American white ibis - Knowledge (XXG)

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they swap nesting duties. Little feeding is done in the period of the day that is between the two duty swaps and no feeding is done between midnight and 6 a.m. Chick mortality is highest in the first twenty days post hatching, with anywhere from 37 to 83% of hatchlings surviving to three weeks of age in the Everglades. During periods of food limitations and starvation events, the American white ibis tends to exhibit sex-dependent pre-fledgling mortality. For many bird species that have sexually dimorphic nestlings, mortality rates are higher for larger-sized male nestlings as a result of the parents' inability to meet its greater nutritional needs. However, in the case of the American white ibis, the male nestlings actually have a lower mortality rate as compared to the females despite being on average 15% greater in mass as compared to its female counterparts. Although current research has yet to discover the underlying factors to why the males tend to have better survival rates under such conditions, it is suspected that the parents tend to feed the larger male nestlings first because they are either perceived by the parents to have a higher chance of survival, or, being generally larger, the male nestlings simply out-compete the small females for food.

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The success rate of parents raising one or more young to 20 days of age ranges widely from 5 to 70% of nests, and varies greatly between nearby colonies. American white ibis parents have been known to supplement their chicks' diet with items such as cockroaches and rotting food from human garbage in poorer years, when fish and crayfish are more scarce. Studies have also shown that years with higher nesting numbers had significantly faster spring drying rates of water bodies than years with low nesting numbers. This is because faster drying rates means that there are fewer fish and increased available area where crayfish can be hunted. This highlights the fact that American white ibises do not use probability of nesting failure as a key factor in determining nesting sites but instead, rely on other criteria such as prey availability and nest-site

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have been recorded raiding other parent ibises who are feeding their young in the colony. The raiders force their bill down the throat of the victim—either the parent about to disgorge their food or recently fed young—and extract the ball of food. This behavior allows the otherwise starving adult males to obtain food without having to spend long periods of time away from the nest, and prevent its female mate copulating with another male ibis, which would reduce its own reproductive success. Females and juveniles almost never try to drive off the larger and more aggressive pirating males, but instead try to avoid or move away from them. This pirating behavior is less common between two male ibises as the males will actively fight off the pirate. The explanation of the species'

589: 1038: 1431:. The population consists of 150,000 mature adults, and is stable, although some populations have unknown trends. A partial survey of under 50% of the North American population published in 2007 found an almost six-fold increase in the last four decades. The estimated breeding range is huge, at 1,200,000 km (460,000 sq mi). Fluctuating breeding populations and high mobility of colonies make estimating the population difficult. Attempted censuses of breeding colonies across Texas, Louisiana, Florida, and the Carolinas yielded a count of 166,000 breeding birds in 2001, and 209,000 in 2004. The conservation status has been listed in two states—it is a 718: 1242: 601: 914: 1034:

out into the sea by wave action. Incubating parents usually abandon the nest when the water or tidal levels reaches 3 to 8 cm (1.2 to 3.1 in) above the bottom of the nest cup. Nevertheless, there have been instances where the parents have been observed to transport their eggs to another nest in an attempt to salvage some eggs. However, despite the fact that some nesting sites face high chance of tidal damage every breeding season, American white ibises still continue to nest in these areas because of other favorable conditions such as abundant nearby food sources and low egg predation rates.

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ranges of 872.9 to 1,261 g (1.924 to 2.780 lb) for males and 592.7 to 861.3 g (1.307 to 1.899 lb) for females, with average weights of 1,036.4 g (2.285 lb) for males and 764.5 g (1.685 lb) for females. The length of adult female and male birds ranges from 53 to 70 cm (21 to 28 in) with a 90 to 105 cm (35 to 41 in) wingspan. Among standard measurements, American white ibis measure 20.5–31 cm (8.1–12.2 in) along each wing, have a tail measurement of 9.3–12.2 cm (3.7–4.8 in), a

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deeper water when alone, as is head swinging, in which the ibis swings its wide open bill widely in open water. Others copy this type of foraging if they see one ibis doing it. On land, the American white ibis locates prey by sight and pecks, and does not have to insert its bill into the substrate. The American white ibis seeks small prey when other birds are around, as it needs time to break up larger food items into smaller pieces to eat, and other predators such as herons and

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ability to attract females by males have reduced reproduction rates in affected populations. Exposure of American white ibises to methylmercury causes reduced foraging efficiency and it also makes them more likely to abandon nests owing to the disruptive effect of the pollutant on the bird's hormone systems, which in turn affects parental care behavior. Tests on captive birds have not shown a decreased survival of American white ibis exposed to methylmercury.

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darkens to a deep pink on the bill and an almost purple-tinted red on the legs. It then fades to a paler pink, and the tip of the bill becomes blackish. It is difficult to determine the sex of an adult American white ibis from its external appearance, since the sexes have similar plumage. However, there is

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Juveniles have lower foraging efficiency compared to adults and in most feeding flocks, the juveniles are usually outnumbered by the adults. They usually tend to stay close to one another and forage for food together at the peripheral region of the group. During the breeding season, adult male ibises

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predominated, indicating their benefit was worth the extra energy expended in fetching them for their young. This travel results in the wholesale transport of nutrients across the landscape by the colony; in a successful breeding year the colony at Pumpkinseed Island was estimated to have contributed

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species). Egg predation rates of the American white ibis decline with nest age owing to increased nest attentiveness by the parents, especially during the last week of incubation. High nest densities and reduced synchrony increase egg predation rates because of the increased opportunities afforded by

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The eggs hatch after about three weeks and the young are attended by both parents. Males are present around the nest for most of the day, and females most of the night. The parents exchange nest duties in the morning and in the evening. Most of the feeding of the chicks occurs during the period where

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such as rainfall and water levels. Low and decreasing water levels predict good prey accessibility. Water level reversals, where levels rise in the breeding season, disperse prey and impact on foraging success. Nest numbers and average clutch sizes are smaller in periods of reduced prey availability.

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which falls off between days five and nine, and develops three black rings from around day six, before turning gray by around six weeks of age. The gray to sandy gray brown juvenile plumage appears between weeks two and six, and face and bill become pink a few weeks later, while the legs remain gray.

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The white plumage and pink facial skin of adult American white ibises are distinctive. Adults have black wingtips that are usually only visible in flight. In non-breeding condition the long downcurved bill and long legs are bright red-orange. During the first ten days of the breeding season, the skin

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Ornithologists James Hancock and Jim Kushlan also consider the two to be a single species, with the differences in plumage, size, skin coloration and degree of bill darkening during breeding season forming the diagnostic characters. They have proposed the populations recontacted in northwestern South

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The main cause of nest failure among the species is due to nest abandonment, the leading cause of which is inundation from extremely high tides. Parents abandoned 61% of all nesting starts either during or immediately after extremely high tides. The eggs float out of the flooded nests, or get washed

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with other nesting females after mating with its primary female partner. These extra-pair copulations are usually done after the within-pair copulations, and make up about 45% of all total matings, although only about 15% of all extra-pair copulations are successful. By not restricting the number of

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and the Gulf Coast of Florida, and finally Texas in the 1970s. Between the 1970s and early 1990s, breeding colonies declined and disappeared in South Carolina and Florida, and greatly increased in North Carolina and Louisiana. Colonies last between one and seventeen years, their longevity related to

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may lower energy expenditure. These lines fly in an undulating pattern as they alternately flap and glide. Soaring in a circular pattern is also seen. Heights of 500 to 1,000 m (1,600 to 3,300 ft) may be reached as birds glide over flights of 20 km (12 mi) or more. More commonly,

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in size and proportion as males are significantly larger and heavier than females and have longer and stouter bills. This species is moderately large for an ibis but is relatively short legged, compact and bulky for a large wader. A study of the American white ibis in southern Florida yielded weight

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and aquatic insects and the latter feeding mainly on grain. The wood stork is also found in the same habitat in Florida, but hunts larger prey and a higher percentage of fish, so there is little overlap. In the Llanos, where American white ibis coexist with the scarlet ibis, their diets differ, the

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on México's west coast where a breeding colony has been recorded. American white ibises are not faithful to the sites where they breed, and large breeding colonies composed of ten thousand birds or more can congregate and disband in one or two breeding seasons. Breeding populations across its range

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During the summer, the American white ibis roams along the coast of tidal flats and mangrove swamps as the inland marshes are usually flooded. However, as the water level recedes in the fall, populations at the coast shift their foraging area inland, to inland marshes and swamplands. It has become

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to stay close to the nest and aggressively defend his nest and mate from both predators and other ibises in preference to foraging for food. In the 2006 breeding season, a non-breeding adult female was observed to be tending to multiple nests that belonged to other American white ibises—the first

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region of Colombia and Venezuela. They observed individuals of the two species mating and pairing, as well as hybrid ibises with pale orange plumage, or white plumage with occasional orange feathers; their proposal that these birds be classified as a single species, has been followed by least one

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levels in males are affected, leading to a decrease in the rates of key courtship behavior, and fewer approaches by females during the mating season. In addition, methylmercury also increased male-male pairing behaviors by 55%. Both the chemically induced "homosexual" behavior and the diminished

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often take the opportunity to rob the ibis of its catch. Along with the scarlet ibis, the species coexists with another five species of ibis in the Llanos in Venezuela. American white ibis males are aggressive to and take prey items from smaller ibises, but the smaller females are more often the

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of the water body with its bill held at around 1 to 2 cm (0.39 to 0.79 in) agape at the tip, and sweeps its long bill back and forth across the bottom to pick out suitable food items. Birds may also probe when standing still. Groping with a wide open bill is a technique used by ibis in

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and cypress swamps, the diet is primarily made up of crayfish, while those that feed in willow ponds eat predominantly fish. American white ibises that feed in mangrove swamps focus on crabs. The tactile nature of the ibis's probing for food in mud means that it catches prey that are too slow to

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to fish does occur if fish are found in great abundance. It is unclear whether the fish are more easily caught if overcrowded, or whether sheer numbers of fish mean that ibises are catching them instead of crayfish—normally, fish are more agile than crayfish and hence elude the ibis's bill more

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The American white ibis begins breeding in its third summer, although birds in captivity may breed as young as nine or ten months of age. The oldest member of the species recorded in captivity was over 20 years of age, and a wild bird has been picked up 16 years and 4 months after being

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females it copulates with, the male is able to increase its reproductive success considerably. Although females are receptive towards extra-pair copulations, male mate-guarding greatly reduces the rate of successful female involvement in attempted extra-pair copulations by other males.

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reported that the American white ibis was hunted and sold in Louisiana, and mainly eaten by American Indians. It had orange flesh and a strong fishy taste. Elsewhere, the flesh has been described as appealing on account of the crayfish diet, and both members of the genus

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A field study late in the Florida nesting season revealed that on an average day, adult American white ibis spent 10.25 hours looking for food, 0.75 hours flying, 13 hours resting, roosting, and attending to their nests. Much of the time roosting is spent

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easily. Fish are a more energy-rich source of food for the American white ibis. In the breeding season, American white ibises in a colony at Pumpkinseed Island travelled further to forage in freshwater wetlands and catch crayfish, than nearby saltwater areas where

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unless part of courtship behavior. Bathing often takes place before preening; ibis squat in water 5–20 cm (2.0–7.9 in) deep and flick water over themselves with each wing in succession. Hundreds of birds may bathe together around the time of courtship.

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or threat displays include lunging forward with the bill in a horizontal posture, and standing upright and snapping the bill opposite another bird engaging in the same display. Birds also lunge and bite, often holding onto an opponent's head or wings.

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to obtain the white adult plumage. This is mostly complete by the end of the second year, although some brown feathers persist on the head and neck until the end of the third year. Juvenile birds take around two years to reach adult size and weight.

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are typically laid, with two or three being the most common. The eggs are matte pale blue-green in color with brown splotches, measure 5.8 cm × 3.9 cm (2.3 in × 1.5 in), and weigh on average 50.8 g (1.79 oz).

820:. The longest-lasting are associated with wetlands over 800 km (310 sq mi) in size. Degradation of wetland or breeding sites are reasons for abandonment. The population of American white ibises in a colony at Pumpkinseed Island in 1149:

evade the ibis once located by its bill. In the Everglades, this means that crayfish make up a large part of the diet, but a more diverse array of invertebrates are taken in coastal areas. Although crayfish are sought by foraging ibises,

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rates. The draining of wetlands in south Florida has also impacted on species that forage in shallow water such as the American white ibis, and its increase in numbers is a key indicator of restoration of habitat within the Everglades.

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and even wet lawns. Populations that are away from the coast and shoreline, particularly in southern Florida, often reside in other forms of wetlands such as marshes, ponds and flooded fields. In summer, these move to more coastal and

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Immature American white and scarlet ibises are very difficult to tell apart, although scarlet ibises tend to have darker legs and bare skin around the face. An immature American white ibis could be mistaken for an immature

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could feasibly prey on nesting ibises but there has been little research in the area. A flock of fifty adult American white ibis were killed in a fire in the Everglades. The corpses were found in a dense swathe of cattail

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However, in a field study published in 1987, researchers Cristina Ramo and Benjamin Busto found evidence of interbreeding in a population where the ranges of the scarlet and white ibises overlap along the coast and in the

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have been hunted, which has been responsible for decline, across their range. Crawfish farmers in Louisiana have also shot them for foraging in crawfish ponds. Overall, the impact of hunting is not thought to be major.

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Shepherd, Philippa; Crockett, Tanja; De Santo, Toni L.; Bildstein, Keith L. (1991). "The Impact of Hurricane Hugo on the Breeding Ecology of Wading Birds at Pumpkinseed Island, Hobcaw Barony, South Carolina".

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more common in urban landscapes in Florida since the late 1990s, and is one of a number of wetland-dependent bird species which forages in man-made ponds on golf courses in the southwest of the state.

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sizes are usually lower in coastal colonies as compared to inland colonies, although there are no statistically significant differences in the fledging rate of both colonies. Throughout the mating and

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are brown. The exposed skin is pinkish initially, apart from the tip of the bill which is dark gray, but turns gray within a few days of hatching. The bill is short and straight at birth and has an

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in Alabama. The preservation of colony sites and freshwater foraging areas is important to maintaining populations; however, the highly mobile nature of breeding colonies makes this challenging.

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of body size is unclear, because no differences between the sexes in feeding success rates or the foraging behavior have been observed and, as males are larger, they need more food than females.

1225: 890:, whose remains were also found there. Remains of neither species are common in the beds. The tar seeps have been dated at 13,900 years old. The American white ibis is still found in Peru. 1928: 3846: 2388: 1057:) is common raider of American white ibis nests, accounting for up to 44% of egg loss in a field study at Battery Island, North Carolina. Other predators of eggs and young include the 5701: 3453: 664:—a 1986 field study in North Carolina noted over 80% of adult ibis doing so, while juveniles rapidly took up the practice over the course of the summer. The resulting improvement in 1497:

held that the bird was the last to seek shelter before a hurricane, and the first to emerge afterwards. The bird was thus a symbol for danger and optimism. For this reason, the

803:. Drought conditions elsewhere in the United States led to more than 400,000 American white ibis breeding there in the 1930s. In the 1950s and 1960s, large colonies appeared in 4221: 1204: 3089: 2746: 1340:. Nematodes are more prevalent in American white ibis from freshwater habitats, and cestodes more frequent in those from saltwater areas. One nematode found in adult birds, 3712:

Frederick, Peter C.; Bildstein, Keith L. "Foraging Ecology of Seven Species of Neotropical Ibises (Threskiornithidae) during the Dry Season in the Llanos of Venezuela".

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Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae, Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, cum Characteribus, Differentiis, Synonymis, Locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata

426:, which is released into the environment from untreated waste. Exposure to methylmercury alters the hormone levels of American white ibis, affecting their mating and 4128:) in the Florida Everglades (Relaciones entre las Concentraciones de Mercurio, Hormonas y el Esfuerzo de Nidificación de Eudocimus albus en los Everglades, Florida)" 5492: 5570: 381:. It is also found along the northwestern South American coastline in Colombia and Venezuela. Populations in central Venezuela overlap and interbreed with the 2788: 588: 5686: 4466: 439: 3581: 1375:, has been recovered from the blood of adults and nestlings, and can hence be transmitted before the young leave the nest. The larvae of two species of 2893: 1962: 377:, and the coasts of Mexico and Central America. Outside the breeding period, the range extends further inland in North America and also includes the 5711: 5443: 2957: 1517:

in 1957. It was named after San Sebastian Hall, a residence hall on campus, which sponsored an Ibis entry in the college's homecoming celebration.

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Clutton-Brock, T. H.; Albon, S. D.; Guinness, F. E. (1985). "Parental Investment and Sex Differences in Juvenile Mortality in Birds and Mammals".

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birds fly between 60 and 100 m (200 and 330 ft) above the ground, gliding or flapping at a rate of around 3.3 wingbeats a second.

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ecosystem, human pollution has led to increased concentrations of methylmercury, which have impacted the behaviors of the American white ibis.

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Dorn, Nathan J.; Herring, Garth; Gawlik, Dale E. (2008). "Estimation of Crayfish Abundance and Size-structure in Diets of White Ibis Chicks".

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southwards) and Central America, and as far south as Colombia and Venezuela. The non-breeding range extends further inland, reaching north to

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Bildstein, Keith L. (1983). "Age-Related Differences in the Flocking and Foraging Behavior of White Ibises in a South Carolina Salt Marsh".

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of the ibises, though of a bright red-orange color, the same hue as its long legs. Males are larger and have longer bills than females. The

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and small fish. Outside the nesting season, the diet is highly variable, as abundance and types of prey depend on both the region and the

4173:"Altered Pairing Behaviour and Reproductive Success in White Ibises Exposed to Environmentally Relevant Concentrations of Methylmercury" 3010: 3008: 1037: 5466: 1733: 5706: 4380: 4019:

Telford Jr., Sam R.; Spalding, Marilyn G.; Forrester, Donald J. (1992). "Hemoparasites of Wading Birds (Ciconiiformes) in Florida".

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habitats as inland waterways become flooded with summer rains and the ibis find the water levels too deep to forage effectively.

639:, deepening to dark brown or black on the head and wings. The chest is often bare and there can be a white tuft on the head. The 1241: 5430: 4459: 2958:"Aquatic prey switching and urban foraging by the White Ibis Eudocimus albus are determined by wetland hydrological conditions" 1215:

predation in juvenile American white ibis has been observed, where a juvenile attacked and consumed a chick from another nest.

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behavior is probing with its beak at the bottom of shallow water to feel for and capture its prey. It does not see the prey.

357:) and south through most of the Caribbean coastal regions of Central America. This particular ibis species is a medium-sized 5523: 4444: 5557: 2442:"Philopatry and Nomadism: Contrasting Long-term Movement Behavior and Population Dynamics of White Ibises and Wood Storks" 722: 5247: 392:

are its preferred food in most regions, but it can adjust its diet according to the habitat and prey abundance. Its main

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Like other species of ibis, the American white ibis flies with neck and legs outstretched, often in long loose lines or

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The species is known to wander, and has been sighted, sometimes in small flocks, in states far out of its usual range.

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into wild populations of American white ibis. Birds of intermediate to red plumage have persisted for generations.

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on the sides of their heads on back plumage. American white ibis generally only preen themselves, not engaging in

480:"white". Alternative common names that have been used include Spanish curlew and white curlew. English naturalist 5726: 1494: 1066: 4351:"The Tradition Of The Ibis: School Mascot Represents Leadership, Courage and Strength of Miami Student-athletes" 4146: 3865: 2807: 705:, but the latter is wholly dark brown and lacks the white belly and rump. The adult is distinguishable from the 5583: 3588: 1009: 5471: 3558: 3510:

Davis, William E. Jr.; Jackson, Jerome A. (2007). "Willets Kleptoparasitize and Use White Ibis as "Beaters"".

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De Santo, Toni L.; Johnston, James W.; Bildstein, Keith L. (1997). "Wetland Feeding Site Use by White Ibises (

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Human pollution has affected the behavior of the American white ibis via an increase in the concentrations of

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Pence, Danny B. (1971). "The Hypopi (Acarina: Hypoderidae) from the Subcutaneous Tissues of the White Ibis,

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Herring, Garth; Johnston, Mark D.; Call, Erynn M. (2005). "Intraspecific Predation in Juvenile White Ibis".

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Dorn, Nathan J.; Cook, Mark I.; Herring, Garth; Boyle, Robin A.; Nelson, Jennifer; Gawlik, Dale E. (2011).

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Petit, Daniel R.; Bildstein, Keith L. (1986). "Development of Formation Flying in Juvenile White Ibises (

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in the diet. They have questioned whether white-plumaged birds of South America are in fact part of the

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America after a period of separation, and that the color difference is likely due to the presence of an

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at Lee Creek in North Carolina. Two species, one living and one extinct, have been recovered from the

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Ornithological biography, or, An account of the Habits of the Birds of the United States of America

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the longer incubation times, as well as the greater availability of nests available for predation.

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The American white ibis is most common in Florida, where over 30,000 have been counted in a single

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call while foraging, and make a squealing call in courtship. Young in the nest give a high-pitched

503: 404: 58: 5549: 4759: 3339: 3337: 2855: 2349:"Waterbirds (Other Than Laridae) Nesting in the Middle Section of Laguna Cuyutlan, Colima, Mexico" 5691: 5171: 4769: 4701: 4691: 4303: 4256: 4150: 4067: 3993: 3951: 3877: 3869: 3827: 3784: 3748: 3694: 3655: 3620:. Gainesville, Florida: Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS), University of Florida 3562: 3527: 3492: 3484: 3434: 3395: 3365: 3323: 3288: 3246: 3200: 3143: 3070: 3028: 2924: 2819: 2769: 2724: 2663: 2598: 2548: 2503:

Heath, Julie A.; Frederick, Peter C.; Kushlan, James A.; Bildstein, Keith L. (10 February 2009).

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Heath, Julie A.; Frederick, Peter C.; Kushlan, James A.; Bildstein, Keith L. (10 February 2009).

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with black wing-tips (usually only visible in flight), and having the typical downward-curving

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Frederick, P.; Campbell, A.; Jayasena, N.; Borkhataria, R. (2010). "Survival of White Ibises (

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and both sexes provide parental care to their young, the male often flies off to engage in

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Bird predators may seize anywhere from 7% to 75% of the progeny in a breeding colony. The

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Frederick, Peter; Gawlik, Dale E.; Ogden, John C.; Cook, Mark I.; Lusk, Michael (2009).

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mistook immature birds for a separate species, which he called the brown curlew. Local

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Their diet consists primarily of small aquatic prey, such as insects and small fishes.

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Until the 1940s, the species bred only in large numbers in Florida, mostly within the

219: 37: 5680: 5531: 5077: 2976: 1947: 1616: 1546: 1460: 1428: 1424: 1366: 977: 629: 443: 423: 205: 78: 73: 4260: 4154: 3955: 3881: 3566: 3531: 3327: 3204: 2928: 2823: 2773: 1997: 1012:. Some of its brown feathers have molted and have been replaced with white feathers. 684:. The call is used in flight, courtship or when disturbed. Birds also utter a muted 553:. Hybrid ibises have also been recorded in Florida, where the scarlet ibis has been 5396: 5261: 4948: 4789: 4724: 4553: 3614: 3496: 3250: 2706: 2704: 2651: 1590: 1155: 1101: 764: 726: 665: 636: 529: 513: 481: 382: 5598: 3615:"WEC188: Wildlife in Urban Landscapes: Use of Golf Course Ponds by Wetlands Birds" 3116: 926:, biting and working their feathers with their long bills, as well as rubbing the 5663: 5435: 5383: 4307: 3269:"Fish Crow Predation on Eggs of the White Ibis at Battery Island, North Carolina" 2684:

The Non-passerine Pleistocene Avifauna of the Talara Tar Seeps, Northwestern Peru

1798:

Ramo, Cristina; Busto, Benjamin (1987). "Hybridization Between the Scarlet Ibis (

506:

gave the species its current binomial name in 1832 when he erected the new genus

5562: 5544: 5479: 5329: 4973: 4844: 4805: 4779: 2115: 1513:

from that year. The mascot was initially known as Ibis before adopting the name

1380: 1361: 1184: 1171: 968: 861: 746: 702: 661: 550: 408: 400: 346: 5280: 3381: 3379: 3319: 5658: 4890: 4749: 4740: 4682: 4666: 4291: 3939: 3766: 3764: 3762: 3582:"Supplemental Information for the White Ibis: Biological Status Review Report" 1892: 1890: 1888: 1472: 1464: 1400: 1336:. Several roundworm and spirurid species have been found in the lining of the 1160: 1145: 1125: 985: 800: 706: 521: 5320: 3480: 3454:"The relative importance of biotic and abiotic vectors in nutrient transport" 3196: 2984: 2920: 2815: 2333: 1989: 1860: 1858: 1856: 1854: 1852: 1584: 1582: 1580: 1578: 5160: 5107: 5032: 4993: 4929: 4637: 4480: 3972:

Forrester, Donald J. (1980). "Hematozoa and Mallophaga from the White Ibis,

3823: 3284: 2878: 1333: 1050: 1026: 1021: 1017: 644: 508: 489: 378: 350: 326: 165: 105: 46: 19:

This article is about the American white ibis. For the Australian bird, see

5510: 4299: 4252: 4206: 4188: 2912: 2892:

Herring, Garth; Gawlik, Dale E.; Cook, Mark. I.; Beerens, James M. (2010).

4079: 4005: 3947: 3847:"Effects of Fires on Foraging and Breeding Wading Birds in the Everglades" 3386:

Kushlan, James A. (1980). "Prey Choice by Tactile-Foraging Wading Birds".

2620:

Milne-Edwards, with a review of fossil ibises (Aves: Threskiornithidae)".

1905: 749:. It also occurs throughout the Caribbean, on both coasts of Mexico (from 5314: 4964: 3188: 1625:(in Latin). Holmiae (Stockholm, Sweden): Laurentius Salvius. p. 145. 1506: 1325: 1308:

have been recovered from the American white ibis, predominantly from the

1187:, fish and crustaceans, while the latter eat a much higher proportion of 1121: 972: 836: 754: 653: 393: 389: 322: 125: 5611: 385:. The two have been classified by some authorities as a single species. 5448: 5146: 4539: 4534: 4071: 3997: 3922:

Spalding, Marilyn G.; Atkinson, Carter T.; Carleton, Renee E. (1994). "

3873: 3831: 3788: 3752: 3698: 3659: 3488: 3438: 3399: 3369: 3292: 3147: 3074: 3032: 2765: 2747:"Responses of Male White Ibises to Their Mate's Extra-Pair Copulations" 2728: 2667: 2602: 2552: 2468: 2192: 2161: 2048: 1827: 1476: 1337: 1329: 1317: 1141: 1133: 1082: 907: 845: 840: 832: 817: 804: 780: 580:, and acknowledge that more investigation is needed to determine this. 566: 362: 342: 338: 50: 3899:

n. sp (Digenea: Echinostomatidae: Nephrostominae) From the White Ibis

3637: 3635: 2659: 955: 520:). There has long been debate on whether the two should be considered 475: 407:

and both parents care for the young, although males tend to engage in

4244: 3523: 3242: 1502: 1192: 1188: 1137: 1091: 792: 649: 612: 562: 545: 115: 5484: 5291: 4385:

HurricaneSports.com – The University of Miami Official Athletic Site

4355:

HurricaneSports.com – The University of Miami Official Athletic Site

4063: 4032: 3989: 3744: 3690: 3472: 3430: 3361: 3066: 2594: 2544: 2460: 1819: 1016:

The breeding success of the American white ibis is sensitive to the

419:

food from unmated females and juveniles during the breeding season.

399:

During the breeding season, the American white ibis gathers in huge

5409: 4422: 3804:"Energetic Consequences of Sexual Size Dimorphism in White Ibises ( 2141:

De Santo, Toni L.; McDowell, Susan G.; Bildstein, Keith L. (1990).

839:

swamps are preferred. It is also commonly found in muddy pools, on

5404: 5135: 4523: 3643: 3345: 3131: 3051:"Chronic Tidally-Induced Nest Failure in a Colony of White Ibises" 3050: 2578: 2387:

Frederick, P. C.; Bildstein, K. L.; Fleury, B.; Ogden, J. (1996).

1770:

Hancock, James; Kushlan, James A. (2010) . "American White Ibis".

1396: 1270: 1257: 1240: 1222: 1111: 1036: 1003: 954: 912: 897: 763: 758: 732: 716: 599: 587: 577: 469: 354: 5422: 3845:

Epanchin, Peter N.; Heath, Julie A.; Frederick, Peter C. (2002).

3803: 3772: 3674: 3346:"Food Habits of the Scarlet and White Ibis in the Orinoco Plains" 3268: 3016: 2712: 2308:

Schell, Edward H. (1968). "A First Ohio Record of the White Ibis

1356:

is carried in crayfish and infests both adult and juvenile ibis.

768:

Adult American white ibis on pavement outside of Orlando, Florida

4504: 4476: 3452:

Bildstein, Keith L.; Blood, Elizabeth; Frederick, Peter (1992).

1376: 1261: 1179: 1140:, located in Colombia and Venezuela, the most frequent prey are 828:

had inundated nearby freshwater foraging areas with salt water.

796:

have fluctuated greatly with wholesale movement between states.

791:

is an isolated and regionally important wetland in the state of

366: 310: 306: 135: 5295: 5103: 4500: 4448: 4278:) in Response to Chronic Experimental Methylmercury Exposure". 2687:. Toronto, Ontario: Royal Ontario Museum. pp. 28–32, 154. 540:

was a large factor in the view that the species were separate.

4416: 2789:"Multiple nest-tending behavior in an adult female White Ibis" 1395:, have been recovered from under the skin. Two species of the 967:

The American white ibis pairs up in spring and breeds in huge

856:

Remains similar to the American white ibis have been found in

709:, which is much larger and its wings have more black on them. 676:

of the American white ibis is a honking sound, transcribed as

2389:"Conservation of Large, Nomadic Populations of White Ibises ( 2143:"Plumage and Behavioral Development of Nestling White Ibises" 1163:

to the neighboring estuary as other environmental processes.

942:, defending the nesting and display sites against intruders. 635:

The newly hatched American white ibis is covered with violet

2217:. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 4147:

10.1642/0004-8038(2005)122[0255:RAMCHA]2.0.CO;2

3866:

10.1676/0043-5643(2002)114[0139:EOFOFA]2.0.CO;2

2856:"Extrapair Copulations in the Mating System of White Ibis ( 2808:

10.1675/1524-4695(2007)030[0150:MNBIAA]2.0.CO;2

1961:

Herring, Garth; Gawlik, Dale E.; Beerens, James M. (2008).

1865:

Kushlan, James A.; Bildstein, Keith L. (10 February 2009).

1845:. Washington D.C.: National Geographic Society. p. 56. 1501:

adopted the American white ibis as its official athletics

3559:

10.1675/1524-4695(2005)28[531:IPIJWI]2.0.CO;2

1982:

10.1675/1524-4695(2008)31[298:SDFTGE]2.0.CO;2

3159: 3157: 1929:"White Ibis Integument Color During the Breeding Season" 1245:

Adult white ibis foraging for food in a front garden in

989:

time the behavior has been documented for this species.

4177:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

2209:

Peterson, Roger Tory; Peterson, Virginia Marie (2002).

1678:. Sarasota, Florida: Pineapple Press. pp. 151–55. 824:, dropped from 10,000 to zero between 1989 and 1990 as 2579:"Feeding Ecology and Prey Selection in the White Ibis" 1963:"Sex Determination for the Great Egret and White Ibis" 648:

The irises have turned slate-gray by this stage. Once

5245: 5304: 5158: 5134: 5067: 5030: 5007: 4962: 4927: 4904: 4881: 4858: 4803: 4738: 4715: 4680: 4635: 4551: 4522: 3926:sp. in Wading Birds (Ciconiiformes) from Florida". 2498: 1675:

Common Coastal Birds of Florida & the Caribbean

1369:of adult American white ibis, and another species, 917:

American White Ibis Juveniles in Dade City, Florida

2713:"Population Energetics of the American White Ibis" 2496: 2494: 2492: 2490: 2488: 2486: 2484: 2482: 2480: 2478: 2210: 1738:. Edinburgh, Scotland: A. Black. pp. 176–180. 1561:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22697411A188454802.en 1290:Causes of death of adult ibis are not well known. 992:Although the American white ibis is predominantly 430:behavior and leading to lower reproduction rates. 4439:at Neotropical Birds (Cornell Lab of Ornithology) 1640:(5th ed.). London: Cassell Ltd. p. 33. 835:, although shallow coastal marshes, wetlands and 831:The American white ibis is found in a variety of 775:In North America, breeding takes place along the 3613:White, C. LeAnn; Main, Martin B. (August 2009). 2616:Olson, S. L. (1981). "The generic allocation of 1073:), gulls, and possibly vultures, as well as the 2347:Mellink, Eric; Riojas-Lopez, Monica E. (2008). 2249: 2247: 2245: 2243: 2241: 1904:. National Audubon Society, Inc. Archived from 1423:The American white ibis is classed as being of 628:of 6.75–11.3 cm (2.66–4.45 in) and a 5702:Native birds of the Southeastern United States 3967: 3965: 3895:Dronen, Norman O.; Blend, Charles K. (2008). " 2435: 2433: 2431: 2429: 4460: 2204: 2202: 1699:Feduccia, Alan; Peterson, Russell W. (1999). 1205:J. N. "Ding" Darling National Wildlife Refuge 8: 4171:Frederick, Peter; Jayasena, Nilmini (2011). 3164:Adams, Evan M.; Frederick, Peter C. (2009). 2440:Frederick, Peter C.; Ogden, John C. (1997). 1765: 1234:Video of adults foraging on Bonita Beach in 438:The American white ibis was one of the many 317:. It is found from the southern half of the 4357:. University of Miami. 2011. Archived from 4094:"BirdLife International Species Factsheet: 3388:Proceedings of the Colonial Waterbird Group 1763: 1761: 1759: 1757: 1755: 1753: 1751: 1749: 1747: 1745: 473: 5292: 5140: 5131: 5100: 4528: 4519: 4497: 4467: 4453: 4445: 3344:Aguilera, E.; Ramo, C.; Busto, B. (1993). 2213:Birds of Eastern and Central North America 1772:Storks, Ibises and Spoonbills of the World 1667: 1665: 1663: 1661: 1659: 1657: 218: 67: 36: 27: 4196: 3773:"Intraspecific Food Piracy in White Ibis" 3015:Frederick, P. C.; Collopy, M. W. (1989). 2641: 2120:Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce 1843:Field Guide to the Birds of North America 1559: 3673:Courser, W. D.; Dinsmore, J. J. (1975). 2787:Herring, Garth; Gawlik, Dale E. (2007). 2505:"White Ibis: Demography and Populations" 779:, from the southern New Jersey south to 5252: 4220:Adams, E. M.; Frederick, P. C. (2008). 4122:Heath, J. A.; Frederick, P. C. (2005). 3417:) Breeding in Coastal South Carolina". 3267:Shields, M. A.; Parnell, J. F. (1986). 3132:"Feeding Rhythm in Nestling White Ibis" 1927:Heath, J. A.; Frederick, P. C. (2006). 1525: 1350:, while the thorny headed worm species 1120:The American white ibis prefers to eat 984:period, the male undergoes a period of 739:Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge 4233:Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 3903:(Threskiornithidae) from Texas, USA". 3170:) nestlings during a starvation event" 3166:"Sex-related mortality of White Ibis ( 2289:. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University 2095:. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University 1902:National Audubon Society Birds website 1793: 1791: 1597:. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University 1531: 1529: 632:of 11–16.9 cm (4.3–6.7 in). 4425:at eBird (Cornell Lab of Ornithology) 4387:. University of Miami. Archived from 4319: 4317: 3644:"Foraging Behavior of the White Ibis" 2030:"Sexual Dimorphism in the White Ibis" 1724: 1722: 1346:, is borne in the fiddler crab as an 411:with other females to increase their 45:An American white ibis wading in the 7: 1166:The American white ibis is found in 524:or closely related species, and the 403:near water. Pairs are predominantly 5687:IUCN Red List least concern species 5472:american-white-ibis-eudocimus-albus 4324:Blitman, Andrew (26 October 2008). 3675:"Foraging Associates of White Ibis" 2754:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 2420:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10010203.x 1705:. UNC Press Books. pp. 28–29. 1702:Catesby's Birds of Colonial America 1547:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2622:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 2066:. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. 2062:Dunning Jr., John B., ed. (1992). 864:formation in central Florida, and 741:near the Atlantic coast of Florida 512:, whose only other species is the 14: 3905:Revista Mexicana de Biodiversidad 2064:CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses 1211:in Florida. An isolated event of 822:Georgetown County, South Carolina 440:bird species originally described 5279: 5267: 5255: 2977:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2011.01101.x 1948:10.1111/j.1557-9263.2006.00034.x 1359:Parasitic protozoa of the genus 415:. Males have also been found to 92: 5712:Birds of the Dominican Republic 4413:American white ibises on Arkive 1841:Scott, Shirley L., ed. (1983). 1536:BirdLife International (2021). 596:, South Carolina, United States 3580:Kushlan, Jim (31 March 2011). 2652:10.1080/02724634.1981.10011888 959:Birds roosting in a tree near 526:American Ornithologists' Union 373:range runs along the Gulf and 361:, possessing an overall white 1: 3512:Wilson Journal of Ornithology 3117:10.1016/j.ecolind.2008.10.012 2681:Campbell, Kenneth E. (1979). 2509:Birds of North America Online 2260:Birds of North America Online 1871:Birds of North America Online 1437:Moderate Conservation Concern 1435:in Florida, and a species of 1365:have been recovered from the 1256:The American white ibis is a 1168:mixed-species foraging flocks 902:American white Ibis birds in 4509:subfamily: Threskiornithinae 4433:at VIREO (Drexel University) 3928:Journal of Wildlife Diseases 3777:Journal of Field Ornithology 2362:(1): 391–397. Archived from 2356:Revista de Biología Tropical 2281:Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 2087:Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 1936:Journal of Field Ornithology 1591:"White Ibis, Identification" 1589:Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 1415:, also parasitise the bird. 886:that differed slightly from 5747:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus 4423:Explore Species: White Ibis 4415:. Shows videos made by the 4052:The Journal of Parasitology 4021:Canadian Journal of Zoology 3978:The Journal of Parasitology 2314:The Ohio Journal of Science 938:The American white ibis is 816:size and quality of nearby 737:Adults in shallow water at 594:Huntington Beach State Park 321:(from southern New Jersey, 5763: 4437:White ibis species account 3320:10.1675/1524-4695-31.3.417 2089:"White Ibis, Life History" 1638:Cassell's Latin Dictionary 1487: 1463:is a globally distributed 1433:Species of Special Concern 1274:victims of this behavior. 876:in northern coastal Peru. 783:and thence west along the 721:An American white ibis at 528:considers the two to be a 18: 5143: 5130: 5099: 4531: 4518: 4496: 4292:10.1007/s10646-010-0586-9 3940:10.7589/0090-3558-30.1.29 3802:Bildstein, K. L. (1987). 3771:Frederick, P. C. (1985). 3049:Frederick, P. C. (1987). 2854:Frederick, P. C. (1987). 2745:Frederick, P. C. (1987). 1774:. London: A&C Black. 1672:Nellis, David W. (2001). 1554:: e.T22697411A188454802. 1304:A total of 51 species of 1203:(stealing) from them, in 1067:black-crowned night heron 456:, where it was given the 255: 248: 226: 217: 194: 187: 89:Scientific classification 87: 65: 56: 44: 35: 30: 5707:Birds of Central America 5043:Moloka'i flightless ibis 4431:White ibis photo gallery 4100:. BirdLife International 2326:1811/5355/V68N01_017.pdf 1495:Native American folklore 1010:Everglades National Park 713:Distribution and habitat 5742:Birds described in 1758 5212:Yellow-billed spoonbill 4475:Traditional listing of 3642:Kushlan, J. A. (1977). 3130:Kushlan, J. A. (1976). 2879:10.1163/156853987X00125 2711:Kushlan, J. A. (1977). 2577:Kushlan, J. A. (1979). 2393:) in the United States" 2028:Kushlan, J. A. (1977). 1406:Plegadiphilus eudocimus 1386:Phalacrodectes whartoni 1343:Skrjabinoclavia thapari 1324:(thorny headed worms), 1310:gastrointestinal system 1286:Parasites and mortality 1236:Bonita Springs, Florida 536:. The lack of observed 16:Bird in the ibis family 4610:) and supporting page 4326:"The Tale of the Ibis" 4189:10.1098/rspb.2010.2189 2913:10.1525/auk.2010.09144 2256:"White Ibis: Behavior" 2122:. Fort Pierce, Florida 1802:) and the White Ibis ( 1636:Simpson, D.P. (1979). 1392:Neoattialges eudocimae 1372:Haemoproteus plataleae 1249: 1238: 1183:former consuming more 1117: 1042: 1013: 964: 918: 910: 807:, Louisiana, and then 769: 757:, and west to eastern 742: 730: 615: 597: 565:that allows uptake of 474: 5697:Birds of the Americas 5633:Paleobiology Database 5182:Black-faced spoonbill 4657:White-shouldered ibis 4604:Australian white ibis 4419:natural history unit. 3824:10.1093/auk/104.4.771 3285:10.1093/auk/103.3.531 3097:Ecological Indicators 1488:Further information: 1353:Southwellina dimorpha 1312:and particularly the 1244: 1233: 1115: 1079:Didelphis marsupialis 1071:Nycticorax nycticorax 1040: 1007: 998:extra-pair copulation 958: 951:Breeding and lifespan 916: 901: 882:was described from a 767: 736: 720: 603: 591: 409:extra-pair copulation 21:Australian white ibis 5054:Maui flightless ibis 4616:T. moluccus pygmaeus 4573:Malagasy sacred ibis 4538:(prefix † indicates 4381:"Sebastian the Ibis" 3189:10.1675/063.032.0114 2511:. Cornell University 2400:Conservation Biology 2283:"White Ibis, Sounds" 2262:. Cornell University 2233:American White Ibis. 1873:. Cornell University 1247:Port Orange, Florida 1176:Plegadis falcinellus 879:Eudocimus peruvianus 609:Boca Chica, Chiriquí 413:reproductive success 31:American white ibis 4939:American white ibis 4612:Solomons white ibis 4563:African sacred ibis 4330:The Miami Hurricane 3854:The Wilson Bulletin 3733:Colonial Waterbirds 3714:The Wilson Bulletin 3648:The Wilson Bulletin 3419:Colonial Waterbirds 3235:1985Natur.313..131C 3136:The Wilson Bulletin 3109:2009EcInd...9..S83F 2634:1981JVPal...1..165O 2533:Colonial Waterbirds 2449:Colonial Waterbirds 2412:1996ConBi..10..203F 2150:The Wilson Bulletin 2037:The Wilson Bulletin 1908:on 23 November 2011 1808:Colonial Waterbirds 1730:Audubon, John James 1499:University of Miami 1116:Adult eating a fish 1089:), and rat snakes ( 1059:boat-tailed grackle 1041:Juvenile in Florida 692:as a begging call. 504:Johann Georg Wagler 297:American white ibis 286:Linnaeus, 1766 278:Linnaeus, 1766 270:Linnaeus, 1758 262:Linnaeus, 1758 237: Non-Breeding 59:Conservation status 5722:Birds of Venezuela 5172:Eurasian spoonbill 4770:Spot-breasted ibis 4702:Southern bald ibis 4692:Northern bald ibis 3897:Patagifer lamothei 2766:10.1007/BF00292503 1490:Sebastian the Ibis 1471:disruptor. In the 1448:John James Audubon 1298:Typha angustifolia 1250: 1239: 1201:kleptoparasitizing 1197:Tringa semipalmata 1118: 1043: 1020:conditions of the 1014: 965: 919: 911: 870:Yorktown Formation 770: 743: 731: 616: 605:E. a. ramobustorum 598: 305:) is a species of 5717:Birds of Colombia 5674: 5673: 5620:Open Tree of Life 5298:Taxon identifiers 5243: 5242: 5239: 5238: 5235: 5234: 5222:Roseate spoonbill 5192:African spoonbill 5154: 5153: 5095: 5094: 5091: 5090: 4868:Sharp-tailed ibis 4622:Straw-necked ibis 4598:T. melanocephalus 4594:Black-headed ibis 4547: 4546: 4489:Threskiornithidae 4183:(1713): 1851–57. 3976:L., in Florida". 2694:978-0-88854-230-4 2228:978-0-395-74046-0 2114:Hill, K. (2001). 2073:978-0-8493-4258-5 1806:) in Venezuela". 1781:978-1-4081-3500-6 1712:978-0-8078-4816-6 1685:978-1-56164-191-8 1647:978-0-304-52257-6 1505:in 1926, and the 1412:Ardeicola robusta 1348:intermediate host 1280:sexual dimorphism 1231: 1128:, but also takes 1055:Corvus ossifragus 621:sexual dimorphism 315:Threskiornithidae 293: 292: 231: Year-round 156:Threskiornithidae 82: 5754: 5727:Birds of Ecuador 5667: 5666: 5654: 5653: 5641: 5640: 5628: 5627: 5615: 5614: 5602: 5601: 5592: 5591: 5579: 5578: 5566: 5565: 5563:NHMSYS0020788953 5553: 5552: 5540: 5539: 5527: 5526: 5514: 5513: 5501: 5500: 5488: 5487: 5475: 5474: 5462: 5461: 5452: 5451: 5439: 5438: 5426: 5425: 5413: 5412: 5400: 5399: 5387: 5386: 5377: 5376: 5364: 5363: 5351: 5350: 5340: 5339: 5338: 5325: 5324: 5323: 5293: 5284: 5283: 5272: 5271: 5260: 5259: 5258: 5251: 5141: 5132: 5101: 4984:White-faced ibis 4835:Black-faced ibis 4825:Buff-necked ibis 4529: 4520: 4498: 4469: 4462: 4455: 4446: 4401: 4400: 4398: 4396: 4377: 4371: 4370: 4368: 4366: 4361:on 10 March 2011 4347: 4341: 4340: 4338: 4336: 4321: 4312: 4311: 4271: 4265: 4264: 4245:10.1897/07-466.1 4239:(8): 1708–1712. 4230: 4217: 4211: 4210: 4200: 4168: 4159: 4158: 4132: 4119: 4110: 4109: 4107: 4105: 4090: 4084: 4083: 4058:(6): 1321–1323. 4043: 4037: 4036: 4027:(7): 1397–1408. 4016: 4010: 4009: 3969: 3960: 3959: 3919: 3913: 3912: 3892: 3886: 3885: 3851: 3842: 3836: 3835: 3799: 3793: 3792: 3768: 3757: 3756: 3728: 3722: 3721: 3709: 3703: 3702: 3670: 3664: 3663: 3639: 3630: 3629: 3627: 3625: 3619: 3610: 3604: 3603: 3601: 3599: 3593: 3586: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3542: 3536: 3535: 3524:10.1676/06-047.1 3507: 3501: 3500: 3458: 3449: 3443: 3442: 3410: 3404: 3403: 3383: 3374: 3373: 3341: 3332: 3331: 3303: 3297: 3296: 3264: 3255: 3254: 3243:10.1038/313131a0 3229:(5998): 131–33. 3218: 3209: 3208: 3174: 3161: 3152: 3151: 3127: 3121: 3120: 3094: 3085: 3079: 3078: 3046: 3037: 3036: 3012: 3003: 3002: 3000: 2999: 2993: 2987:. Archived from 2962: 2953: 2947: 2946: 2944: 2943: 2937: 2931:. Archived from 2898: 2889: 2883: 2882: 2864: 2851: 2842: 2841: 2839: 2838: 2832: 2826:. Archived from 2793: 2784: 2778: 2777: 2751: 2742: 2733: 2732: 2708: 2699: 2698: 2678: 2672: 2671: 2645: 2613: 2607: 2606: 2574: 2557: 2556: 2527: 2521: 2520: 2518: 2516: 2500: 2473: 2472: 2446: 2437: 2424: 2423: 2397: 2384: 2378: 2377: 2375: 2374: 2368: 2353: 2344: 2338: 2337: 2305: 2299: 2298: 2296: 2294: 2278: 2272: 2271: 2269: 2267: 2251: 2236: 2235: 2216: 2206: 2197: 2196: 2172: 2166: 2165: 2147: 2138: 2132: 2131: 2129: 2127: 2111: 2105: 2104: 2102: 2100: 2084: 2078: 2077: 2059: 2053: 2052: 2034: 2025: 2016: 2015: 2013: 2012: 2006: 2000:. Archived from 1967: 1958: 1952: 1951: 1933: 1924: 1918: 1917: 1915: 1913: 1894: 1883: 1882: 1880: 1878: 1862: 1847: 1846: 1838: 1832: 1831: 1795: 1786: 1785: 1767: 1740: 1739: 1726: 1717: 1716: 1696: 1690: 1689: 1669: 1652: 1651: 1633: 1627: 1626: 1613: 1607: 1606: 1604: 1602: 1586: 1573: 1572: 1570: 1568: 1563: 1533: 1469:endocrine system 1316:. These include 1232: 1159:a third as much 874:Talara Tar Seeps 868:deposits of the 860:deposits of the 573:rather than the 479: 287: 279: 271: 263: 242: 236: 230: 222: 200: 97: 96: 76: 71: 70: 40: 28: 5762: 5761: 5757: 5756: 5755: 5753: 5752: 5751: 5677: 5676: 5675: 5670: 5664:Eudocimus-albus 5662: 5657: 5649: 5644: 5636: 5631: 5623: 5618: 5610: 5607:Observation.org 5605: 5597: 5595: 5587: 5582: 5574: 5569: 5561: 5556: 5548: 5543: 5535: 5530: 5522: 5517: 5509: 5504: 5496: 5491: 5483: 5478: 5470: 5465: 5457: 5455: 5447: 5442: 5434: 5429: 5421: 5416: 5408: 5403: 5395: 5390: 5382: 5380: 5372: 5367: 5361:Eudocimus_albus 5359: 5354: 5348: 5343: 5336:Eudocimus albus 5334: 5333: 5328: 5319: 5318: 5313: 5306:Eudocimus albus 5300: 5290: 5278: 5266: 5256: 5254: 5246: 5244: 5231: 5202:Royal spoonbill 5164: 5150: 5126: 5087: 5063: 5026: 5017:Madagascar ibis 5003: 4958: 4923: 4914:Bare-faced ibis 4900: 4877: 4854: 4819:T. caerulescens 4799: 4734: 4711: 4676: 4631: 4543: 4514: 4492: 4473: 4409: 4404: 4394: 4392: 4379: 4378: 4374: 4364: 4362: 4349: 4348: 4344: 4334: 4332: 4323: 4322: 4315: 4276:Eudocimus albus 4273: 4272: 4268: 4228: 4224:Eudocimus albus 4219: 4218: 4214: 4170: 4169: 4162: 4130: 4126:Eudocimus albus 4121: 4120: 4113: 4103: 4101: 4096:Eudocimus albus 4092: 4091: 4087: 4064:10.2307/3277992 4048:Eudocimus albus 4045: 4044: 4040: 4033:10.1139/z92-196 4018: 4017: 4013: 3990:10.2307/3280589 3974:Eudocimus albus 3971: 3970: 3963: 3921: 3920: 3916: 3901:Eudocimus albus 3894: 3893: 3889: 3849: 3844: 3843: 3839: 3806:Eudocimus albus 3801: 3800: 3796: 3770: 3769: 3760: 3745:10.2307/1520966 3730: 3729: 3725: 3711: 3710: 3706: 3691:10.2307/4084623 3672: 3671: 3667: 3641: 3640: 3633: 3623: 3621: 3617: 3612: 3611: 3607: 3597: 3595: 3594:on 21 July 2012 3591: 3584: 3579: 3578: 3574: 3544: 3543: 3539: 3509: 3508: 3504: 3473:10.2307/1352688 3456: 3451: 3450: 3446: 3431:10.2307/1521683 3415:Eudocimus albus 3412: 3411: 3407: 3385: 3384: 3377: 3362:10.2307/1369623 3343: 3342: 3335: 3305: 3304: 3300: 3266: 3265: 3258: 3220: 3219: 3212: 3172: 3168:Eudocimus albus 3163: 3162: 3155: 3129: 3128: 3124: 3092: 3087: 3086: 3082: 3067:10.2307/1368495 3048: 3047: 3040: 3014: 3013: 3006: 2997: 2995: 2991: 2960: 2955: 2954: 2950: 2941: 2939: 2935: 2896: 2891: 2890: 2886: 2862: 2858:Eudocimus albus 2853: 2852: 2845: 2836: 2834: 2830: 2791: 2786: 2785: 2781: 2749: 2744: 2743: 2736: 2710: 2709: 2702: 2695: 2680: 2679: 2675: 2643:10.1.1.510.7434 2615: 2614: 2610: 2595:10.2307/1366963 2576: 2575: 2560: 2545:10.2307/1521504 2529: 2528: 2524: 2514: 2512: 2502: 2501: 2476: 2461:10.2307/1521699 2444: 2439: 2438: 2427: 2395: 2391:Eudocimus albus 2386: 2385: 2381: 2372: 2370: 2366: 2351: 2346: 2345: 2341: 2310:Eudocimus albus 2307: 2306: 2302: 2292: 2290: 2287:All About Birds 2280: 2279: 2275: 2265: 2263: 2253: 2252: 2239: 2229: 2208: 2207: 2200: 2177:Eudocimus albus 2174: 2173: 2169: 2145: 2140: 2139: 2135: 2125: 2123: 2113: 2112: 2108: 2098: 2096: 2093:All About Birds 2086: 2085: 2081: 2074: 2061: 2060: 2056: 2032: 2027: 2026: 2019: 2010: 2008: 2004: 1965: 1960: 1959: 1955: 1931: 1926: 1925: 1921: 1911: 1909: 1896: 1895: 1886: 1876: 1874: 1864: 1863: 1850: 1840: 1839: 1835: 1820:10.2307/1521240 1804:Eudocimus albus 1800:Eudocimus ruber 1797: 1796: 1789: 1782: 1769: 1768: 1743: 1728: 1727: 1720: 1713: 1698: 1697: 1693: 1686: 1671: 1670: 1655: 1648: 1635: 1634: 1630: 1615: 1614: 1610: 1600: 1598: 1595:All About Birds 1588: 1587: 1576: 1566: 1564: 1540:Eudocimus albus 1535: 1534: 1527: 1523: 1492: 1486: 1445: 1421: 1314:small intestine 1288: 1223: 1221: 1130:aquatic insects 1110: 1063:Quiscalus major 961:St. Johns River 953: 896: 884:tarsometatarsus 858:Middle Pliocene 854: 789:Laguna Cuyutlán 751:Baja California 747:breeding colony 715: 698: 696:Similar species 586: 453:Systema Naturae 436: 302:Eudocimus albus 285: 283:Tantalus fuscus 277: 269: 261: 244: 240: 238: 234: 232: 228: 213: 202: 198:Eudocimus albus 196: 183: 91: 83: 72: 68: 61: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5760: 5758: 5750: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5734: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5679: 5678: 5672: 5671: 5669: 5668: 5655: 5642: 5629: 5616: 5603: 5593: 5580: 5567: 5554: 5541: 5528: 5515: 5502: 5489: 5476: 5463: 5453: 5440: 5427: 5414: 5401: 5388: 5378: 5365: 5352: 5341: 5326: 5310: 5308: 5302: 5301: 5296: 5289: 5288: 5276: 5264: 5241: 5240: 5237: 5236: 5233: 5232: 5230: 5229: 5219: 5209: 5199: 5189: 5179: 5168: 5166: 5156: 5155: 5152: 5151: 5144: 5138: 5128: 5127: 5125: 5124: 5123: 5122: 5116: 5104: 5097: 5096: 5093: 5092: 5089: 5088: 5086: 5085: 5082:X. xympithecus 5073: 5071: 5065: 5064: 5062: 5061: 5050: 5038: 5036: 5028: 5027: 5025: 5024: 5013: 5011: 5005: 5004: 5002: 5001: 4991: 4981: 4978:P. falcinellus 4970: 4968: 4960: 4959: 4957: 4956: 4946: 4935: 4933: 4925: 4924: 4922: 4921: 4910: 4908: 4902: 4901: 4899: 4898: 4895:M. cayennensis 4887: 4885: 4879: 4878: 4876: 4875: 4864: 4862: 4856: 4855: 4853: 4852: 4842: 4832: 4822: 4815:Plumbeous ibis 4811: 4809: 4801: 4800: 4798: 4797: 4794:B. carunculata 4787: 4777: 4767: 4757: 4746: 4744: 4736: 4735: 4733: 4732: 4721: 4719: 4713: 4712: 4710: 4709: 4699: 4688: 4686: 4678: 4677: 4675: 4674: 4664: 4654: 4647:Red-naped ibis 4643: 4641: 4633: 4632: 4630: 4629: 4626:T. spinicollis 4619: 4601: 4591: 4580: 4570: 4567:T. aethiopicus 4559: 4557: 4549: 4548: 4545: 4544: 4532: 4526: 4516: 4515: 4513: 4512: 4511: 4510: 4501: 4494: 4493: 4474: 4472: 4471: 4464: 4457: 4449: 4441: 4440: 4434: 4427: 4426: 4420: 4408: 4407:External links 4405: 4403: 4402: 4391:on 19 May 2011 4372: 4342: 4313: 4286:(2): 358–364. 4266: 4212: 4160: 4141:(1): 255–267. 4111: 4085: 4038: 4011: 3961: 3914: 3887: 3860:(1): 139–141. 3837: 3818:(4): 771–775. 3794: 3783:(4): 413–414. 3758: 3723: 3704: 3685:(3): 599–601. 3665: 3654:(2): 342–345. 3631: 3605: 3572: 3537: 3518:(4): 758–760. 3502: 3444: 3425:(2): 167–176. 3405: 3375: 3356:(3): 739–741. 3333: 3298: 3279:(3): 531–539. 3256: 3210: 3183:(1): 123–127. 3153: 3142:(4): 656–658. 3122: 3103:(6): S83–S95. 3080: 3061:(2): 413–419. 3038: 3027:(4): 625–634. 3004: 2971:(2): 323–335. 2948: 2907:(3): 660–670. 2884: 2873:(1): 170–201. 2843: 2802:(1): 150–151. 2779: 2760:(4): 223–228. 2734: 2723:(1): 114–122. 2700: 2693: 2673: 2628:(2): 165–170. 2608: 2589:(4): 376–389. 2558: 2522: 2474: 2455:(2): 316–323. 2425: 2379: 2339: 2300: 2273: 2237: 2227: 2198: 2187:(1): 244–246. 2167: 2133: 2106: 2079: 2072: 2054: 2017: 1976:(2): 298–303. 1953: 1942:(2): 141–150. 1919: 1884: 1848: 1833: 1787: 1780: 1741: 1718: 1711: 1691: 1684: 1653: 1646: 1628: 1617:Linnaeus, Carl 1608: 1574: 1524: 1522: 1519: 1485: 1482: 1459:The pollutant 1444: 1441: 1420: 1417: 1379:of the family 1367:smooth muscles 1328:(roundworms), 1322:Acanthocephala 1306:parasitic worm 1287: 1284: 1220: 1217: 1209:Sanibel Island 1151:prey switching 1109: 1106: 1075:common opossum 952: 949: 895: 892: 866:Lower Pliocene 853: 850: 826:Hurricane Hugo 813:South Carolina 777:Atlantic coast 723:Riverside Park 714: 711: 697: 694: 585: 582: 462:Scolopax albus 435: 432: 375:Atlantic Coast 291: 290: 289: 288: 280: 275:Tantalus albus 272: 267:Scolopax fusca 264: 253: 252: 246: 245: 239: 233: 227: 224: 223: 215: 214: 203: 192: 191: 185: 184: 177: 175: 171: 170: 163: 159: 158: 153: 149: 148: 146:Pelecaniformes 143: 139: 138: 133: 129: 128: 123: 119: 118: 113: 109: 108: 103: 99: 98: 85: 84: 66: 63: 62: 57: 54: 53: 42: 41: 33: 32: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5759: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5684: 5682: 5665: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5594: 5590: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5533: 5529: 5525: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5454: 5450: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5379: 5375: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5357: 5353: 5346: 5342: 5337: 5331: 5327: 5322: 5316: 5312: 5311: 5309: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5294: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5275: 5270: 5265: 5263: 5253: 5249: 5227: 5223: 5220: 5217: 5213: 5210: 5207: 5203: 5200: 5197: 5193: 5190: 5187: 5183: 5180: 5177: 5176:P. leucorodia 5173: 5170: 5169: 5167: 5163: 5162: 5157: 5149: 5148: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5121: 5117: 5115: 5111: 5110: 5109: 5106: 5105: 5102: 5098: 5083: 5079: 5078:Jamaican ibis 5075: 5074: 5072: 5070: 5066: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5039: 5037: 5035: 5034: 5029: 5022: 5018: 5015: 5014: 5012: 5010: 5006: 4999: 4995: 4992: 4989: 4985: 4982: 4979: 4975: 4972: 4971: 4969: 4967: 4966: 4961: 4954: 4950: 4947: 4944: 4940: 4937: 4936: 4934: 4932: 4931: 4926: 4919: 4918:P. infuscatus 4915: 4912: 4911: 4909: 4907: 4903: 4896: 4892: 4889: 4888: 4886: 4884: 4883:Mesembrinibis 4880: 4873: 4869: 4866: 4865: 4863: 4861: 4857: 4850: 4846: 4843: 4840: 4836: 4833: 4830: 4826: 4823: 4820: 4816: 4813: 4812: 4810: 4808: 4807: 4802: 4795: 4791: 4788: 4785: 4781: 4778: 4775: 4771: 4768: 4765: 4761: 4760:São Tomé ibis 4758: 4755: 4751: 4748: 4747: 4745: 4743: 4742: 4737: 4730: 4726: 4723: 4722: 4720: 4718: 4714: 4707: 4703: 4700: 4697: 4693: 4690: 4689: 4687: 4685: 4684: 4679: 4672: 4668: 4665: 4662: 4658: 4655: 4652: 4648: 4645: 4644: 4642: 4640: 4639: 4634: 4627: 4623: 4620: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4602: 4599: 4595: 4592: 4589: 4588:T. solitarius 4585: 4581: 4578: 4574: 4571: 4568: 4564: 4561: 4560: 4558: 4556: 4555: 4550: 4541: 4537: 4536: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4508: 4507: 4506: 4503: 4502: 4499: 4495: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4470: 4465: 4463: 4458: 4456: 4451: 4450: 4447: 4443: 4438: 4435: 4432: 4429: 4428: 4424: 4421: 4418: 4414: 4411: 4410: 4406: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4376: 4373: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4346: 4343: 4331: 4327: 4320: 4318: 4314: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4280:Ecotoxicology 4277: 4270: 4267: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4227: 4225: 4216: 4213: 4208: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4167: 4165: 4161: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4129: 4127: 4118: 4116: 4112: 4099: 4097: 4089: 4086: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4042: 4039: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4015: 4012: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3968: 3966: 3962: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3918: 3915: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3891: 3888: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3848: 3841: 3838: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3807: 3798: 3795: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3767: 3765: 3763: 3759: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3727: 3724: 3719: 3715: 3708: 3705: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3669: 3666: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3638: 3636: 3632: 3616: 3609: 3606: 3590: 3583: 3576: 3573: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3553:(4): 531–32. 3552: 3548: 3541: 3538: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3506: 3503: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3455: 3448: 3445: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3409: 3406: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3382: 3380: 3376: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3340: 3338: 3334: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3314:(3): 417–23. 3313: 3309: 3302: 3299: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3263: 3261: 3257: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3217: 3215: 3211: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3171: 3169: 3160: 3158: 3154: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3126: 3123: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3091: 3084: 3081: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3045: 3043: 3039: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3011: 3009: 3005: 2994:on 2014-04-24 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2959: 2952: 2949: 2938:on 2014-04-24 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2895: 2888: 2885: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2861: 2859: 2850: 2848: 2844: 2833:on 2014-04-24 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2790: 2783: 2780: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 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