramaytush resided between San Francisco Bay and the Pacific, in the area which is now San Francisco and San Mateo Counties. The 1223:(Dove Mountain) is the physical foundation of Tamien Nation oral narrative of the Great Flood - Tamien Nation's most sacred landscape. 3490:

For pre-contact population estimate, population infobox sources; For post-contact population estimates, Cook, 1976a:105, 183, 236–245.

2203: 1677: 1045: 362: 1484:): Local bands of Awaswas speakers resided on the Santa Cruz coast and adjacent Santa Cruz Mountains between Point Año Nuevo and the 4830: 4217: 4102: 4074: 4060: 4014: 3993: 3978: 3899: 3817: 3798: 3722: 3696: 3066: 2323: 278:

coast. When Spanish explorers and missionaries arrived in the late 18th century, the Ohlone inhabited the area along the coast from

251: 114: 3282: 4468: 4258: 2767:

Access to information on the Costanoan/Ohlone Indians of the San Francisco and Monterey Bay area: a descriptive guide to research

1696: 1010: 1002: 983: 967: 863: 493: 210: 1710:

recognized as the "Monterey Band of Monterey County" (1906–1908). Approximately 60% reside in Monterey and San Benito Counties.

4271: 4201: 1840:

The Ohlone language family is commonly called "Costanoan", sometimes "Ohlone". Ohlone is classified with Miwok under the label

1797: 469: 2906: 936: 920: 329: 2000:

1934: Jose Guzman, died 1934, he was one of the principal Chochenyo linguistic and cultural consultants to J. P. Harrington.

971: 955: 1076:

The Ohlone eventually regathered in multi-ethnic rancherias, along with other Mission Indians from families that spoke the

677:

The pre-contact spiritual beliefs of the Ohlone were not recorded in detail by missionaries. The Ohlone probably practiced

328:

However, the arrival of Spanish colonizers to the area in 1769 vastly changed tribal life forever. The Spanish constructed

4356: 4325: 2042: 1651: 1117: 3395: 3360:"Local Native American tribe seeks identity: Muwekma Ohlone lose federal court battle over official recognition of tribe" 3192: 4539: 1472:; Father Pena mentioned in a letter to Junípero Serra that the area around the mission was called Thamien by the Ohlone. 1469: 1398:

Linguists identified eight regional, linguistic divisions or subgroups of the Ohlone, listed below from north to south:

822:

in the northern Ohlone's version) on which Coyote, Hummingbird, and Eagle stood. Humans were the descendants of Coyote.

509: 4150: 1994: 1596: 1337:(The suffix "-an" is English). For many years, the people were called the Costanoans in English language and records. 889:

Through shell mound dating, scholars noted three periods of ancient Bay Area history, as described by F.M. Stanger in

608:. In fact, there were so many sea lions that according to Crespi it "looked like a pavement" to the incoming Spanish. 383: 2246: 3328: 2528: 1990:

1913: Barbara Solorsano, died 1913, Mutsun linguistic consultant to C. Hart Merriam 1902–04, from San Juan Bautista.

1543:

spellings) by Spanish missionaries and soldiers who were trying to capture the sounds of languages foreign to them.

4195: 1519: 1500:): A number of distinct local territorial tribes of Mutsun speakers lived in the Hollister Valley (along the lower 1432: 1340:

Since the 1960s, the name of Ohlone has been used by some of the members and the popular media to replace the name

1053:, but with the new régime most lands were turned into Mexican-owned rancherias. The Ohlone became the laborers and 465: 3932:

Archaeological Investigations at the Third Location of Mission Santa Clara De Assis: The Murguia Mission 1781–1818

1626: 3973:, pp. 485–495. William C. Sturtevant, and Robert F. Heizer, eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. 2014: 1969:

escaped in 1795 and then was recaptured in 1796 and sent to the San Diego Presidio where he died two years later.

1523: 1096:, and Esselen languages. Many of the Ohlone that had survived the experience at Mission San Jose went to work at 1006: 987: 762: 2080: 3312: 1600: 1298: 1183: 3739:

Blevins, Juliette, and Victor Golla. 2005. "A New Mission Indian Manuscript from the San Francisco Bay Area".

924: 4737: 4335: 2251: 2055: 1981: 1917: 1885: 1393: 516:, grass seeds, and berries, although other vegetation, hunted and trapped game, fish and seafood (including 445: 314: 31: 2289: 1912:

who researched the California natives and authored a few publications on the Ohlone from 1904 to 1910, and

1826:

The population stabilized after 1900, and as of 2005 there were at least 1,400 on tribal membership rolls.

4172: 2178: 2153: 2081:"2010 Census CPH-T-6. American Indian and Alaska Native Tribes in the United States and Puerto Rico: 2010" 1289: 1132:. To call attention to the plight of the California Indians, Indian Agent, reformer, and popular novelist 1125: 1101: 782: 3771:

Callaghan, Catherine A. 2001. "More Evidence for Yok-Utian: A Reanalysis of the Dixon and Kroeber Sets".

2710: 3824: 2060: 1352: 1271: 1162: 950: 879: 695:

Kuksu was shared with other indigenous ethnic groups of Central California, such as their neighbors the

624: 3517:

For definition of 'Northern Mission area", Cook, 1976b:20. For density of populations, Cook, 1976a:187.

1321:). The Spanish explorers and settlers referred to the native groups of this region collectively as the 4007:

A Time of Little Choice: The Disintegration of Tribal Culture in the San Francisco Bay Area 1769–1910.

4251: 4236: 3039: 1997:, died 1930, renowned Mutsun doctor, principal linguistic and cultural informant to J. P. Harrington. 1980:(mayors) of the Mission San Francisco in 1807. As such, they were at the beginning of a long line of 1973: 1913: 1805: 1640: 1033: 932: 928: 612: 586: 461: 412: 395: 322: 118: 4218:"California Ohlone Offer Welcome and Support to Lakota and Child Rescue Project at Historic Meeting" 3881:. California History Center Local History Studies Volume 18. Cupertino, California: De Anza College. 2926:

Unacknowledged Tribes, Dangerous Knowledge: The Muwekma Ohlone and How Indian Identities Are "Known"

1562:, declared the tribe extinct, which directly led to its losing federal recognition and land rights. 440:

The Ohlone inhabited fixed village locations, moving temporarily to gather seasonal foodstuffs like

1850: 1465: 1196: 692:, intervention with the spirit world and an all-male society that met in subterranean dance rooms. 605: 574: 303: 275: 4118: 2007:, died 1939, the last fluent speaker of Rumsen and a primary Rumsen consultant to J.P. Harrington. 719:" in the Ohlone, which he termed one of the "southern Kuksu-dancing groups", in comparison to the 4394: 3287: 2861: 2732: 2669: 2634: 2498: 2329: 1961:

1779: Baltazar, baptized from the Rumsen village of Ichxenta in 1775, he became the first Indian

1877: 1865: 1845: 1293: 1133: 975: 883: 859: 802: 582: 457: 165: 153: 110: 3909:

Terry L. Jones and Kathryn A. Klar, eds. pp. 259–272. New York and London: Altamira Press.

878:-speaking populations of which the Esselen in the south represent a remnant. Datings of ancient 593:

observed in his journal that geese were stuffed and dried "to use as decoys in hunting others".

337:

rewarded with positions in state and federal government. These massacres have been described as

325:, the northern California region was one of the most densely populated regions north of Mexico. 4040:

Terry L. Jones and Kathryn A. Klar, eds. pp. 99–124. New York and London: Altamira Press.

3084:"The Muwekma Ohlone Tribe was declared 'extinct' in the 1920s. New DNA research says otherwise" 1143:-speaker Isabel Meadows died in 1939. Descendants are reviving Rumsien, Mutsun, and Chochenyo. 4409: 4211: 4098: 4070: 4056: 4041: 4025: 4010: 3989: 3986:

Indian Names for Plants and Animals among Californian and other Western North American Tribes.

3974: 3910: 3895: 3890: 3867: 3846: 3836:

Ranchos of California: a list of Spanish concessions, 1775–1822, and Mexican grants, 1822–1846

3813: 3794: 3718: 3692: 3671: 3359: 3062: 2319: 2199: 1922: 1909: 1812: 1801: 1113: 1109: 944: 778: 724: 299: 279: 3583: 994:, and also "neophytes." They were blended with other Native American ethnicities such as the 4519: 4384: 4376: 4351: 4300: 2661: 2626: 2490: 2050: 1857: 1835: 1804:'s projection of 7,000 Ohlone "Costanoans" was much too low. Later researchers such as 1501: 1423: 1416: 1412: 1281: 689: 679: 578: 570: 566: 318: 291: 225: 194: 182: 178: 145: 139: 2247:"The Ohlone people were forced out of San Francisco. Now they want part of their land back" 1325:(the "coastal people") circa 1769. Over time, the English-speaking settlers arriving later 737: 4810: 4653: 4419: 4414: 4404: 4399: 4389: 4361: 4244: 4176: 4154: 4095:

The Costanoan/Ohlone Indians of the San Francisco and Monterey Bay Area, A Research Guide.

3399: 2532: 1881: 1873: 1869: 1861: 1841: 1584: 1431:): The Chochenyo speaking tribal groups resided in the East Bay, primarily in what is now 1419:

derives from their name. Karkin was a dialect quite divergent from the rest of the family.

1140: 1050: 991: 875: 501: 400: 295: 173: 169: 157: 149: 3866:, pp. 71–82. Terry L. Jones and Kathryn A. Klar, editors. New York: Altamira Press. 619:

was low into the ground, its walls made of earth and roof of earth and brush. They built

444:

and berries. The Ohlone people lived in Northern California from the northern tip of the

3922: 2996:

Hewitt, Christopher. "Ohlone Shellmound Buried Beneath the Emeryville Shopping Center".

474: 4732: 4699: 4524: 4285: 3055: 2290:"Ethnographic Notes on California Indian Tribes, III: Central California Indian Tribes" 2193: 2021: 2004: 1972:

1807: Hilarion and George (their baptismal names) were two Ohlone men from the village

1901: 1555: 1069: 590: 478: 333: 287: 126: 49: 4002:. Papers in Northern California Anthropology No. 2. Salinas, California: Coyote Press. 4804: 4752: 4704: 4632: 4320: 4310: 4305: 4295: 4290: 3905:

Hughes, Richard E. and Randall Milliken. 2007. "Prehistoric Material Conveyance". In

2814: 2673: 2638: 2523: 2502: 1905: 1608: 1579: 1530: 1403: 1301:, but the organization prefers this term (as opposed to merely calling contributions 1285: 807: 345: 106: 3308: 2941: 998:

transported from the North Bay into the Mission San Francisco and Mission San José.

4626: 4503: 2910: 2333: 2273:

Latham, R. G. (1856). "On the Languages of Northern, Western and Central America".

1515: 1485: 1136:

published accounts of her travels among the Mission Indians of California in 1883.

1085: 839: 830: 819: 798: 742: 620: 526: 513: 488: 453: 429: 370: 349: 310: 283: 198: 122: 886:

and suggest the villages at those locations were established about 4000 BCE.

2711:"3,000-Year-Old Connection Claimed : Siberia Tie to California Tribes Cited" 2699:; also Kroeber, 1925:472–473. Chochenyo Kaknu tales, Bean (Harrington), 1994:106. 1658:

has assisted in their case. They lost the case in 2011, and have filed an appeal.

4782: 4772: 4637: 4550: 4529: 4489: 3526:

For quotation, see Cook, 1976b:200. For population in 1848, see Cook, 1976a:105.

2731:

Some of the California Indian tribes that are descended from Russian Siberians,

1897: 1788: 1672: 1630:

Members of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe attend a proclamation of the first official

1514:): A few independent Rumsien-speaking local territorial tribes resided from the 1363:, and Frederick Beechey's Journal regarding a visit to the Bay Area in 1826–27. 1306: 1220: 1077: 995: 758: 731: 708: 644: 616: 554: 357: 4159: 1929:

and interpret this complex society and language(s) before the pieces vanished.

810:

mention that the world was covered entirely in water, apart from a single peak

4657: 4605: 4600: 4514: 4484: 4463: 3689:

The Ohlone: Past and Present Native Americans of the San Francisco Bay Region.

3392: 2171: 2146: 2032: 1326: 1277: 940: 2816:

The Ohlone Past and Present: Native Americans of the San Francisco Bay Region

2166: 2141: 1280:

founded by members of IPOC in 2012 with the goals of returning traditionally

854:

date the original migrations from Asia to around 20,000 years ago across the

4767: 4671: 4621: 4584: 4499: 4315: 4147: 3793:

Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1976.

3149:""Indian People Organizing for Change." Indian People Organizing for Change" 3025: 2017:, the only federally recognized Indian country from Sonoma to Santa Barbara. 1926: 1916:

who researched the Ohlone in detail from 1902 to 1929. This was followed by

1570: 1439: 1081: 1065: 716: 684: 538: 4534: 4212:

Muwekma Ohlone lose federal court battle over official recognition of tribe

3950:

University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology

3939:

University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology

3148: 990:(founded in 1797). The Ohlone who went to live at the missions were called 424: 17: 4164: 3040:"EXCLUSIVE: Developer uncovers Ohlone Indian remains, I-Team investigates" 3012:"Ohlone Burial Ground Possibly Disturbed by South Bay Solar Panel Project" 2665: 2630: 2494: 753:

Indian Canyon: village houses / sweat lodges for ceremony and purification

4716: 4710: 4594: 4579: 4509: 4494: 4479: 3953: 3942: 3336: 2695: 2517: 2221:"Revealing the history of genocide against California's Native Americans" 1302: 855: 530: 338: 3715:

Lands of Promise and Despair: Chronicles of Early California, 1535–1846.

1518:

to Point Sur, and the lower courses of the Pajaro, as well as the lower

4742: 4694: 4688: 4648: 4643: 4615: 4563: 4559: 4545: 3948:

Kroeber, Alfred L. 1907b, "The Religion of the Indians of California".

2568:

Gathering of Voices: The Native Peoples of the California Central Coast

2553:

first-generation conversions to Catholicism as incomplete and external.

2428: 2403: 1476: 1044:

In 1834, the Mexican government ordered all Californian missions to be

1015: 867: 815: 700: 558: 521: 505: 449: 356:

speakers of Mission San Carlos Borromeo, are centered at Monterey. The

353: 3937:

Kroeber, Alfred L. 1907a, "Indian Myths of South Central California".

3934:. California Department of Transportation Report for site CA-SCL-30/H. 3923:

Report on the Condition and Needs of the Mission Indians of California

947:, the missions introduced Spanish religion and culture to the Ohlone. 4777: 4726: 4721: 4678: 4330: 3717:

Heyday Books, Berkeley, co-published with University of Santa Clara.

1492: 1456: 1448: 1351:, and referred to a single band who inhabited the Pacific Coast near 1318: 1093: 1089: 835: 712: 546: 517: 482: 456:

in the east. Their vast region included the San Francisco Peninsula,

161: 4181: 2790:

Milliken, 1995:231–261, Appendix I, "Encyclopedia of Tribal Groups".

1612:, Southern San Francisco Bay Area and the Greater Santa Clara County 3752:

La Peninsula:Journal of the San Mateo County Historical Association

3283:"Indigenous Founders of a Museum Cafe Put Repatriation on the Menu" 3271:

Milliken, 1995:231–261 Appendix 1, "Encyclopedia of Tribal Groups".

1800:. However, modern researchers believe that American anthropologist 4787: 4762: 4757: 4747: 4610: 4574: 4569: 3791:

The Conflict Between the California Indian and White Civilization.

3741:

Boletin: The Journal of the California Mission Studies Association

3057:

The Ohlone Way: Indian Life in the San Francisco-Monterey Bay Area

2195:

The Ohlone Way: Indian Life in the San Francisco-Monterey Bay Area

2024:, San Francisco musician, composer, and professional skateboarder. 1787: 1690: 1678: 1625: 1578:

The Mutsun (of Hollister and Watsonville), The Lisjan Ohlone, The

1569: 1064: 949: 902: 829: 772: 736: 720: 704: 696: 662: 650: 649: 601: 597: 562: 550: 487: 441: 423: 363: 3812:

Berkeley, California: University of California Press, June 1976.

1359:

through the mission records of Mission San Francisco, Bancroft's

757:

Additionally, some Ohlone bands built prayer houses, also called

4683: 4589: 4555: 2462:

Scolari, P. (2005). "Photographs Link Ohlone Past and Present".

1001:

Spanish military presence was established at two Presidios, the

908: 631: 542: 4434: 4240: 4169: 3412: 4067:

Converting California: Indians and Franciscans in the Missions

3193:"Native Americans ask East Bay residents to pay 'tax' on land" 2689:

Coyote, Eagle, and Hummingbird tales, Kroeber, 1907a:199–202,

2013:

2016: Ann Marie Sayers, Mustun Ohlone leader, tribal chair of

1734:

Indian Canyon Mutsun Band of Costanoan, Mutsun Indians, Chalon

1574:

An Ohlone family in traditional regalia in San Francisco, 2015

911:

boat in the San Francisco Bay, painted by Louis Choris in 1816

290:. At that time they spoke a variety of related languages. The 4088:

Who Discovered the Golden Gate?: The Explorers' Own Accounts.

3508:

Cook 1976b:42-43. Note the number of 26,000 includes Salinans

3225:

Opinions and quotations, Teixeira 1997:4; Milliken, 1995:249.

4038:

California Prehistory: Colonization, Culture, and Complexity

3907:

California Prehistory: Colonization, Culture, and Complexity

3864:

California Prehistory: Colonization, Culture, and Complexity

2375:

Quotation from Crespi, "sea lion pavement" Teixeira, 1997:2.

627:

to navigate on the bays propelled by double-bladed paddles.

473:

trade, intermarriage and ceremonial events, as well as some

1347:

might have originally derived from a Spanish rancho called

797:

Ohlone folklore and legend centered around the Californian

243: 237: 228: 2960:"Controversial Glen Cove Waterfront Park opens to protest" 2907:"Santa Cruz County History - Spanish Period & Earlier" 1856:

Eight dialects or languages of Ohlone have been recorded:

1435:

and the western (bayshore) portion of Contra Costa County.

1139:

Considered the last fluent speaker of an Ohlone language,

1072:, considered the last fluent speaker of an Ohlone language 3764:

Callaghan, Catherine A. 1997. "Evidence for Yok-Utian".

3167:"Indigenous women lead effort to reclaim ancestral lands" 870:

who arrived in California by sea around 3,000 years ago.

647:

can be found in the Native American Ethnobiology Database

3309:

500 Nations Web Site - Petitions for Federal Recognition

382:) are separately petitioning the federal government for 3971:

Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 8 (California)

3438:"California Indian Tribal Homelands and Trust Land Map" 2604:

In Breath So It Is in Spirit:The Story of Indian Canyon

2566:

Smith, C.R. (2002). "Ohlone Medicinal Uses of Plants".

2429:"Tribe: Costanoan (Olhonean) (6 documented plant uses)" 1730:, Pomona/Chino Offices, from Carmel, Monterey Bay Area. 27:

Native American people of the Northern California coast

4024:

Banning, California: Malki-Ballena Press Publication.

2597: 2595: 2297:

University of California Archaeological Survey Reports

1462:

also called Tamien, Thamien, and Santa Clara Costanoan

777:

Depiction of an Ohlone family in a wooden boat on the

3927:

Washington, D.C.: Govt. Printing Office. LCC 02021288

3891:

The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice

3413:"Indian Canyon -- Honor the Past to Shape the Future" 2561: 2559: 1884:. Of these, Chochenyo, Mutsun, and Rumsen are seeing 1429:

also called Chocheño, Chocenyo and East Bay Costanoan

252: 240: 3810:

The Population of the California Indians, 1769–1970.

1821:

The Population of the California Indians, 1769–1970.

234: 4375: 4344: 4278: 4097:Menlo Park, California: Ballena Press Publication. 4009:Menlo Park, California: Ballena Press Publication. 3988:Menlo Park, California: Ballena Press Publication. 3691:Menlo Park, California: Ballena Press Publication. 3383:

Amah-Mutsun Tribe Website; Leventhal and all, 1993.

485:, ear and nose piercings, and other ornamentation. 481:skills, seasonal ceremonial dancing events, female 231: 204: 188: 133: 98: 59: 3845:San Francisco, California: Chronicle Books, 1972. 3054: 2940: 2813: 1112:. Communities of mission survivors also formed in 512:." Their staple diet consisted of crushed acorns, 3829:The Missions of California: A Legacy of Genocide. 3468: 3466: 2288:Merriam, C. Hart (1967). Robert F. Heizer (ed.). 1244:Site CA-SCL-732- Kaphan Umux or Three Wolves Site 332:along the California coast with the objective of 3862:Golla, Victor. 2007. "Linguistic Prehistory" in 3708:Native Californians: A Theoretical Retrospective 3216:Teixeira, 1997:4, "The Term 'Costanoan/Ohlone'". 2579: 2577: 741:Watercolor of traditional Ohlone headdresses by 596:Along the ocean shore and bays, there were also 452:, and from the Pacific Ocean in the west to the 411:". Based on the former, American anthropologist 4069:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. 3728:Beeler, Madison S. 1961. "Northern Costanoan". 2318:. University of California Press. p. 168. 1498:also called Mutsen, San Juan Bautista Costanoan 1411:): The Karkin resided on the south side of the 298:family. Older proposals place Utian within the 4165:Ohlone Costanoan Esselen Nation Tribal Website 2831:2001:71; Bean, 1994:243; and Fink, 1972:63–64. 2404:"Tribe: Costanoan (430 documented plant uses)" 2245:KAMALAKANTHAN, PRASHANTH (November 22, 2014). 4446: 4252: 3894:, pp. 425–432. Emerald Group Publishing 3773:International Journal of American Linguistics 3766:International Journal of American Linguistics 3730:International Journal of American Linguistics 3127: 3125: 3123: 3121: 3119: 2393:Clothing and ornamentation, Teixeira, 1997:2. 890: 715:. However Kroeber observed less "specialized 265: 54:Map of the Ohlone peoples and their neighbors 8: 4128:Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 78 3838:. Fresno, California: Academy Library Guild. 3317:Native American Historical Data Base (NAHDB) 2807: 2805: 1664:Amah Mutsun Band of Ohlone/Costanoan Indians 1656:Advisory Council on California Indian Policy 1526:(San Carlos, Carmel, and Monterey Counties). 464:, Monterey Bay area, as well as present-day 42: 4086:Stanger, Frank M. and Alan K. Brown. 1969. 3281:Brown, Patricia Leigh (December 11, 2022). 4453: 4439: 4431: 4259: 4245: 4237: 3761:, San Mateo County Historical Association. 3197:KALW Local Public Radio 91.7 San Francisco 2850:Teixeira, 1997:3–4, "Historical Overview". 1744: 1464:): The Tamyen resided on Coyote Creek and 492:Replica of Ohlone Hut in the graveyard of 302:phylum, while newer proposals group it as 48: 41: 4841:History of Santa Clara County, California 3857:Native Americans of California and Nevada 3573:See books by Teixeira, Milliken and Bean. 2524:The Kuksu Cult - paraphrased from Kroeber 2518:The Religion of the Indians of California 1617:All enrolled Tamien Nation citizens have 1317:Costanoan is an externally applied name ( 4846:History of Santa Cruz County, California 4826:History of San Benito County, California 4090:San Mateo County Historical Association. 2696:Indian Myths of South Central California 2685: 2683: 2275:Transactions of the Philological Society 1716:Costanoan Band of Carmel Mission Indians 862:, claims that the Ohlone and some other 313:times, the Ohlone lived in more than 50 4836:History of San Mateo County, California 4170:Costanoan-Ohlone Indian Canyon Resource 4126:. Also available as: Washington, D.C: 3313:Costanoans by Four Directions Institute 2072: 1512:also called Rumsen, Carmel or Carmeleno 1057:(cowboys) of Mexican-owned rancherias. 927:reached and named the area that is now 4821:History of Monterey County, California 3831:San Francisco: Indian Historian Press. 3661:Bean, 1994:101–107; Teixeira, 1997:35. 2721:from the original on November 28, 2014 2357:resource management, Teixeira, 1997:2. 2198:. Berkeley, California: Heyday Books. 1792:Ohlone/Costanoan population over time. 964:Mission San Carlos Borroméo de Carmelo 661:They use the roots of many species of 4851:History of the San Francisco Bay Area 4148:Costanoan Rumsen Carmel Tribe Website 4022:Native Americans at Mission San Jose. 3964:Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 3960:Handbook of the Indians of California 3393:Ohlone/Costanoan Esselen Nation Today 3160: 3158: 2947:. Berkeley: University of California. 2943:The California Indians; a Source Book 1908:of the Ohlone population began with: 850:The predominant theory regarding the 656:Wilhelm Gottlieb Tilesius von Tilenau 7: 4542:(Lassik, Nongatl, Sinkyone, Wailaki) 3969:Levy, Richard. 1978. "Costanoan" in 3754:, Vol. XVII No. 4, Winter 1973–1974. 2862:"California's Little-Known Genocide" 1722:Costanoan Ohlone Rumsen-Mutsen Tribe 1235:Revitalizing and reclaiming heritage 980:Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad 99:Regions with significant populations 3859:. Naturegraph Publishers, Berkeley. 3843:Monterey, The Presence of the Past. 3402:. File retrieved November 30, 2006. 1808:estimated "10,000 or more" Ohlone. 1704:, Monterey and San Benito Counties: 1445:also called San Francisco Costanoan 1257:Indian People Organizing for Change 1173:Present day burial and sacred sites 4122:. Chapter 31. pp. 462–473 in 3026:"Sacred & Cultural Landscapes" 2709:Billiter, Bill (January 1, 1985). 25: 4124:Handbook of Indians of California 3262:Heizer 1974:3; Milliken 1995:xiv. 3191:Dalmas, Jeremy (April 16, 2018). 2219:Wolf, Jessica (August 15, 2017). 1597:petitions for Federal Recognition 477:conflict. Cultural arts included 4856:Indigenous peoples of California 4469:Indigenous peoples of California 4462: 4116:Kroeber, Alfred L. (ed.). 1925. 3941:4:167-250. Berkeley. On-line at 3358:Sue Dremann (December 7, 2011). 3165:Kost, Ryan (November 28, 2017). 2177: 2152: 2035: 1995:Ascencion Solorsano de Cervantes 1811:The highest estimate comes from 1482:also called Santa Cruz Costanoan 1355:Creek. Teixeira traced the name 1297:the United States government or 1011:San Pedro y San Pablo Asistencia 1009:, and mission outposts, such as 377: 270:meaning 'coast dweller'), are a 224: 211:Indigenous peoples of California 4272:Indigenous people of California 3759:Place Names of San Mateo County 3082:Tebor, Celina (April 1, 2022). 2958:Widjojo, Irma (June 17, 2012). 1798:population of Native California 1702:Ohlone/Costanoan Esselen Nation 1634:in San Francisco, October 2018. 1276:The Sogorea Te Land Trust is a 769:Sacred narratives and mythology 604:, and at one time thousands of 500:The Ohlone subsisted mainly as 4640:(Monache, Owens Valley Paiute) 3784:An Overview of Ohlone Culture. 1: 4326:Verona Band of Alameda County 4079:Stanger, Frank M., ed. 1968. 3984:Merriam, Clinton Hart. 1979. 3699:. Includes Leventhal et al., 3687:Bean, Lowell John, ed. 1994. 3634:Castillo in Yamane 2002:51–62 2043:San Francisco Bay Area portal 1728:Costanoan-Rumsen Carmel Tribe 1652:Verona Band of Alameda County 1560:Hearst Museum of Anthropology 968:Mission San Francisco de Asís 494:Mission San Francisco de Asís 4182:Muwekma Ohlone Tribe Website 4055:. New York: Academic Press. 4051:Moratto, Michael, ed. 1984. 2606:. Ballena. pp. 350–355. 403:first mentioned in 1850 as " 294:make up a sub-family of the 4336:List of tribes and villages 4083:Vol. XIV No. 4, March 1968. 3920:Jackson, Helen Hunt. 1883. 3748:Indians of San Mateo County 3701:Ohlone Back from Extinction 3329:"The Muwekma Ohlone - News" 3315:quoting Sunderland, Larry, 2464:News from Native California 2316:California Indian Languages 1746:Ohlone population in 1769: 1375:are spelling variations of 1305:) as it asserts indigenous 1152:Sacred sites and importance 1014:Area Native Americans were 972:Mission Santa Clara de Asís 956:Mission Santa Clara de Asís 557:. Birds included plentiful 448:down to northern region of 315:distinct landholding groups 4872: 4816:California Mission Indians 4000:Ethnohistory of the Rumsen 3808:Cook, Sherburne F. 1976b. 3789:Cook, Sherburne F. 1976a. 3053:Margolin, Malcolm (1978). 2192:Margolin, Malcolm (1978). 1833: 1591:Contemporary Ohlone groups 1391: 1269: 1027:Land and property disputes 880:shell mounds in Emeryville 864:northern California tribes 858:, but one anthropologist, 852:settlement of the Americas 29: 4475: 4202:Overview of Yelamu Ohlone 4160:Amah-Mutsun Tribe Website 4020:Milliken, Randall. 2008. 4005:Milliken, Randall. 1995. 3998:Milliken, Randall. 1987. 3958:Kroeber, Alfred L. 1925. 3713:Beebe, Rose Marie. 2001. 2981:Laverty, Phillip (2003). 2765:Teixeira, Lauren (1991). 2015:Indian Canyon, California 1777:26,000 including Salinans 1644:, San Francisco Bay Area: 1007:Presidio of San Francisco 988:Mission San Juan Bautista 907:Three Ohlone people in a 856:Bering Strait land bridge 428:Ohlone people painted by 376:See groups listed under " 369:tribe are descendants of 209: 193: 138: 103: 64: 47: 43:Ohlone (Costanoan) People 4831:History of San Francisco 4153:August 13, 2014, at the 4093:Teixeira, Lauren. 1997. 3877:Heizer, Robert F. 1974. 3801:. Originally printed in 1748:Various expert opinions 1601:Bureau of Indian Affairs 1299:Internal Revenue Service 1184:West Berkeley Shellmound 1178:West Berkeley Shellmound 962:the Ohlone region were: 654:Ohlone dancers drawn by 4738:Plains and Sierra Miwok 4597:(Diegueño, Ipai, Tipai) 4065:Sandos, James A. 2004. 3834:Cowan, Robert G. 1956. 3625:Milliken, 1995:206–207. 3171:San Francisco Chronicle 2939:Heizer, Robert (1971). 2531:March 11, 2007, at the 2056:List of Ohlone villages 1982:Mayors of San Francisco 1779:"Northern Mission Area" 1632:Indigenous Peoples' Day 1558:, then director of the 1394:List of Ohlone villages 986:(founded in 1797), and 899:Mission era (1769–1833) 446:San Francisco Peninsula 321:religion. Prior to the 32:Ohlone (disambiguation) 4357:Traditional narratives 4196:Costanoan Indian Tribe 4053:California Archaeology 3884:Hinton, Leanne. 2001. 3643:Teixeira, 1997:33, 40. 3616:Milliken, 1995:115-120 2962:. Vallejo Times-Herald 2820:. Menlo Park: Bellena. 2314:Golla, Victor (2011). 1793: 1782:Sherburne Cook (1976) 1764:Alfred Kroeber (1925) 1699: 1635: 1575: 1488:(Davenport and Aptos). 1290:San Francisco Bay Area 1126:Peter Hardeman Burnett 1073: 958: 912: 891: 842: 786: 783:Charles Christian Nahl 745: 658: 497: 432: 266: 4707:(Konomihu, Okwanuchu) 4540:Eel River Athapaskans 4362:Hunting and gathering 3930:Hylkema, Mark. 1995. 3879:The Costanoan Indians 3841:Fink, Augusta. 1972. 3825:Jeannette Henry Costo 3757:Brown, Alan K. 1975. 3746:Brown, Alan K. 1974. 2780:see Fink, 1972:29–38. 2666:10.1353/wic.2003.0015 2631:10.1353/wic.2003.0015 2602:Sayers, Anne (1994). 2495:10.1353/wic.2003.0013 2061:Mission Dolores mural 1953:Notable Ohlone people 1935:Editor's Introduction 1791: 1694: 1629: 1573: 1272:Sogorea Te Land Trust 1266:Sogorea Te Land Trust 1163:Emeryville Shellmound 1068: 953: 906: 833: 776: 740: 653: 643:A full list of their 587:yellow-billed magpies 491: 436:Pre-Contact Lifestyle 427: 260:), formerly known as 205:Related ethnic groups 3886:The Ohlone Languages 3855:Forbes, Jack. 1968. 3652:Bean, 1994:133, 314. 3584:"The Muwekma Ohlone" 3450:on October 21, 2018. 3417:indiancanyonlife.org 3364:PleasantonWeekly.com 3061:. Berkeley: Heyday. 1844:. The controversial 1772:Richard Levy (1978) 1697:Presidio of Monterey 1641:Muwekma Ohlone Tribe 1452:modern-day Pacifica. 1003:Presidio of Monterey 575:red-shafted flickers 549:, trout, steelhead, 462:Santa Cruz Mountains 413:Clinton Hart Merriam 396:Robert Gordon Latham 394:British ethnologist 119:Santa Cruz Mountains 30:For other uses, see 4207:Historic Background 3962:. Washington, D.C: 3954:Sacred Texts Online 3943:Sacred Texts Online 3136:. Wíčazo Ša Review. 3132:Field, Les (2003). 3112:. Wíčazo Ša Review. 2985:. Wíčazo Ša Review. 2924:Field, Les (2003). 2812:Bean, John (1994). 2755:F.M. Stanger 1968:4 2334:10.1525/j.ctt1ppmrt 1749: 1595:Ohlone tribes with 1550:Loss of recognition 1536:also called Soledad 1409:also called Carquin 1197:Vallejo, California 982:(founded in 1791), 978:(founded in 1791), 974:(founded in 1777), 970:(founded in 1776), 966:(founded in 1770), 954:Indian quarters at 939:was accompanied by 937:military expedition 838:hunters painted by 711:, and northernmost 545:. The streams held 470:Contra Costa County 276:Northern California 44: 4198:, Access Genealogy 4175:2017-03-09 at the 3823:Costo, Rupert and 3398:2006-12-08 at the 3288:The New York Times 3042:. August 24, 2017. 3014:. August 17, 2016. 2913:on April 17, 2016. 2543:Kroeber, 1925:445. 1918:John P. Harrington 1888:by Ohlone tribes. 1794: 1745: 1700: 1636: 1576: 1415:. The name of the 1134:Helen Hunt Jackson 1074: 976:Mission Santa Cruz 959: 925:Sebastián Vizcaíno 913: 860:Otto von Sadovszky 843: 787: 746: 723:and groups in the 659: 498: 458:Santa Clara Valley 433: 384:tribal recognition 140:Ohlone (Costanoan) 111:Santa Clara Valley 4796: 4795: 4428: 4427: 4046:978-0-7591-0872-1 4030:978-0-87919-147-4 3915:978-0-7591-0872-1 3872:978-0-7591-0872-1 3778:Cartier, Robert, 3499:Kroeber, 1925:464 2905:Cartier, Robert. 2860:Blakemore, Erin. 2769:. Masters Thesis. 2715:Los Angeles Times 2691:Costanoan Rumsien 2175:(25th ed., 2022) 2150:(25th ed., 2022) 1923:Sherburne F. Cook 1910:Alfred L. Kroeber 1892:Salvaging records 1853:language family. 1813:Sherburne F. Cook 1802:Alfred L. Kroeber 1786: 1785: 1599:pending with the 1333:into the name of 1118:San Juan Bautista 935:. This time, the 933:Gaspar de Portolà 846:Pre-Columbian era 779:San Francisco Bay 725:Sacramento Valley 579:downy woodpeckers 571:great horned owls 504:and in some ways 300:Penutian language 280:San Francisco Bay 216: 215: 176: 129: 16:(Redirected from 4863: 4467: 4466: 4455: 4448: 4441: 4432: 4261: 4254: 4247: 4238: 4233: 4231: 4229: 3674: 3670:Hinton 2001:430 3668: 3662: 3659: 3653: 3650: 3644: 3641: 3635: 3632: 3626: 3623: 3617: 3614: 3608: 3607:Milliken 1987:28 3605: 3599: 3598: 3596: 3594: 3580: 3574: 3571: 3565: 3564:Bean:xxiii–xxiv. 3561: 3555: 3551: 3545: 3542: 3536: 3533: 3527: 3524: 3518: 3515: 3509: 3506: 3500: 3497: 3491: 3488: 3482: 3479: 3473: 3470: 3461: 3458: 3452: 3451: 3449: 3443:. Archived from 3442: 3434: 3428: 3427: 3425: 3423: 3409: 3403: 3390: 3384: 3381: 3375: 3374: 3372: 3370: 3355: 3349: 3348: 3346: 3344: 3335:. 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July 23, 2012 4216: 4177:Wayback Machine 4155:Wayback Machine 4140:Tribal websites 4137: 4113: 4111:Further reading 4108: 3851:978-877010720-4 3803:Ibero-Americana 3683: 3678: 3677: 3669: 3665: 3660: 3656: 3651: 3647: 3642: 3638: 3633: 3629: 3624: 3620: 3615: 3611: 3606: 3602: 3592: 3590: 3582: 3581: 3577: 3572: 3568: 3562: 3558: 3552: 3548: 3543: 3539: 3534: 3530: 3525: 3521: 3516: 3512: 3507: 3503: 3498: 3494: 3489: 3485: 3480: 3476: 3472:Levy, 1978:486. 3471: 3464: 3459: 3455: 3447: 3440: 3436: 3435: 3431: 3421: 3419: 3411: 3410: 3406: 3400:Wayback Machine 3391: 3387: 3382: 3378: 3368: 3366: 3357: 3356: 3352: 3342: 3340: 3333:www.muwekma.org 3327: 3326: 3322: 3307: 3303: 3293: 3291: 3280: 3279: 3275: 3270: 3266: 3261: 3257: 3251: 3247: 3242: 3238: 3233: 3229: 3224: 3220: 3215: 3211: 3201: 3199: 3190: 3189: 3185: 3175: 3173: 3164: 3163: 3156: 3146: 3145: 3141: 3131: 3130: 3117: 3107: 3106: 3102: 3092: 3090: 3081: 3080: 3076: 3069: 3052: 3051: 3047: 3038: 3037: 3033: 3024: 3023: 3019: 3010: 3009: 3005: 2995: 2994: 2990: 2980: 2979: 2975: 2965: 2963: 2957: 2956: 2952: 2938: 2937: 2933: 2923: 2922: 2918: 2904: 2903: 2899: 2894: 2890: 2884: 2880: 2870: 2868: 2859: 2858: 2854: 2849: 2845: 2839: 2835: 2829: 2825: 2811: 2810: 2803: 2798: 2794: 2788: 2784: 2778: 2774: 2764: 2763: 2759: 2754: 2750: 2745: 2741: 2724: 2722: 2708: 2707: 2703: 2688: 2681: 2651: 2650: 2646: 2616: 2615: 2611: 2601: 2600: 2593: 2586:Master's Thesis 2583: 2582: 2575: 2565: 2564: 2557: 2551: 2547: 2542: 2538: 2533:Wayback Machine 2514: 2510: 2480: 2479: 2475: 2461: 2460: 2456: 2451: 2447: 2437: 2435: 2427: 2426: 2422: 2412: 2410: 2402: 2401: 2397: 2392: 2388: 2383: 2379: 2374: 2370: 2365: 2361: 2355: 2351: 2345: 2341: 2326: 2313: 2312: 2308: 2292: 2287: 2286: 2282: 2272: 2271: 2267: 2257: 2255: 2244: 2243: 2239: 2229: 2227: 2218: 2217: 2213: 2206: 2191: 2190: 2186: 2176: 2165: 2161: 2151: 2140: 2136: 2131: 2127: 2117: 2115: 2107: 2106: 2102: 2092: 2090: 2083: 2079: 2078: 2074: 2069: 2041: 2036: 2034: 2031: 1955: 1942: 1914:C. Hart Merriam 1902:ethnohistorians 1894: 1838: 1832: 1778: 1747: 1743: 1675: 1593: 1568: 1552: 1470:Guadalupe River 1466:Calaveras Creek 1396: 1390: 1315: 1274: 1268: 1259: 1237: 1175: 1154: 1149: 1116:, Monterey and 1063: 1051:Alta California 1042: 1029: 992:Mission Indians 901: 848: 828: 771: 755: 671: 641: 496:, San Francisco 438: 422: 401:Mission Dolores 392: 360: 272:Native American 254: 227: 223: 177: 143: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 55: 40: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4869: 4867: 4859: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4803: 4802: 4794: 4793: 4791: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4708: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4675: 4674: 4669: 4661: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4635: 4630: 4624: 4619: 4613: 4608: 4603: 4598: 4592: 4587: 4582: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4476: 4473: 4472: 4460: 4458: 4457: 4450: 4443: 4435: 4426: 4425: 4423: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4381: 4379: 4373: 4372: 4370: 4369: 4364: 4359: 4354: 4348: 4346: 4342: 4341: 4339: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4282: 4280: 4276: 4275: 4266: 4264: 4263: 4256: 4249: 4241: 4235: 4234: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4192: 4191: 4189: 4185: 4184: 4179: 4167: 4162: 4157: 4144: 4143: 4141: 4136: 4135:External links 4133: 4132: 4131: 4119:The Costanoans 4112: 4109: 4107: 4106: 4091: 4084: 4077: 4063: 4049: 4033: 4018: 4003: 3996: 3982: 3967: 3956: 3946: 3935: 3928: 3918: 3903: 3882: 3875: 3860: 3853: 3839: 3832: 3821: 3806: 3787: 3776: 3775:, 67: 313–345. 3769: 3762: 3755: 3744: 3737: 3733: 3732:, 27: 191–197. 3726: 3711: 3704: 3684: 3682: 3679: 3676: 3675: 3663: 3654: 3645: 3636: 3627: 3618: 3609: 3600: 3575: 3566: 3556: 3546: 3537: 3528: 3519: 3510: 3501: 3492: 3483: 3474: 3462: 3453: 3429: 3404: 3385: 3376: 3350: 3339:on May 9, 2009 3320: 3301: 3273: 3264: 3255: 3245: 3236: 3227: 3218: 3209: 3183: 3154: 3139: 3115: 3100: 3074: 3067: 3045: 3031: 3017: 3003: 2988: 2973: 2950: 2931: 2916: 2897: 2888: 2878: 2852: 2843: 2833: 2823: 2801: 2792: 2782: 2772: 2757: 2748: 2739: 2701: 2679: 2644: 2609: 2591: 2573: 2555: 2545: 2536: 2508: 2473: 2454: 2445: 2420: 2395: 2386: 2377: 2368: 2359: 2349: 2339: 2324: 2306: 2280: 2265: 2237: 2211: 2205:978-0930588014 2204: 2184: 2159: 2134: 2132:Callaghan 1997 2125: 2113:www.census.gov 2100: 2088:www.census.gov 2071: 2070: 2068: 2065: 2064: 2063: 2058: 2053: 2047: 2046: 2030: 2027: 2026: 2025: 2022:Tommy Guerrero 2018: 2011: 2008: 2005:Isabel Meadows 2001: 1998: 1991: 1988: 1985: 1976:who served as 1970: 1966: 1959: 1954: 1951: 1939:Merriam (1979) 1893: 1890: 1880:, Rumsen, and 1834:Main article: 1831: 1828: 1784: 1783: 1780: 1774: 1773: 1770: 1769:10,000 or more 1766: 1765: 1762: 1758: 1757: 1754: 1742: 1739: 1738: 1737: 1731: 1725: 1724:, Watsonville. 1719: 1712: 1711: 1706: 1705: 1687: 1686: 1668: 1667: 1660: 1659: 1646: 1645: 1624: 1623: 1614: 1613: 1592: 1589: 1585:Hokan language 1567: 1564: 1556:Alfred Kroeber 1551: 1548: 1540: 1539: 1527: 1505: 1489: 1473: 1453: 1436: 1433:Alameda County 1420: 1389: 1386: 1314: 1311: 1270:Main article: 1267: 1264: 1258: 1255: 1236: 1233: 1192:(Sogorea Te') 1174: 1171: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1070:Isabel Meadows 1062: 1059: 1041: 1040:Secularization 1038: 1028: 1025: 945:Junípero Serra 900: 897: 847: 844: 827: 824: 799:culture heroes 781:. (c. 1870's; 770: 767: 754: 751: 670: 669:Kuksu Religion 667: 665:for basketry. 640: 637: 535:Cervus elaphus 479:basket-weaving 466:Alameda County 437: 434: 421: 418: 391: 388: 352:Costanoan and 334:Christianizing 296:Utian language 288:Salinas Valley 274:people of the 264:(from Spanish 214: 213: 207: 206: 202: 201: 191: 190: 186: 185: 136: 135: 131: 130: 127:Salinas Valley 101: 100: 96: 95: 62: 61: 57: 56: 53: 38: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4868: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4808: 4806: 4799: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4764: 4761: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4712: 4709: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4696: 4693: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4673: 4670: 4667: 4666: 4665: 4662: 4659: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4620: 4617: 4614: 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