Ancient Rome and wine

1240:; the latter were supposed to have no interest in personal profits. Equestrian entrepreneurs often acted as agents and negotiators for landowners of the senatorial class, whose estates, large or small, were traditionally used to provide grain, olives and other food staples, not ingredients for luxuries such as wine production. Viticulture involved a very different set of skills, practices, abilities and landscapes than traditional agriculture, and a deal of expense at harvest-time, for picking, pressing and storage. The yields were notoriously unpredictable. For a large estate, a bad season's losses could be enormous, or the profits exceed what was considered proper for an aristocratic farmer-citizen. Very large wine estates were therefore quite rare, and the lowest risk investment strategy was an exchange of small, specialist properties already in production, along with the equipment, knowledge and skills that came with them, a ready-made wine estate. Considering the disinhibiting, even disabling effects of alcohol, any investment in commercial-scale wine production by Rome's ruling class was also of doubtful morality. Purcell suggests that for these reasons, Rome's upper classes were committed to refinement and high quality, and had only marginal open involvement in high volume wine production and the wine trade until the Imperial era. 1308:), the oldest surviving work of Latin prose. He comments in detail on viticulture and winemaking. He believes that grapes produce the best wine when they receive the maximum amount of sunshine, so he recommends that vines be trained in trees as high as possible and have all leaves removed once the grapes begin to ripen. He advises winemakers to wait until the grapes are fully ripe before harvesting, to ensure high quality in the wine and thus maintain the reputation of the wine estate. Inferior and sour wines should be reserved for the work-hands. Cato claimed that vineyard cultivation was the only profitable agricultural use for slaves; if they became unproductive for any reason, their rations should be cut. Once they were worn out, they should be sold on. 2008: 881: 2232: 589: 30: 828: 1937: 442: 1043: 2575: 1150: 371: 492:. The intent of the edict was that fewer vineyards would result in only enough wine for domestic consumption, with little or no surplus for foreign trade. While vineyards were already established in these growing wine regions, the ignoring of trade considerations may have suppressed the spread of viticulture and winemaking in these areas. Domitian's edict remained in effect for nearly two centuries until Emperor 660: 477: 2187:. Wine might be watered by more than half its volume, possibly for taste or purification. Excessive drinking of undilute wine was thought barbaric and foolish; on the other hand, undilute wine was thought to be beneficial and "warming" for old men. Throughout Rome's Republican and Imperial eras, the offering of good wine to guests at banquets was a mark of the host's generosity, wealth and prestige. 1600:, the first volume of which was an introduction to basic farming principles. The 12 volumes following were dedicated to each month of the calendar and the specific agricultural tasks to be performed in that month. While Palladius deals with a variety of agricultural crops, he devotes more discussion to the practices of the vineyard than to any other. The last two volumes treat mostly 1680:. The crushed grapes were placed between the beams, with pressure applied by winding down the windlass. The pressed juice ran down between the beams and collected in the basin. As the construction and use of a wine press was labor-intensive and expensive, its use was generally restricted to large estates, with smaller wineries relying on treading alone to obtain grape juice. 2561: 2589: 1325: 2191:

become old, or sick and unproductive, Cato advised halving their rations. The widespread planting of grapevines reflects the increase in demand for wine among all classes; the expanding market for wine also reflects an overall change in Roman diets. In the 2nd century BC, Romans began to shift from meals consisting of moist

2183:) both of whom exported wine, and held viticulture in high esteem. Though Rome was still probably very "dry" by Greek standards, Roman attitudes to wine were drastically changed by the establishment and growth of empire. Wine had religious, medicinal and social roles that set it apart from other ingredients of 1643: 1450:

all derived from this practice. Due to the dangers in working on and pruning vines trained this way, however, he advised not using slaves, who were costly to buy and maintain, but rather vineyard workers hired with a stipulation in their contract to cover grave and funeral expenses. He described some

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Versnel, H. S., "The Festival for Bona Dea and the Thesmophoria", Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association, Greece & Rome, Second Series, Vol. 39, No. 1 (Apr. 1992), pp. 32, 45: "the most surprising aspect is the nature of the drinks: during this exclusively female,

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During the mid-to-later Republic, wine was increasingly treated as a necessity of everyday life rather than simply a luxury enjoyed by the elite. Cato recommended that slaves should have a weekly ration of 5 liters (over a gallon), though this should be sour or otherwise inferior wine. Should slaves

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As the republic grew into empire beyond the peninsula, wine's trade and market economy echoed this growth. The wine trade in Italy consisted of Rome's sale of wine abroad to settlements and provinces around the Mediterranean Sea, yet by the end of the 1st century AD, its exports had competition from

1805:

codified the distinction between "old" and "new" as whether wine had aged for at least a year. Falernian was particularly valued for its aging ability, said to need at least 10 years to mature but being at its best between 15 and 20 years. The white wine from Surrentine was said to need at least 25

1514:

and divided into three parts, the first of which contains most of the discussion on wine and viticulture. He defines old wine as one removed from its vintage by at least a year; nonetheless, he notes that while some wines are best consumed young, especially fine wines such as Falernian are meant to

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The subsequent wine surplus created by successful efforts to relieve the wine shortage caused a depression in price, and in the medium term, damage to the interests of wine producers and traders. The loss of grain fields now contributed to a food shortage for the growing Roman population. In 92 AD,

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Cato was an early advocate for hygiene in winemaking, recommending, for example, that wine jars be wiped clean twice a day with a new broom every time; thoroughly sealing the jars after fermentation to prevent the wine from spoiling and turning into vinegar; and not filling the amphoras to the top

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Amphoras from Italy indicate that wine was regularly transported to Britain at great expense by sea, around the Iberian Peninsula. The development of wine-producing regions in Bordeaux and Germany made supplying the needs of local Roman colonists much easier and cheaper, but in Britain, no certain

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rather than at the low or diffuse angle vineyards on flatter terrain receive. Hillsides offered the added benefit of shielding vines from the cold northern winds, and the rivers' reflection offered additional warmth to aid in ripening the grapes. With the right type of grape (perhaps even an early

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The Romans looked for hillside terrain in regions near a river and an important town. Their knowledge of the sciences included the tendency for cold air to flow down a hillside and to pool in frost pockets in the valley. As these are poor conditions under which to grow grapes, they were avoided in

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The preservation of Pompeii has provided unique insights into Roman wine making and viticulture. Preserved vine roots reveal planting patterns. Whole vineyards have been excavated within the city walls (for example, at Pompei's former cattle-market, the Forum Boarium). This complements evidence of

1958:

The writings of Virgil, Pliny and Columella offer the most detail about the grape varieties used in the production of wine in the Roman empire, many of which have been lost to antiquity. While Virgil's writings often do not distinguish between a wine's name and the grape variety, he made frequent

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era, the culture of Roman winemaking was influenced by the viticultural skills and techniques of allies, and of regions conquered in Rome's expansion. The Greek settlements of southern Italy were brought under Roman control by 270 BC. The Etruscans, who had long-established, mostly maritime trade

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region. Columella mentioned many of the same grapes but noted that the same grape produced varied wines in different regions and could even be known under different names, making it hard to track. He encouraged vine growers to experiment with different plantings to find the best for their areas.

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had a devastating effect on Campana's well-established, long-distance maritime export and trade. Ports, vineyards, and the warehouses that stored the 78 AD vintage were destroyed. Prices rose sharply, making wine unaffordable to all but the most affluent, at a time when wine-drinking habits and

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Works of classical Roman writers—most notably Cato, Columella, Horace, Palladius, Pliny, Varro and Virgil—shed light on the role of wine in Roman culture as well as contemporary winemaking and viticultural practices. Some of these influential techniques can be found in modern winemaking. These

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with extreme ferocity in 186. Of some seven thousand initiates and their leaders, most were put to death. Thereafter the Bacchanalia continued in much diminished form, under the supervision of Rome's religious authorities, and were probably absorbed into Liber's cult. Despite the ban, illicit

1468:," or "There's truth in wine," referring to the often confessional loquacity of the intoxicated. This is not a commendation on Pliny's part: he regrets that the "excessive candour" of drunkards can lead to serious breaches of etiquette, and thoughtless disclosure of matters best kept private. 575:

were established, vineyards were planted to supply local need and limit the cost of long-distance trading. Roman settlements were founded and populated by retired soldiers with knowledge of Roman viticulture from their families and life before the military; vineyards were planted in their new

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Modern estimates of Roman wine consumption vary. All classes drank it, but not the very young. Women seem to have consumed less wine than men. Wine was almost always diluted before drinking, by as much as an equal volume of water, except for the elderly, libations to the gods, and alcoholics.

1439:, in that unique places produce unique wine. In his rankings of the best Roman wines, Pliny concludes that the vineyard has more influence on the resulting quality of wine than the particular vine. The early sections of Book 23 deal with some of the purported medicinal properties of wine. 524:, Romans brought with them a taste for wine and the impetus to plant vines. Trade was the first and farthest-reaching arm of their influence, and Roman wine merchants were eager to trade with enemy and ally alike—from the Carthaginians and peoples of southern Spain to the 1756:

could be added, as much as 3 kilograms (6.6 lb) recommended to sweeten 12 litres (3.2 US gal) of wine to Roman tastes. Another technique was to withhold a portion of the sweeter, unfermented must and blend it with the finished wine, a method known today as

936:. Bordeaux soon became self-sufficient enough with its own vineyards to export its own wine to Roman soldiers stationed in Britain. In the 1st century AD, Pliny the Elder mentions plantings in Bordeaux, including the Balisca grape (previously known in Spain) under the 127:, men and women alike. To ensure the steady supply of wine to Roman soldiers and colonists, viticulture and wine production spread to every part of the empire. The economic opportunities presented by trading in wine drew merchants to do business with tribes native to 1959:

mention of the Aminean grape variety, which Pliny and Columella ranked as the best in the empire. Pliny described five sub-varieties of the grape that produced similar but distinct wines, declaring it to be native to the Italian peninsula. While he claimed that only

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stakes about the height of a man. He also describes some of the wines of Roman provinces, noting the potential of wines from Spain and the Bordeaux region. Columella extols the quality of wines made from the ancient grape varieties Balisca and Biturica, believed by

1078:. A native of Bordeaux, Ausonius compared the vineyards favorably to those of his homeland and seems to indicate that viticulture had long been present in this area. The reasons for planting Rhineland were to cater to the growing demand of Roman soldiers along the 2259:, Rome's northern neighbour. They were originally occasional, women-only affairs, but became increasingly popular and frequent, and were opened to priests and initiates of both genders and all classes; they may have briefly supplanted an existing, lawful cult to 2133:

festival, during which it was freely consumed but referred to euphemistically, as "milk" or "honey". Outside of this context, ordinary wine (that is, Venus' wine) tinctured with myrtle oil was thought particularly suitable for women; myrtle was sacred to Venus.

2121:), and could therefore not be used in official sacrifice to deities of the Roman State. A sample of pure, undiluted strong wine from the first pressing was offered to Liber/Bacchus, in gratitude for his assistance in its production. The undiluted wine, known as 192:

had some influences through early settlements in southern Italy, but the earliest evidence of Greek influence dates to 800 BC. Before this, viticulture was widely entrenched in Etruscan civilization, which was centered around the modern winemaking region of

3920:, 6. 16; Varro's explicit denial that the festival belongs to Venus implies his awareness of the opposite opinion. Lipka offers this apparent contradiction as an example of two Roman cults that offer "complementary functional foci" within a single festival. 1573:

included serving a wine from the birth-year vintage at a celebration of an honored guest. He writes of serving simple wines for everyday occasions and saving celebrated wines such as Caecuban for special events. Horace answered the question posed by the

2158:("first Vinalia") of 23 April, ordinary men and women sampled the previous year's vintage of ordinary wine in Venus' name, while the Roman elite offered a generous libation of wine to Jupiter, in the hope of good weather for the next year's growth. The 2335:

prominently involves wine. The Romans drew some parallels between Bacchus and Christ. Both figures possessed narratives strongly featuring the symbolism of life after death: Bacchus in the yearly harvest and dormancy of the grape; and Christ in the

2078:. Women of the elite were expected to set the best possible example of female chastity and purity. Drunkenness could easily lead to adultery, but women who committed adultery could be lawfully punished by fines, loss of dowry or exile, at most. 1876:, a sacrificial grade, strong wine from the first pressing, was served undiluted, and was supposedly reserved for men of the Roman elite, and for offerings to the gods. Its name suggests an archaic Etruscan origin; in Rome's distant past, 576:

homelands. While it is possible that the Romans imported grapevines from Italy and Greece, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that they cultivated native vines that may be the ancestors of the grapes grown in those provinces today.

2320:, one of the positive reports about the land was that grapevines were abundant. The Jews under Roman rule accepted wine as part of their daily life, but regarded negatively the excesses that they associated with Roman "impurities". 500:

pressing and production technologies that worked in tandem with this cultivation. Some of these vineyards have been replanted in the modern era with ancient grape varieties and experimental archaeology used to recreate Roman wine.

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The influence and importance of wine in Christianity was undeniable, and soon the Church itself would take the mantle from ancient Rome as the dominant influence in the world of wine for the centuries leading to the Renaissance.

820:, the first Roman road in Gaul. The Romans established lucrative trading relations with local tribes of Gaul, despite their potential to produce wine of their own. The Gallic tribes paid high prices for Roman wine, with a single 1099:

The steep hillsides along the rivers Mosel and Rhine provided an opportunity to extend the cultivation of grapes to a northerly location. A south-southwest-facing slope maximizes the amount of sunshine vines receive, with the

683:

brought new economic opportunities to the region, elevating grapes from a private agricultural crop to an important component of a viable commercial enterprise. Spanish wine was in Bordeaux before the region produced its own.

1865:, or wine made from dried grapes or raisins, was also particularly popular and was produced in the eastern Mediterranean. It was widely used in ritual contexts and also found popularity in the kitchen and medicinal spheres. 2503:

believed that drinking wine magnified the physical and psychological defects of the drinker. Drinking wine in excess was frowned upon and those who imbibed heavily were considered dangerous to society. The Roman politician

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platform containing a shallow basin with raised curbs. The basin was shaped with gentle slopes that led to a runoff point. Horizontally across the basin were long, wooden beams whose front parts were attached by rope to a

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Book 14 deals exclusively with the subject of wine itself, including a ranking of the "first growths" of Rome. Book 17 includes a discussion of various viticultural techniques and an early formalization of the concept of

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region. While it is possible that vineyards were planted in the 1st century AD, shortly after the founding of Augustodunum, the first definitive evidence of wine production comes from an account of the visit by Emperor

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Ampelographers debate these descriptions of grapes and their possible modern counterparts or descendants. The Allobrogica grape that was used to produce the Rhone wine of Vienne may have been an early ancestor of the

358:

Phillips estimates that on average, each member of Rome's urban population (man, woman or child) consumed half a litre of undiluted wine daily. Tchernia and Van Limbergen estimate the same average consumption levels

394:

coast. An expanse of farms and vineyards covered the slopes of nearby Vesuvius, exploiting its exceptionally fertile soil to produce some of the best wines available to the Italian mainland, Rome and the Provinces.

1364:

of land and the pruning practices to ensure those yields. Many modern elements of vine training and trellising are evident in Columella's description of best practices. In his ideal vineyard, vines are planted two

2074:. Modern literature suggests that if there ever was such a prohibition it did not apply to wine and women in general, but to women of the elite classes and "particular types of wines" used in sacrifice, such as 1161:

with respect to wine is not so much viticultural as it is cultural. Throughout modern history, the British have played a key role in shaping the world of wine and defining global wine markets. Though evidence of

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demand had percolated down to the less affluent majority. The wine shortage, and the potential for increased profits, led to the hurried planting of new vineyards nearer to Rome and the replanting of existing

1132:

were eager customers for German wine until a 5th-century edict forbade the sale of wine outside of Roman settlements. Wine historian Hugh Johnson believes this might have been an added incentive for the

1995:—two grapes that produce vastly different wines. The link between these two is the Mondeuse noire synonym of Grosse Syrah. The Rhaetic grape that Virgil praised is believed to be related to the modern 1010:

The founding of France's other great wine regions is not as clear. The Romans' propensity for planting on hillsides has left archaeological evidence of Gallo-Roman vineyards in the chalk hillsides of

2437:, be soaked in wine to help with snakebites and gout. He also believed that a mixture of old wine and juniper, boiled in a lead pot, could aid in urinary issues and that mixing wine with very acidic 1928:

were the most commonly available wine for the general Roman populace and probably would have been for the most part red wines, since white wine grapes would have been reserved for the upper class.

2887:; in "What Romans Ate and How Much They Ate of It. Old and New Research on Eating Habits and Dietary Proportions in Classical Antiquity," Revue Belge de Philologie et d’Histoire 96 (2018): 1–44. 1801:

The ability to age was a desirable trait in Roman wines, with mature examples from older vintages fetching higher prices than that from the current vintage, regardless of its overall quality.

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as well as contemporary understanding of winemaking and viticultural practices. Many of the techniques and principles first developed in ancient Roman times can be found in modern winemaking.

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as his source, but Cato's own writings make no mention of this. The claimed prohibition and the consequences of its subversion have parallels in the myths pertaining to the "Women's goddess"

1586:

and the wine drinkers. His affinity for wine was such that while contemplating his death, he expressed more dread at the thought of departing from his beloved wine cellar than his wife.

1178:

evidence of an early local or provincial wine industry has been found, possibly because climate and soil conditions have not favoured its preservation. Remnants of amphora production at

135:, bringing Roman influences to these regions even before the arrival of the Roman military. Evidence of this trade and the far-reaching ancient wine economy is most often found through 484:

Although there is evidence to suggest that this edict was largely ignored in the Roman provinces, wine historians have debated the effect of the edict on the infant wine industries of

4299: 1429:. Published after Pliny's death near Pompeii following the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, the work covers a vast array of topics, including serious discourse on viticulture and wine. 1347:

verse. Volumes 3 and 4 delve into the technical aspects of viticulture, including advice on which soil types yield the best wine. Volume 12 concerns various aspects of winemaking.

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practices. Though borrowing heavily from Cato, Varro, Pliny and Columella, the work of Palladius is one of the few Roman agricultural accounts to still be widely used through the

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claims that in those earlier times, women were forbidden to drink wine, "for fear that they might lapse into some disgraceful act. For it is only a step from the intemperance of

1894:. Less acidic than vinegar, it still retained some of the aromas and texture of wine and was the preferred wine for the rations of Roman soldiers due to its low alcohol levels. 812:, even in northerly areas. When the Romans seized Massalia in 125 BC, they pushed farther inland and westward. They founded the city of Narbonne in 118 BC (in the modern-day 263:

was the most highly prized, with domestic Roman wine commanding lower prices. The 2nd century BC saw the dawn of the "golden age" of Roman winemaking and the development of

1205:

More than 400 artifacts depicting Bacchus have been found throughout Britain, evidence of his widespread cult as a wine-god. They include the great silver dish of the

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called "the most learned man among the Romans," wrote extensively on such topics as grammar, geography, religion, law and science, but only his agricultural treatise

235:

had a particularly marked effect on Roman viticulture. The Carthaginians practised advanced viticultural techniques, described in the work of the Carthaginian writer

2964: 1872:" spanned a broad spectrum of wine-based beverages, the quality of which depended on the amount of pure grape juice used and how diluted the wine was when served. 1058:

vines have existed along the Rhine since prehistory, the earliest evidence of viticulture dates to the Roman conquest and settlement of the western territories of

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in 146 BC. Although this work did not survive to the modern era, it has been extensively quoted in the influential writings of Romans Pliny, Columella, Varro and

3301:

Brown, A. G., Meadows, I., Turner, S. D., Mattingly, D. J., "Roman vineyards in Britain: stratigraphic and palynological data from in the Nene Valley, England",

239:. Rome ransacked and burned the libraries of Carthage but the 26 volumes of Mago's agricultural treatise survived intact. They were subsequently translated into 4186: 1354:

vessel to concentrate sugars and at the same time allow the lead to impart sweetness and desirable texture to the wine, a practice that may have contributed to

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harvest festival, celebrated the grape harvest, and the growth and fertility of all garden crops; its patron deity may have been Venus, or Jupiter, or both.

1494:) has survived in its entirety. While there is evidence that he borrowed some of this material from Cato's work, Varro credits the lost multi-volume work of 3770:

Graham, E-J, The burial of the urban poor in Italy in the late Roman Republic and early Empire. BAR Int. Series 1565. Oxford, Archaeopress, 2006, pp. 87–88.

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in 600 BC certainly introduced new types and styles of winemaking and viticulture. The limit of Greek viticultural influence was planting in regions with

216:("land of vines"). The southern Greek colonies probably also brought their own wine pressing methods with them and influenced Italian production methods. 4817: 204:

saw wine as a staple of domestic life and a useful trade commodity. Their colonies were encouraged to plant vineyards for local use and trade with Greek

2109:, who promoted the fertility of human and animal semen, and the "soft seed" of the vine. Ordinary, everyday, mixed wines were under the protection of 1963:

knew of every grape variety that existed, he endeavored to speak with authority on the grapes he believed were the only ones worthy of consideration.

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and experimented with various methods of enhancing a wine's bouquet. One technique that gained some usage in southern Gaul was planting herbs such as

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of Trier crosses the river Mosel. The Romans found that planting vines on the steep banks along the river provided enough warmth to ripen wine grapes.

508:

Among the lasting legacies of the ancient Roman empire were the viticultural foundations laid by the Romans in lands that would become world-renowned

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in its focus on the morality and virtue of viticulture, particularly the austerity, integrity and hard work of Roman farmers. The second book of the

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The Romans were also aware of the negative health effects of drinking wine, particularly the tendency towards "madness" if consumed immoderately.

1966:

Pliny described Nomentan as the second-best wine-producing grape, followed by Apian and its two sub-varieties, which were the preferred grape of

753:

were famous for their beauty. The Roman agricultural writer Columella was a native of Cádiz and was duly influenced by the region's viticulture.

1358:. He presents precise details on how a well-run vineyard should operate, from the optimum breakfast for slaves to the yield of grapes from each 6050: 4738: 4472: 880: 831:

Roman ruins in Vienne. The first French wine to receive international acclaim was produced in this area near the modern Côte-Rôtie wine region.

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Venus' long association with wine reflects the inevitable connections between wine, intoxication and sex, expressed in the proverbial phrase

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are often characterized by using the aroma descriptors of lavender and thyme, presumably as a reflection of the grape varieties used and the

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If grape pressing was used, an estate would press the skins one to three times. Since juice from later pressings would be coarser and more

1589: 1084:(German frontier) and the high costs associated with importing wine from Rome, Spain or Bordeaux. The Romans briefly considered building a 788:

dated to 10,000 BC. The extent to which the Celts and Gallic tribes produced wine is not clearly known, but the arrival of the Greeks near

161: 908:

region. The Midi had abundant indigenous vines that the Romans cultivated, many of which are still being used to produce wine, including—

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and then added to the rest of the fermenting batch. (Columella's writings suggest that the Romans believed boiling the must acted as a

4362: 3870: 3733: 2272: 2139: 2114: 2097:, whose tombs were sometimes fitted with a permanent, usually stoppered "feeding tube". The invention of wine was usually credited to 888:

The first mention of Roman interest in the Bordeaux region was in Strabo's report to Augustus that there were no vines down the river

715:

of sherry. Spanish wines penetrated more extensively than Italian wines into the Roman Empire, with amphoras from Spain discovered in

596:

Rome's defeat of Carthage in the Punic Wars brought the southern and coastal territories of Spain under its control, but the complete

580:

the provinces, themselves exporters to Rome. The Roman market economy encouraged the provinces' exports, enhancing supply and demand.

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were found had climates warm enough to allow the full ripening of grapes. In the 1st century AD, Pliny notes that the settlement of

2143:(loosely translated as "without food and wine, Venus freezes"). It was employed in various forms, notably by the Roman playwright, 1707:. With a capacity of up to several thousand liters, these jars were often partially buried into the floors of a barn or warehouse. 480:

The 'Foro Boario' vineyard at Pompeii, replanted as it was at the time of the eruption, with small wine press in structure at back.

2707:

ROMAN AND LATE ANTIQUE WINE PRODUCTION IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN: a comparative ... archaeological study at antiochia ad cragum

2676:"From Hispania to the Chalkidiki: A Detailed Study of Transport Amphorae from the Macquarie University Museum of Ancient Cultures" 1519: 6131: 6045: 4718: 4367: 4294: 1544:

deals with viticultural matters. Virgil advises leaving some grapes on the vine until late November when they become "stiff with

473:

that not only banned new vineyards in Rome but ordered the uprooting of half of the vineyards in Roman wine-producing provinces.

1221:, excavations have uncovered containers identifying over 60 different types of wines from Italy, Spain, the Rhine and Bordeaux. 4311: 4244: 2337: 288:

and the unusually high quality of wine produced, some of the vintage's best examples were being enjoyed over a century later.

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and the maintenance of sanitary practices throughout the winemaking process to avoid contamination, impurities and spoilage.

1117:), the Romans found that wine could be produced in Germania. From the Rhine, German wine would make its way downriver to the 509: 414:

stamped with the emblems of Pompeian merchants have been found across the modern-day remnants of the Roman empire, including

1845:

in the vineyards, believing that their flavors would pass through the ground and into the grapes. Modern-day wines from the

645: 5561: 2284:

As Rome assimilated more cultures, it encountered peoples from two religions that viewed wine in generally positive terms—

1186:, have been dated to 70–100 AD, and may be explained as a sign of short-lived local wine production, brought to an end by 793: 588: 555:

in 59 BC, he found two Roman wine merchants already established in business trading with the local tribes. In places like

378:(shrine) depicting Mercury (god of commerce) and Bacchus (god of wine) in Pompeii, in one of the hot-food establishments ( 1742:. To enhance a wine's sweetness, a portion of the wine must was boiled to concentrate the sugars in the process known as 5401: 5005: 4457: 4172: 2366:

Romans believed that wine had the power to both heal and harm. Wine was a recommended cure for mental disorders such as

1237: 120: 6100: 987: 6025: 5784: 4840: 4723: 4269: 3172:

Cosano, Daniel; Manuel Román, Juan; Esquivel, Dolores; Lafont, Fernando; Ruiz Arrebola, José Rafael (September 2024).

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that would link the Saône and Mosel rivers in order to facilitate waterway trading. The alternative was to drink what

827: 188:

The beginnings of domestic viticulture and winemaking on the Italian Peninsula are uncertain. It is possible that the

3848:

For the total exclusion of myrtle (and therefore Venus) at Bona Dea's rites, and implications of this taboo, see the

2492:, Galen noted the trend in Romans' tastes from thick, sweet wines to lighter, dry wines that were easier to digest. 2460:, and used wine liberally in his practice, boasting that not a single gladiator died in his care. Wine served as an 1970:. The only other grapes worthy of his consideration were Greek varieties, including the Graecula grape used to make 29: 6151: 6060: 5724: 5616: 5386: 5158: 4980: 4888: 4753: 4696: 3979:

Most Roman sources describe Liber as Rome's equivalent to Dionysus and Bacchus, both of whom were sometimes titled

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In its early years, Rome probably imported wine as a somewhat rare and costly commodity, and its native wine-god,

6080: 5173: 5128: 5055: 4975: 4923: 4913: 4865: 4212: 3703: 1637: 1386: 1171: 2883:

Published online: 07 March 2016 This version: 30 July 2020, citing Tchernia, André, and Dimitri Van Limbergen,

1711:

took place in the dolium, lasting from two weeks to a month before the wine was removed and put in amphoras for

1170:

when the climate was warmer than it is now, British interest in wine production greatly increased following the

1047: 6146: 5681: 5591: 5100: 5080: 5075: 5060: 5013: 4953: 4908: 4710: 2324: 2086: 2082: 434:

of non-Pompeian wine suggests that the popularity and reputation of Pompeian wine may have given rise to early

2933:

688:

historian Roger Dion has suggested that the balisca vine (common in Spain's northern provinces, particularly

6090: 6070: 6010: 6000: 5990: 5396: 5085: 4985: 4965: 4880: 4870: 4575: 4515: 4207: 3614:"Wine Taboo Regarding Women in Archaic Rome, Origins of Italian Viticulture, and the Taste of Ancient Wines" 3453: 2607: 2276:

Bacchanals persisted covertly for many years, particularly in Southern Italy, their likely place of origin.

1952: 1417: 1254: 1031: 679:

were the first to introduce viticulture to Spain, Rome's influential wine technology and the development of

398:

The Pompeians themselves developed a widespread reputation for their wine-drinking capacity. The worship of

260: 177: 77: 1738:. Wines were often exposed to high temperatures and "baked," a process similar to that used to make modern 952:, perhaps pointing to the ancestry of this vine with the Cabernet family that includes Cabernet Sauvignon, 350:

were the estates of Caecuban, Falernian, Caulinum, Trebellicanum, Massicum, Gauranium, and Surrentinum. In

6141: 6095: 6085: 6035: 6015: 5829: 5804: 5769: 5651: 5376: 5023: 4785: 4316: 4134: 2305: 2046:

of milk, not wine, and approve the execution of a wife whose husband caught her drinking wine. The writer

1582:

as to whether water or wine was the preferred drink of poetic inspiration by enthusiastically siding with

1476: 1316:. Cato's manual was fervently followed, becoming the standard textbook of Roman winemaking for centuries. 493: 169: 2247:

of Bacchus, the Greco-Roman god of wine, freedom, intoxication and ecstasy. They were based on the Greek

1567:. Among the earliest recorded examples of deliberately choosing a wine for a specific occasion, Horace's 6136: 6065: 5995: 5819: 5571: 5371: 5366: 5163: 5070: 4958: 4943: 4918: 4898: 4800: 2602: 2534: 2184: 1936: 1660:. The juice thus expressed was the most highly prized and kept separate from what would later come from 1262: 1258: 689: 572: 525: 521: 403: 346:. Around Rome itself were the estates of Alban, Sabinum, Tiburtinum, Setinum and Signinum. Southward to 81: 884:

Portion of bearded satyr, emptying a wine-skin, Arretine ware, Roman, Augustan Period 31 B.C. – A.D. 14

212:

vines provided an ideal opportunity for wine production, giving rise to the Greek name for the region:

2480:

beliefs concerning theriacs' "miraculous" ability to protect against poisons and cure everything from

441: 6075: 6040: 5729: 5719: 5596: 5496: 5421: 5286: 5249: 4625: 4289: 2612: 2297: 1900: 1062:. Agricultural tools, such as pruning knives, have been found near Roman garrison posts in Trier and 862: 745: 704: 613: 209: 1794:

white wine was the most highly regarded style. Wine was often diluted with warm water, occasionally

6005: 5854: 5656: 5526: 5476: 4795: 4392: 2252: 2226: 2126: 1723: 1708: 1671:

Cato described the process of pressing as taking place in a special room that included an elevated

1617: 1601: 1280: 1206: 1015: 983: 784:

have been found throughout France, pre-dating the Greeks and Romans, with some examples found near

724: 708: 653: 552: 248: 124: 3101: 1042: 905: 6055: 5779: 5586: 5441: 5381: 5301: 5244: 5108: 4344: 4323: 4068: 3828: 3791:

Rome's vestal virgins: a study of Rome's vestal priestesses in the late Republic and early Empire

3643: 3093: 2617: 1916:

of grape skins already pressed twice, and then pressing a third time. Cato and Varro recommended

949: 5694: 1552:

would have produced sweet wines without the acidity of wine made from grapes harvested earlier.

3128:"The oldest wine in the world has been preserved in a Roman mausoleum in Spain for 2,000 years" 2327:

that emerged in the 1st century AD. One of the first miracles performed by the sect's founder,

1190:'s edict against vine cultivation during a widespread grain famine. The edict was rescinded by 96:'s influence has had a profound effect on the histories of today's major winemaking regions in 5689: 5541: 5296: 5256: 5234: 4442: 4155: 4099: 4060: 4004: 3960: 3935: 3883: 3866: 3688: 3668: 3635: 3580: 3560: 3540: 3520: 3500: 3436: 3416: 3385: 3365: 3345: 3286: 3266: 3246: 3217: 3195: 3156: 3024: 2958: 2904: 2857: 2830: 2785: 2752: 2721: 2711: 2658: 2411: 2367: 2264: 2110: 1791: 1749: 1646:

After fermentation, Roman wine was stored in amphoras to be used for serving or further aging.

1559:

wrote often of wine, though no single work is devoted entirely to the subject. He espoused an

1340: 1149: 941: 712: 601: 73: 3998: 3020: 3014: 5754: 5714: 5646: 5581: 5506: 5501: 5273: 5196: 5143: 4938: 4933: 4822: 4681: 4630: 4590: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4540: 4462: 4409: 4402: 4387: 4382: 4306: 4234: 4052: 3895: 3820: 3625: 3185: 3083: 3075: 2574: 2500: 1625: 1191: 1134: 1080: 858: 757: 750: 736: 664: 641: 633: 625: 529: 295: 232: 189: 4143: 5849: 5661: 5641: 5601: 5536: 5486: 5481: 5356: 5306: 5214: 5048: 5028: 4948: 4397: 4222: 2881: 2622: 2469: 2361: 2016: 1621: 1464: 1405: 1300: 1011: 925: 323: 319: 307: 303: 291: 165: 109: 61: 46: 42: 34: 840: 3780:

nocturnal festival the women were allowed to drink – at the very least to handle – wine"

5904: 5546: 5281: 5229: 5201: 5148: 5133: 5113: 4928: 4903: 4860: 4850: 4676: 4650: 4580: 4565: 4530: 4490: 4251: 2594: 2481: 2263:. Cult initiates employed music, dance and copious amounts of wine to achieve ecstatic 2055: 1992: 1759: 1716: 1712: 1665: 1651: 1355: 1291: 1101: 953: 929: 921: 813: 761: 668: 513: 450: 335: 331: 285: 281: 244: 220: 201: 194: 145: 1855:. Another widespread practice was the storage of amphoras in a smoke chamber called a 6125: 5436: 5406: 5321: 4855: 4832: 4645: 4500: 4485: 4432: 4239: 3832: 3647: 2477: 2179: 2174: 2067: 2047: 1984: 1846: 1834: 1684: 1569: 1382: 1366: 1179: 1167: 1158: 1105: 1004: 999: 933: 909: 870: 869:

wine that fetched high prices in Rome. Wine historian Hanneke Wilson notes that this

836: 732: 685: 629: 609: 556: 548: 463: 311: 4023: 2255:, and probably arrived in Rome c. 200 BC from Greek colonies in southern Italy, and 2038:, was probably a fairly minor deity. Rome's traditional history has its first king, 974:, the Romans encountered the areas that would become the modern-day wine regions of 370: 17: 5914: 5774: 5219: 5168: 5123: 5118: 4970: 4780: 4666: 4610: 4605: 4495: 4377: 4261: 4195: 2566: 2383: 2340:

story. Eucharist's act of drinking wine as a stand-in for consuming Christ, either

2289: 2244: 1975: 1940: 1739: 1560: 1503: 1452: 1451:

contemporary varieties, recommending Aminean and Nomentan as the best. Some modern

1413: 1270: 995: 961: 889: 853: 809: 659: 617: 476: 379: 299: 278: 270: 113: 105: 85: 57: 2452:

provided several details concerning wine's medicinal use in later Roman times. In

1462:

Pliny is also the source for one of the most famous Latin quotations about wine: "

979: 3190: 2267:. The Roman Senate perceived the cult as a threat to its own authority and Roman 2129:. It was an essential element of the secretive, nocturnal and exclusively female 2054:

to the forbidden things of Venus". He cites the much respected arch-conservative

1066:, but the first definitive record of wine production dates to the 370 AD work by 123:" and ubiquitous; in various qualities, it was available to slaves, peasants and 5709: 5331: 5153: 5043: 4437: 2580: 2509: 2445: 2438: 2371: 2341: 2293: 2268: 2208: 1822: 1698: 1613: 1609: 1579: 1218: 1195: 1110: 874: 817: 785: 676: 544: 101: 97: 69: 3173: 900:. The wine for this seaport was being supplied by the "high country" region of 5934: 5874: 5839: 5631: 5566: 5556: 5451: 5336: 5224: 4807: 4775: 4520: 4447: 4279: 4274: 3824: 3811:

Versnel, H.S. (April 1992). "The Festival for Bona Dea and the Thesmophoria".

3630: 3613: 3479: 3079: 2725: 2556: 2485: 2472:'s physician, he developed pharmaceutical concoctions made from wine known as 2461: 2313: 1971: 1960: 1771: 1661: 1575: 1564: 1483: 1409: 1397: 1343:. Its eleven volumes of prose are augmented by one on gardens (Volume 10), in 1214: 1075: 1027: 1023: 975: 801: 680: 621: 568: 489: 435: 315: 265: 228: 213: 205: 89: 4064: 3639: 3199: 2417:

Cato wrote extensively on the medical uses of wine, including a recipe for a

5964: 5959: 5919: 5844: 5814: 5794: 5671: 5611: 5521: 5471: 5466: 5391: 5351: 5239: 5209: 5018: 4893: 4686: 4570: 4545: 4424: 2538: 2496: 2465: 2457: 2426: 2399: 2395: 2332: 2236: 2170: 1944: 1802: 1654:

with treading the grapes (often by foot), in a manner similar to the French

1499: 1344: 1332: 1313: 1183: 1118: 971: 897: 789: 716: 637: 149: 3863:

The Mirror of the Gods, How Renaissance Artists Rediscovered the Pagan Gods

2705: 1141:

of Roman settlements such as Trier—"an invitation to break down the door."

3899: 2808:"Pressing Issues: A New Discovery in the Vineyard of Region I.20, Pompeii" 2508:

frequently labeled his rivals drunkards and a danger to Rome—most notably

2499:

warned that wine could provoke a fury in one's soul and lead to quarrels.

1121:

and to merchants in Britain, where it began to develop a good reputation.

386:

One of the most important wine centres of the Roman world was the city of

5924: 5909: 5899: 5884: 5799: 5789: 5759: 5749: 5744: 5734: 5636: 5551: 5431: 5416: 5346: 5326: 5316: 5311: 5291: 5090: 4671: 4635: 4525: 4452: 4284: 3849: 3839: 2513: 2453: 2418: 2403: 2387: 2379: 2345: 2248: 2222: 2192: 2130: 2106: 2094: 2090: 2059: 2043: 2012: 1856: 1838: 1818: 1795: 1744: 1688: 1677: 1672: 1605: 1583: 1549: 1540: 1535: 1511: 1507: 1480: 1447: 1377: 1210: 1187: 1125: 1114: 1067: 1059: 968: 728: 720: 692:) was brought from Rioja to plant the first Roman vineyards of Bordeaux. 605: 485: 466: 423: 419: 415: 399: 391: 375: 157: 132: 4030:

Modern scholarly sources offer various estimates on the number executed.

3088: 2331:, was to have turned water into wine. In addition, the sacrament of the 5944: 5939: 5929: 5894: 5889: 5879: 5824: 5809: 5626: 5621: 5606: 5576: 5531: 5511: 5491: 5446: 5178: 5033: 4812: 4620: 4615: 4505: 4072: 4041: 3983:(liberator); see Robert Rouselle, Liber-Dionysus in Early Roman Drama, 3097: 2473: 2430: 2407: 2285: 2256: 2214: 2151: 2144: 2102: 2039: 1996: 1987:

family. Alternative theories posit that it was more closely related to

1974:. He remarked that the Eugenia had promise, but only if planted in the 1967: 1948: 1891: 1851: 1830: 1735: 1656: 1650:

The process of making wine in ancient Rome began immediately after the

1456: 1443: 1435: 1373: 1360: 1298:, northeast of Rome, and wrote extensively on a variety of subjects in 1275: 1266: 1250: 1234: 1230: 1138: 1124:

Despite military hostilities, the neighboring Germanic tribes like the

1089: 1063: 937: 901: 893: 847:

trees were still found. As a result of their experience in what is now

821: 696: 431: 411: 387: 343: 274: 141:– ceramic jars used to store and transport wine and other commodities. 137: 38: 4164: 2980:"Pompeii is famous for its ruins and bodies, but what about its wine?" 2541:

corrupt our bodies, but baths, wine, and sex make life worth living."

2125:, was customarily reserved for Roman men and Roman gods, particularly 1518: 1324: 764:, part of Hispania Baetica, its contents were identified as a type of 5954: 5834: 5764: 5704: 5699: 5666: 5426: 5411: 5361: 5341: 4763: 4640: 4535: 2505: 2434: 2422: 2309: 2163: 2071: 2063: 2024: 1913: 1861: 1814: 1776: 1731: 1703: 1556: 1531: 1527: 1370: 1129: 957: 917: 765: 740: 649: 537: 407: 351: 347: 339: 327: 173: 153: 50: 4056: 3803:

Versnel, H.S. (1994). "Transition and reversal in myth and ritual".

2807: 1668:

was also believed to have the most beneficial medicinal properties.

326:

respectively; Praetutium (not related to the modern Italian city of

4152:

Roman and Late Antique wine production in the eastern Mediterranean

2675: 2519:

The ambivalent attitude of the Romans is summarized in an epitaph:

2150:

The major public festivals concerning wine production were the two

1904:

and amounted to around a liter per day. Still lower in quality was

1642: 1604:

for farm animals but also include a detailed account of late-Roman

944:

tribe. Ampelographers note that corruption of the name Biturica is

5739: 5461: 5188: 4480: 2449: 2375: 2328: 2317: 2301: 2260: 2230: 2218: 2196: 2098: 2033: 2020: 2006: 1988: 1935: 1886: 1881: 1842: 1826: 1770: 1753: 1727: 1641: 1592:

was the 4th-century writer of the 15-volume agricultural treatise

1545: 1517: 1426: 1396: 1323: 1295: 1294:

was a Roman statesman. He had been raised on his family's farm in

1148: 1085: 1041: 1019: 991: 879: 866: 826: 797: 658: 587: 564: 560: 533: 475: 470: 455: 440: 427: 369: 240: 28: 3048:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 200. 1752:

as well.) Lead was also sometimes used as a sweetening agent, or

1273:

on the quality of wine, as well as winemaking techniques such as

808:

favor of sunny hillsides that could provide sufficient warmth to

119:

The Roman belief that wine was a daily necessity made the drink "

5949: 5516: 5456: 5038: 4414: 4042:"Politics and Religion in the Bacchanalian Affair of 186 B.C.E." 2391: 2348:, echoes the rites performed in festivals dedicated to Bacchus. 2199:

to those more bread-based; wine aided in eating the drier food.

2169:

Early Roman culture was strongly influenced by the neighbouring

1890:, a mixture of water and sour wine that had not yet turned into 1810: 1809:

In the manner of Greek wine, Roman wine was often flavored with

1694: 1351: 1209:, showing the rites of Bacchus' procession and his triumph over 1093: 928:

made it an ideal seaport from which to transport wine along the

781: 777: 224:

routes into Gaul, were largely Romanised by the 1st century BC.

128: 93: 65: 4168: 843:, to areas where olives and figs were unable to grow but where 294:

wrote extensively about the first growths of Rome—most notably

88:

saw both technological advances in and burgeoning awareness of

4510: 2239:

shares similarities with the pagan rites dedicated to Bacchus.

1687:, the third pressing normally made wine of low quality called 1455:

believe that two white wine varieties mentioned, Arcelaca and

913: 844: 2421:: wine made from grapevines treated with a mixture of ashes, 1442:

Pliny was a strong advocate for training vines up trees in a

1153:

The silver serving tray depicting Bacchus found in Mildenhall

612:

in the northern regions of Spain (including what are now the

1202:

confirm several viticulture sites, at least from that date.

3174:"New archaeochemical insights into Roman wine from Baetica" 1229:

Roman attitudes to wine were complex, especially among the

760:, dating to the 1st century, was discovered in the city of 306:

wines. Other first-growth vineyards included Rhaeticum and

2429:. He recommended that the flowers of certain plants, e.g. 2304:, grapevines were among the first crops planted after the 2323:

Many of the Jewish views on wine were adopted by the new

1829:-coated containers, giving it a flavor similar to modern 277:

of 121 BC became known as the Opimian vintage, named for

2751:

Third Edition, pp. 589–590 Oxford University Press 2006

990:. Rome's first allies among the tribes of Gaul were the 176:– have provided insight into the role played by wine in 3734:"Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights, Book X, XXIII, section 1" 2027:(drinking vessel) in the shape of a panther, 170–180 AD 1459:, may be early ancestors to the modern grape Riesling. 1328:

Modern statue of Columella in his native land of Cádiz.

695:

Spanish wines were frequently traded in Rome. The poet

3959:. New York, New York: Penguin Group. pp. 35, 32. 2935:"Mastroberardino Masters the Ancient Wines of Pompeii" 2547:

epitaph of Tiberius Claudius Secundus, CIL VI, 15258,

3579:

Third Edition, p. 545, Oxford University Press, 2006

3559:

Third Edition, p. 505, Oxford University Press, 2006

3539:

Third Edition, p. 347, Oxford University Press, 2006

3519:

Third Edition, p. 754, Oxford University Press, 2006

3499:

Third Edition, p. 728, Oxford University Press, 2006

3435:

Third Edition, p. 533, Oxford University Press, 2006

3364:

Third Edition, p. 190, Oxford University Press, 2006

3344:

Third Edition, p. 144, Oxford University Press, 2006

2699: 2697: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2456:, Galen was responsible for the diet and care of the 776:

There is archaeological evidence to suggest that the

4090: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4082: 3687:

Third Edition. p. 23. Oxford University Press. 2006

3659: 3657: 3285:

Third Edition. p. 252. Oxford University Press 2006

3265:

Third Edition. p. 104. Oxford University Press 2006

3216:

Third Edition. p. 281. Oxford University Press 2006

3155:

Third Edition. p. 652. Oxford University Press 2006

1912:), which was made by soaking in water for a day the 1786:, a low-quality wine commonly drunk by Roman slaves. 1616:. His writings on viticulture were widely quoted by 1563:

view of taking life's pleasures, including wine, in

410:

and archaeological fragments throughout the region.

5973: 5867: 5680: 5272: 5265: 5187: 5099: 5004: 4879: 4831: 4709: 4659: 4598: 4589: 4471: 4423: 4343: 4260: 4221: 3597:

Bona Dea: The Sources and a Description of the Cult

3468:

Bona Dea: The Sources and a Description of the Cult

3407: 3405: 3403: 3401: 3399: 3397: 3237: 3235: 3233: 3231: 3229: 3008: 3006: 3004: 3002: 3000: 2895: 2893: 2850:Sandler, Merton; Pinder, Roger (19 December 2002). 2743: 2741: 2739: 2737: 2735: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2643: 2641: 2639: 2637: 2512:, who apparently once drank to such excess that he 1350:Columella describes the boiling of grape must in a 1074:, wherein he described vibrant vineyards along the 3599:, 1989, pp. 331–334, Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-08606-7 3331:, State University of New York Press, 1992, p. 104 3329:The Concept of Work: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern 2776: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2764: 1312:but leaving some head space, allowing a degree of 667:, the oldest surviving liquid wine, discovered in 604:remained unaccomplished until the reign of Caesar 2876:Van Limbergen, Dimitri, "Wine, Greek and Roman", 1339:is considered one of the most important works on 430:. Evidence in the form of counterfeit stamps on 382:) that served the city prior to its destruction. 3314:Purcell, N., Wine and Wealth in Ancient Italy, 2919:Purcell, N., Wine and Wealth in Ancient Italy, 2521: 1898:s use as soldiers' rations was codified in the 1880:might have been an alcoholic drink brewed from 1722:To enhance flavor, white wine might age on its 1715:. Small holes drilled into the top allowed the 608:. Roman colonization led to the development of 4003:. University of California Press. p. 34. 994:, whom they supported by founding the city of 780:first cultivated the grapevine in Gaul. Grape 330:, historically known as Praetutium) along the 4180: 3793:, Routledge/Taylor & Francis, 2007, p. 41 3470:, 1989, p. 335, Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-08606-7 2235:Wine's use in the Christian sacrament of the 1833:. Romans were particularly interested in the 1104:allowing the vines to receive the sun's rays 8: 3061:"A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire" 2292:. Grapes and wine make frequent literal and 3805:Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion 2963:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2488:lasted until the 18th century. In his work 1335:was a 1st-century AD writer. His 12-volume 354:was the first-growth estate of Mamertinum. 92:, which spread to all parts of the empire. 5269: 4595: 4227: 4187: 4173: 4165: 4144:Roman Wine: A Window on an Ancient Economy 4119:. Hackett Publishing Company. p. 256. 3934:. New York: Gotham Books. pp. 28–29. 3759:The Politics of Immorality in Ancient Rome 3710:, 2.25.6: Plutarch, "The Parallel Lives", 3607: 3605: 3178:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 699:described a highly regarded wine known as 318:in what are now the modern-day regions of 144:The works of Roman writers – most notably 4000:Studies in Greek Culture and Roman Policy 3629: 3189: 3087: 1026:, and a 5th-century villa in what is now 4117:Daily Life In Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook 3761:, Cambridge University Press, 1993, p.38 2923:75 (1985): pp. 1–19. doi:10.2307/300648. 1166:vines in the British Isles dates to the 839:coast, the Romans pushed further up the 592:Roman amphorae recovered from Catalonia. 41:, god of wine (c. 150 AD, copied from a 3318:75 (1985): pp. 2–11. doi:10.2307/300648 2829:. New York: Penguin Group. p. 28. 2633: 1401:Imaginary portrayal of Pliny the Elder. 259:For most of Rome's winemaking history, 4045:Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 2956: 2801: 2799: 2797: 1306:Concerning the Cultivation of the Land 1859:to add smokiness to a wine's flavor. 851:, the Romans knew that regions where 406:of wine, is attested by his image on 7: 3957:Drink: A Cultural History of Alcohol 3916:, BRILL, 2009, p. 42; citing Varro, 3415:pp. 68–74, Simon and Schuster, 1989 2827:Drink: A Cultural History Of Alcohol 2468:for surgery. When he became Emperor 1257:to plant, the benefits of different 3932:Drink A Cultural History of Alcohol 3245:pp. 90–97. Simon and Schuster 1989 2903:pp. 64–67, Simon and Schuster 1989 2784:pp. 59–63, Simon and Schuster 1989 2378:, as well as bodily ailments, from 2243:The Bacchanalia were private Roman 1734:dust was sometimes added to reduce 1510:. Varro's treatise is written as a 3807:. Vol. 2. Brill. p. 262; 2878:Oxford Classical Dictionary Online 2162:of 19 August, originally a rustic 2140:sine Cerere et Baccho friget Venus 2093:for most deities, including one's 1446:, noting that the finest wines in 1412:and author of the 37-volume Roman 1014:. In the 4th century, the Emperor 924:. The location of Bordeaux on the 877:to receive international acclaim. 390:, located south of Naples, on the 362:throughout the Greco-Roman world. 25: 3997:Gruen, Erich S. (February 1996). 3914:Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach 3888:Revue de l'histoire des religions 3384:p. 290, Simon and Schuster, 1989 2147:, and well into the Renaissance. 1790:As in much of the ancient world, 1194:in 270 AD. Investigations of the 1030:shows the Roman influence in the 445:Ancient Roman amphoras in Pompeii 68:. The earliest influences on the 4098:pp. 57–63, Harper Collins, 2000 3884:"Jupiter, Liber et le vin latin" 3667:pp. 46–56. Harper Collins. 2000 2587: 2573: 2559: 2011:Marble table support adorned by 1253:and landscape in deciding which 967:Further up the Rhone, along the 208:. Southern Italy's abundance of 3865:, Oxford UP, 2005, pp. 218–219 3712:Comparison of Lycurgus and Numa 3612:Komar, Paulina (October 2021). 3019:. Simon and Schuster. pp. 2978:Dodd, Emlyn (4 November 2020). 1530:recalls that of the Greek poet 1498:, as well as the Greek writers 4024:For Livy's account, see Livy, 3685:"The Oxford Companion to Wine" 3577:"The Oxford Companion to Wine" 3557:"The Oxford Companion to Wine" 3537:"The Oxford Companion to Wine" 3517:"The Oxford Companion to Wine" 3497:"The Oxford Companion to Wine" 3433:"The Oxford Companion to Wine" 3362:"The Oxford Companion to Wine" 3342:"The Oxford Companion to Wine" 3283:"The Oxford Companion to Wine" 3263:"The Oxford Companion to Wine" 3214:"The Oxford Companion to Wine" 3153:"The Oxford Companion to Wine" 2853:Wine: A Scientific Exploration 2749:"The Oxford Companion to Wine" 2657:pp. 35–45 Harper Collins 2000 2070:, and the founding of ancient 1825:) and was sometimes stored in 284:. Remarkable for its abundant 1: 3882:Cazanove, Olivier de (1988). 2177:colonists of Southern Italy ( 1287:Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder 1249:include the consideration of 1198:and pollen analysis by Brown 60:played a pivotal role in the 4759:Frontiers and fortifications 3191:10.1016/j.jasrep.2024.104636 2806:Dodd, Emlyn (January 2017). 2081:Wine played a major role in 1943:depicting the vintage (from 1884:fruits. Well below that was 1693:. After pressing, the grape 1425:), dedicated to the Emperor 940:of Biturica after the local 824:worth the value of a slave. 675:While the Carthaginians and 342:; and Lunense in modern-day 4818:Decorations and punishments 4040:Takács, Sarolta A. (2000). 3413:Vintage: The Story of Wine, 3382:Vintage: The Story of Wine, 3243:Vintage: The Story of Wine. 2901:Vintage: The Story of Wine. 2782:Vintage: The Story of Wine, 2298:Hebrew and Christian Bibles 314:of the Adriatic, along the 269:vineyards (a type of early 6168: 5725:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 4300:historiography of the fall 3016:Vintage: The Story of Wine 2885:Le vin de l’Italie romaine 2674:Dodd, Emlyn (April 2014). 2359: 2212: 2206: 2101:or his Greek equivalents, 1635: 1213:in a drinking contest. In 6106:External wars and battles 4230: 4203: 3825:10.1017/S0017383500023974 3704:Dionysus of Halicarnassus 3631:10.1017/S001738352100005X 3126:Agencies (18 June 2024). 3080:10.1017/s0075435800015902 2856:. CRC Press. p. 66. 2127:Jupiter, king of the gods 1638:History of the wine press 1548:." This early version of 1172:Roman conquest of Britain 1092:described as an inferior 896:into the region known as 614:modern winemaking regions 4096:A Short History of Wine, 3789:Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, 3665:A Short History of Wine. 3595:Brouwer, Hendrik H. J., 3466:Brouwer, Hendrik H. J., 3316:Journal of Roman Studies 3068:Journal of Roman Studies 2921:Journal of Roman Studies 2655:A Short History of Wine, 2528:nostra set vitam faciunt 2296:appearances in both the 2280:Judaism and Christianity 2089:, and was the preferred 2087:Roman funerary practices 1775:The grape material from 1515:be consumed much older. 1369:apart and fastened with 1219:capital of Roman Britain 671:in 2019 (1st century AD) 504:Expansion of viticulture 458:fields with grapevines. 6132:Economy of ancient Rome 6101:Roman–Iranian relations 4576:Optimates and populares 4115:Brian K Harvey (2016). 3987:, 82, 3 (1987), p. 193. 3723:Valerius Maximus, 2.1.5 3305:, 75, 2001, pp. 745–757 3044:Casson, Lionel (1991). 2704:Dodd, Emlyn K. (2020). 2608:Ancient Greece and wine 1999:of northeastern Italy. 1920:for their slaves. Both 1385:to be ancestral to the 1174:in the 1st century AD. 1007:to the city in 312 AD. 711:believes this wine was 703:from Ceret (modern-day 636:(which includes modern 496:repealed it in 280 AD. 6111:Civil wars and revolts 5377:Sextus Pompeius Festus 5024:Conflict of the Orders 4383:Legislative assemblies 4150:Emlyn K. Dodd (2020). 2550: 2441:could cure tapeworms. 2338:death and resurrection 2240: 2173:to the north, and the 2113:, but were considered 2105:(later Romanised) and 2083:ancient Roman religion 2028: 1955: 1787: 1647: 1555:Virgil's contemporary 1523: 1492:Rerum rusticarum libri 1477:Marcus Terentius Varro 1402: 1329: 1244:Roman writings on wine 1154: 1051: 948:, a French synonym of 885: 861:(near what is now the 832: 794:Mediterranean climates 749:that the vineyards of 672: 593: 551:brought his troops to 481: 449:The 79 AD eruption of 446: 383: 54: 5820:Simplicius of Cilicia 5572:Quintus Curtius Rufus 4801:Siege in Ancient Rome 4410:Executive magistrates 4028:, Vol 5, Book 39, IX. 3985:The Classical Journal 3955:Gately, Iain (2008). 3930:Gately, Iain (2009). 3900:10.3406/rhr.1988.1888 3738:www.perseus.tufts.edu 3059:Temin, Peter (2001). 2825:Gatley, Iain (2008). 2603:Ancient Roman cuisine 2234: 2062:, the nature deities 2010: 2003:Wine in Roman culture 1939: 1774: 1645: 1521: 1496:Mago the Carthaginian 1408:was a 1st-century AD 1400: 1327: 1263:vine-training systems 1152: 1045: 883: 830: 804:would also flourish. 758:surviving liquid wine 662: 652:winemaking region of 644:winemaking region of 591: 479: 444: 373: 273:in Rome). The famous 32: 5830:Stephanus Byzantinus 5735:Eusebius of Caesaria 5597:Sidonius Apollinaris 5287:Ammianus Marcellinus 4626:Tribune of the plebs 3757:Edwards, Catharine, 3327:Applebaum, Herbert, 3046:The Ancient Mariners 3013:Johnson, H. (1989). 2945:on 23 September 2020 2812:Archeologia Classica 2613:Phoenicians and wine 2265:religious possession 1901:Corpus Juris Civilis 1697:was stored in large 1157:Rome's influence on 1018:had a vineyard near 873:was the first truly 756:In 2019, the oldest 705:Jerez de la Frontera 360:per diem, per capita 18:Ancient Roman (wine) 6006:Distinguished women 5657:Velleius Paterculus 5497:Nicolaus Damascenus 5477:Marcellus Empiricus 4866:Republican currency 4026:The History of Rome 3844:Quaestiones Romanae 3683:J. Robinson (ed.). 3575:J. Robinson (ed.), 3555:J. Robinson (ed.), 3535:J. Robinson (ed.), 3515:J. Robinson (ed.), 3495:J. Robinson (ed.), 3484:Institutio Oratoria 3431:J. Robinson (ed.), 3360:J. Robinson (ed.), 2444:The 2nd-century CE 2308:, and in exploring 2253:Dionysian mysteries 2227:Dionysian Mysteries 2023:; Dionysos holds a 1817:(similar to modern 1618:Vincent of Beauvais 1612:and into the early 1602:veterinary medicine 1292:Marcus Porcius Cato 1225:Growers and traders 1207:Mildenhall Treasure 1135:barbarian invasions 998:in what is now the 334:near the border of 249:Gargilius Martialis 5780:Phlegon of Tralles 5587:Seneca the Younger 5061:Naming conventions 4791:Personal equipment 4324:Later Roman Empire 3340:J. Robinson (ed), 3281:J. Robinson (ed). 3261:J. Robinson (ed). 3212:J. Robinson (ed). 2618:Speyer wine bottle 2526:corrumpunt corpora 2524:balnea vina Venus 2464:for wounds and an 2241: 2029: 1956: 1788: 1648: 1524: 1418:Naturalis Historia 1403: 1330: 1155: 1052: 950:Cabernet Sauvignon 886: 849:northeastern Italy 833: 816:region) along the 743:noted in his work 707:). Wine historian 673: 594: 518:military campaigns 482: 447: 384: 84:. The rise of the 55: 6152:Roman agriculture 6119: 6118: 6081:Pontifices maximi 5863: 5862: 5720:Diogenes Laërtius 5542:Pliny the Younger 5297:Asconius Pedianus 5257:Romance languages 5129:Civil engineering 4871:Imperial currency 4744:Political control 4705: 4704: 4339: 4338: 4160:978-1-78969-402-4 4010:978-0-520-20483-6 3966:978-1-592-40464-3 3815:. Second Series. 3813:Greece & Rome 3708:Roman antiquities 3618:Greece & Rome 3151:J. Robinson (ed) 3107:on 2 October 2019 2863:978-0-203-36138-2 2836:978-1-592-40464-3 2747:J. Robinson (ed) 2717:978-1-78969-403-1 2530:balnea vina Venus 2095:deified ancestors 2042:, offer the gods 1782:was used to make 1594:Opus agriculturae 1341:Roman agriculture 1265:, the effects of 713:an early ancestor 602:Iberian Peninsula 76:can be traced to 74:Italian Peninsula 16:(Redirected from 6159: 6071:Magistri equitum 5986:Cities and towns 5979: 5905:Constantinopolis 5715:Diodorus Siculus 5647:Valerius Maximus 5582:Seneca the Elder 5502:Nonius Marcellus 5270: 4823:Hippika gymnasia 4786:Infantry tactics 4692:Consular tribune 4682:Magister equitum 4631:Military tribune 4596: 4556:Pontifex maximus 4551:Princeps senatus 4541:Magister militum 4307:Byzantine Empire 4228: 4189: 4182: 4175: 4166: 4154:, Archaeopress. 4121: 4120: 4112: 4106: 4092: 4077: 4076: 4037: 4031: 4021: 4015: 4014: 3994: 3988: 3977: 3971: 3970: 3952: 3946: 3945: 3927: 3921: 3912:Lipka, Michael, 3910: 3904: 3903: 3879: 3873: 3859: 3853: 3847: 3836: 3808: 3800: 3794: 3787: 3781: 3777: 3771: 3768: 3762: 3755: 3749: 3748: 3746: 3744: 3730: 3724: 3721: 3715: 3701: 3695: 3681: 3675: 3661: 3652: 3651: 3633: 3609: 3600: 3593: 3587: 3573: 3567: 3553: 3547: 3533: 3527: 3513: 3507: 3493: 3487: 3477: 3471: 3464: 3458: 3449: 3443: 3429: 3423: 3409: 3392: 3378: 3372: 3358: 3352: 3338: 3332: 3325: 3319: 3312: 3306: 3299: 3293: 3279: 3273: 3259: 3253: 3239: 3224: 3210: 3204: 3203: 3193: 3169: 3163: 3149: 3143: 3142: 3140: 3138: 3123: 3117: 3116: 3114: 3112: 3106: 3100:. Archived from 3091: 3065: 3056: 3050: 3049: 3041: 3035: 3034: 3010: 2995: 2994: 2992: 2990: 2984:The Conversation 2975: 2969: 2968: 2962: 2954: 2952: 2950: 2941:. Archived from 2930: 2924: 2917: 2911: 2897: 2888: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2847: 2841: 2840: 2822: 2816: 2815: 2803: 2792: 2778: 2759: 2745: 2730: 2729: 2710:. ARCHAEOPRESS. 2701: 2684: 2683: 2671: 2665: 2651: 2597: 2592: 2591: 2590: 2583: 2578: 2577: 2569: 2564: 2563: 2562: 2548: 2501:Seneca the Elder 1664:the grape. This 1632:Roman winemaking 1626:Pietro Crescenzi 1109:ancestor of the 1096:-like beverage. 1081:Limes Germanicus 1032:Champagne region 984:Côte Chalonnaise 739:. The historian 665:Carmona Wine Urn 642:Montilla-Moriles 634:Hispania Baetica 626:Ribera del Duero 190:Mycenaean Greeks 21: 6167: 6166: 6162: 6161: 6160: 6158: 6157: 6156: 6147:History of wine 6122: 6121: 6120: 6115: 5977: 5975: 5969: 5859: 5695:Aëtius of Amida 5676: 5662:Verrius Flaccus 5642:Valerius Antias 5602:Silius Italicus 5537:Pliny the Elder 5482:Marcus Aurelius 5357:Cornelius Nepos 5307:Aurelius Victor 5261: 5183: 5095: 5029:Secessio plebis 5000: 4875: 4827: 4701: 4655: 4585: 4467: 4419: 4335: 4256: 4217: 4199: 4193: 4129: 4124: 4114: 4113: 4109: 4093: 4080: 4057:10.2307/3185221 4039: 4038: 4034: 4022: 4018: 4011: 3996: 3995: 3991: 3978: 3974: 3967: 3954: 3953: 3949: 3942: 3929: 3928: 3924: 3911: 3907: 3881: 3880: 3876: 3861:Bull, Malcolm, 3860: 3856: 3838: 3810: 3802: 3801: 3797: 3788: 3784: 3778: 3774: 3769: 3765: 3756: 3752: 3742: 3740: 3732: 3731: 3727: 3722: 3718: 3702: 3698: 3682: 3678: 3662: 3655: 3611: 3610: 3603: 3594: 3590: 3574: 3570: 3554: 3550: 3534: 3530: 3514: 3510: 3494: 3490: 3478: 3474: 3465: 3461: 3454:Natural History 3450: 3446: 3430: 3426: 3410: 3395: 3379: 3375: 3359: 3355: 3339: 3335: 3326: 3322: 3313: 3309: 3300: 3296: 3280: 3276: 3260: 3256: 3240: 3227: 3211: 3207: 3171: 3170: 3166: 3150: 3146: 3136: 3134: 3132:EL PAÍS English 3125: 3124: 3120: 3110: 3108: 3104: 3063: 3058: 3057: 3053: 3043: 3042: 3038: 3031: 3012: 3011: 2998: 2988: 2986: 2977: 2976: 2972: 2955: 2948: 2946: 2932: 2931: 2927: 2918: 2914: 2898: 2891: 2875: 2871: 2864: 2849: 2848: 2844: 2837: 2824: 2823: 2819: 2805: 2804: 2795: 2779: 2762: 2746: 2733: 2718: 2703: 2702: 2687: 2673: 2672: 2668: 2652: 2635: 2631: 2623:History of wine 2593: 2588: 2586: 2579: 2572: 2565: 2560: 2558: 2555: 2549: 2546: 2543: 2532: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2525: 2516:in the Senate. 2470:Marcus Aurelius 2364: 2362:Wine and health 2358: 2282: 2229: 2211: 2205: 2160:Vinalia Rustica 2005: 1934: 1932:Grape varieties 1769: 1719:gas to escape. 1640: 1634: 1622:Albertus Magnus 1474: 1465:In vino veritas 1423:Natural History 1406:Pliny the Elder 1395: 1393:Pliny the Elder 1322: 1301:De agri cultura 1289: 1255:grape varieties 1246: 1227: 1147: 1106:perpendicularly 1102:degree of angle 1040: 1022:on the hill of 926:Gironde estuary 774: 737:German frontier 586: 573:Roman garrisons 530:Germanic tribes 506: 368: 292:Pliny the Elder 257: 186: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6165: 6163: 6155: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6124: 6123: 6117: 6116: 6114: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6018: 6013: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5982: 5980: 5971: 5970: 5968: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5871: 5869: 5865: 5864: 5861: 5860: 5858: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5792: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5686: 5684: 5678: 5677: 5675: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5547:Pomponius Mela 5544: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5514: 5509: 5504: 5499: 5494: 5489: 5484: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5419: 5414: 5409: 5404: 5399: 5394: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5364: 5359: 5354: 5349: 5344: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5282:Aelius Donatus 5278: 5276: 5267: 5263: 5262: 5260: 5259: 5254: 5253: 5252: 5250:Ecclesiastical 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5204: 5199: 5193: 5191: 5185: 5184: 5182: 5181: 5176: 5171: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5151: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5111: 5105: 5103: 5097: 5096: 5094: 5093: 5088: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5052: 5051: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5010: 5008: 5002: 5001: 4999: 4998: 4993: 4991:Toys and games 4988: 4983: 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4304: 4303: 4302: 4297: 4290:Western Empire 4287: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4266: 4264: 4258: 4257: 4255: 4254: 4249: 4248: 4247: 4237: 4231: 4225: 4219: 4218: 4216: 4215: 4210: 4204: 4201: 4200: 4194: 4192: 4191: 4184: 4177: 4169: 4163: 4162: 4148: 4139: 4128: 4127:External links 4125: 4123: 4122: 4107: 4078: 4032: 4016: 4009: 3989: 3972: 3965: 3947: 3940: 3922: 3905: 3894:(3): 245–265. 3874: 3871:978-0195219234 3854: 3795: 3782: 3772: 3763: 3750: 3725: 3716: 3696: 3676: 3653: 3624:(2): 239–254. 3601: 3588: 3568: 3548: 3528: 3508: 3488: 3472: 3459: 3444: 3424: 3393: 3373: 3353: 3333: 3320: 3307: 3294: 3274: 3254: 3225: 3205: 3164: 3144: 3118: 3051: 3036: 3029: 2996: 2970: 2925: 2912: 2889: 2869: 2862: 2842: 2835: 2817: 2793: 2760: 2731: 2716: 2685: 2666: 2632: 2630: 2627: 2626: 2625: 2620: 2615: 2610: 2605: 2599: 2598: 2595:History portal 2584: 2570: 2554: 2551: 2544: 2522: 2357: 2354: 2346:metaphorically 2342:metaphysically 2325:Christian sect 2281: 2278: 2207:Main article: 2204: 2201: 2056:Cato the elder 2004: 2001: 1993:Mondeuse noire 1947:, present-day 1933: 1930: 1768: 1765: 1717:carbon dioxide 1701:jars known as 1666:free-run juice 1633: 1630: 1526:The poetry of 1473: 1470: 1453:ampelographers 1394: 1391: 1383:ampelographers 1356:lead poisoning 1321: 1318: 1288: 1285: 1271:harvest yields 1245: 1242: 1226: 1223: 1146: 1143: 1054:Although wild 1039: 1036: 954:Cabernet Franc 930:Atlantic Coast 863:Côte-Rôtie AOC 773: 770: 762:Carmona, Spain 669:Carmona, Spain 585: 582: 505: 502: 451:Mount Vesuvius 367: 364: 336:Emilia-Romagna 332:Adriatic coast 282:Lucius Opimius 256: 253: 202:ancient Greeks 185: 182: 78:ancient Greeks 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6164: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6142:Roman cuisine 6140: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6129: 6127: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 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5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5518: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5503: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5493: 5490: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5437:Julius Paulus 5435: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5415: 5413: 5410: 5408: 5405: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5372:Fabius Pictor 5370: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5279: 5277: 5275: 5271: 5268: 5264: 5258: 5255: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5207: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5194: 5192: 5190: 5186: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5172: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5112: 5110: 5109:Amphitheatres 5107: 5106: 5104: 5102: 5098: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5050: 5047: 5046: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5011: 5009: 5007: 5003: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4960: 4957: 4956: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4886: 4884: 4882: 4878: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4846:Deforestation 4844: 4842: 4839: 4838: 4836: 4834: 4830: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4796:Siege engines 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4778: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4765: 4762: 4761: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4729:Establishment 4727: 4725: 4722: 4720: 4717: 4716: 4714: 4712: 4708: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4664: 4662: 4660:Extraordinary 4658: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4646:Promagistrate 4644: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4607: 4604: 4603: 4601: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4588: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4572: 4569: 4567: 4564: 4562: 4559: 4557: 4554: 4552: 4549: 4547: 4544: 4542: 4539: 4537: 4534: 4532: 4529: 4527: 4524: 4522: 4519: 4517: 4514: 4512: 4509: 4507: 4504: 4502: 4499: 4497: 4494: 4492: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4478: 4476: 4474: 4470: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4433:Twelve Tables 4431: 4430: 4428: 4426: 4422: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4404: 4401: 4399: 4396: 4394: 4391: 4389: 4386: 4385: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4361: 4359: 4356: 4354: 4351: 4350: 4348: 4346: 4342: 4330: 4327: 4326: 4325: 4322: 4318: 4315: 4313: 4310: 4309: 4308: 4305: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4292: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4267: 4265: 4263: 4259: 4253: 4250: 4246: 4243: 4242: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4232: 4229: 4226: 4224: 4220: 4214: 4211: 4209: 4206: 4205: 4202: 4197: 4190: 4185: 4183: 4178: 4176: 4171: 4170: 4167: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4147: 4145: 4140: 4138: 4136: 4135:Wine and Rome 4131: 4130: 4126: 4118: 4111: 4108: 4105: 4104:0-06-621282-0 4101: 4097: 4094:R. Phillips, 4091: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4083: 4079: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4043: 4036: 4033: 4029: 4027: 4020: 4017: 4012: 4006: 4002: 4001: 3993: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3976: 3973: 3968: 3962: 3958: 3951: 3948: 3943: 3941:9781592404643 3937: 3933: 3926: 3923: 3919: 3918:Lingua Latina 3915: 3909: 3906: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3878: 3875: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3858: 3855: 3851: 3845: 3841: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3806: 3799: 3796: 3792: 3786: 3783: 3776: 3773: 3767: 3764: 3760: 3754: 3751: 3739: 3735: 3729: 3726: 3720: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3700: 3697: 3694: 3693:0-19-860990-6 3690: 3686: 3680: 3677: 3674: 3673:0-06-621282-0 3670: 3666: 3663:R. Phillips. 3660: 3658: 3654: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3632: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3608: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3592: 3589: 3586: 3585:0-19-860990-6 3582: 3578: 3572: 3569: 3566: 3565:0-19-860990-6 3562: 3558: 3552: 3549: 3546: 3545:0-19-860990-6 3542: 3538: 3532: 3529: 3526: 3525:0-19-860990-6 3522: 3518: 3512: 3509: 3506: 3505:0-19-860990-6 3502: 3498: 3492: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3476: 3473: 3469: 3463: 3460: 3456: 3455: 3448: 3445: 3442: 3441:0-19-860990-6 3438: 3434: 3428: 3425: 3422: 3421:0-671-68702-6 3418: 3414: 3408: 3406: 3404: 3402: 3400: 3398: 3394: 3391: 3390:0-671-68702-6 3387: 3383: 3377: 3374: 3371: 3370:0-19-860990-6 3367: 3363: 3357: 3354: 3351: 3350:0-19-860990-6 3347: 3343: 3337: 3334: 3330: 3324: 3321: 3317: 3311: 3308: 3304: 3298: 3295: 3292: 3291:0-19-860990-6 3288: 3284: 3278: 3275: 3272: 3271:0-19-860990-6 3268: 3264: 3258: 3255: 3252: 3251:0-671-68702-6 3248: 3244: 3238: 3236: 3234: 3232: 3230: 3226: 3223: 3222:0-19-860990-6 3219: 3215: 3209: 3206: 3201: 3197: 3192: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3168: 3165: 3162: 3161:0-19-860990-6 3158: 3154: 3148: 3145: 3133: 3129: 3122: 3119: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3090: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3062: 3055: 3052: 3047: 3040: 3037: 3032: 3030:0-671-68702-6 3026: 3022: 3018: 3017: 3009: 3007: 3005: 3003: 3001: 2997: 2985: 2981: 2974: 2971: 2966: 2960: 2944: 2940: 2939:Italian Talks 2936: 2929: 2926: 2922: 2916: 2913: 2910: 2909:0-671-68702-6 2906: 2902: 2896: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2879: 2873: 2870: 2865: 2859: 2855: 2854: 2846: 2843: 2838: 2832: 2828: 2821: 2818: 2813: 2809: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2794: 2791: 2790:0-671-68702-6 2787: 2783: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2771: 2769: 2767: 2765: 2761: 2758: 2757:0-19-860990-6 2754: 2750: 2744: 2742: 2740: 2738: 2736: 2732: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2713: 2709: 2708: 2700: 2698: 2696: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2686: 2681: 2677: 2670: 2667: 2664: 2663:0-06-621282-0 2660: 2656: 2653:R. Phillips, 2650: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2642: 2640: 2638: 2634: 2628: 2624: 2621: 2619: 2616: 2614: 2611: 2609: 2606: 2604: 2601: 2600: 2596: 2585: 2582: 2576: 2571: 2568: 2557: 2552: 2542: 2540: 2536: 2520: 2517: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2502: 2498: 2493: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2478:Superstitious 2475: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2442: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2415: 2413: 2410:problems and 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2363: 2355: 2353: 2349: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2321: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2279: 2277: 2274: 2273:suppressed it 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2245:mystery cults 2238: 2233: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2210: 2202: 2200: 2198: 2194: 2188: 2186: 2185:Roman cuisine 2182: 2181: 2180:Magna Graecia 2176: 2175:ancient Greek 2172: 2167: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2156:Vinalia prima 2153: 2148: 2146: 2142: 2141: 2135: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2119:vinum spurcum 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2079: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2048:Aulus Gellius 2045: 2041: 2037: 2035: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2009: 2002: 2000: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1980: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1964: 1962: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1931: 1929: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1902: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1888: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1866: 1864: 1863: 1858: 1854: 1853: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1835:aroma of wine 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1807: 1804: 1799: 1797: 1793: 1785: 1781: 1778: 1773: 1766: 1764: 1762: 1761: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1746: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1720: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1705: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1691: 1686: 1681: 1679: 1674: 1669: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1658: 1653: 1644: 1639: 1631: 1629: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1598:De re rustica 1595: 1591: 1587: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1572: 1571: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1553: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1542: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1520: 1516: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1488:De re rustica 1485: 1482: 1478: 1472:Other writers 1471: 1469: 1467: 1466: 1460: 1458: 1454: 1449: 1445: 1440: 1438: 1437: 1430: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1399: 1392: 1390: 1388: 1384: 1379: 1375: 1372: 1368: 1363: 1362: 1357: 1353: 1348: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1337:De re rustica 1334: 1326: 1319: 1317: 1315: 1309: 1307: 1303: 1302: 1297: 1293: 1286: 1284: 1282: 1278: 1277: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1243: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1232: 1224: 1222: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1203: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1180:Brockley Hill 1175: 1173: 1169: 1168:Hoxnian Stage 1165: 1160: 1151: 1144: 1142: 1140: 1136: 1131: 1127: 1122: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1107: 1103: 1097: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1082: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1049: 1044: 1037: 1035: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1008: 1006: 1001: 1000:Burgundy wine 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 970: 965: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 935: 934:British Isles 931: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 906:Midi-Pyrénées 903: 899: 895: 891: 882: 878: 876: 872: 868: 865:) produced a 864: 860: 856: 855: 850: 846: 842: 838: 837:Mediterranean 829: 825: 823: 819: 815: 811: 805: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 779: 771: 769: 767: 763: 759: 754: 752: 748: 747: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 693: 691: 687: 682: 681:road networks 678: 670: 666: 661: 657: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 635: 631: 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 610:Tarraconensis 607: 603: 599: 590: 583: 581: 577: 574: 570: 566: 562: 558: 554: 550: 549:Julius Caesar 546: 541: 539: 535: 531: 527: 526:Celtic tribes 523: 519: 515: 511: 503: 501: 497: 495: 491: 487: 478: 474: 472: 468: 465: 464:Roman Emperor 459: 457: 452: 443: 439: 437: 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 396: 393: 389: 381: 377: 372: 365: 363: 361: 355: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 287: 283: 280: 276: 272: 271:first growths 268: 267: 262: 254: 252: 250: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 225: 222: 217: 215: 211: 207: 203: 198: 196: 191: 184:Early history 183: 181: 179: 178:Roman culture 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 142: 140: 139: 134: 130: 126: 122: 117: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 52: 48: 44: 40: 36: 31: 27: 19: 6137:Ancient wine 6051:Institutions 5915:Leptis Magna 5868:Major cities 5775:Philostratus 5562:Quadrigarius 5382:Rufus Festus 5245:Contemporary 4995: 4966:Romanization 4889:Architecture 4496:Collegiality 4345:Constitution 4196:Ancient Rome 4151: 4141: 4132: 4116: 4110: 4095: 4048: 4044: 4035: 4025: 4019: 3999: 3992: 3984: 3980: 3975: 3956: 3950: 3931: 3925: 3917: 3913: 3908: 3891: 3887: 3877: 3862: 3857: 3843: 3816: 3812: 3804: 3798: 3790: 3785: 3775: 3766: 3758: 3753: 3741:. Retrieved 3737: 3728: 3719: 3711: 3707: 3699: 3684: 3679: 3664: 3621: 3617: 3596: 3591: 3576: 3571: 3556: 3551: 3536: 3531: 3516: 3511: 3496: 3491: 3483: 3475: 3467: 3462: 3452: 3447: 3432: 3427: 3412: 3411:H. Johnson, 3381: 3380:H. Johnson, 3376: 3361: 3356: 3341: 3336: 3328: 3323: 3315: 3310: 3302: 3297: 3282: 3277: 3262: 3257: 3242: 3241:H. Johnson. 3213: 3208: 3181: 3177: 3167: 3152: 3147: 3135:. Retrieved 3131: 3121: 3109:. Retrieved 3102:the original 3089:1721.1/63869 3074:: 169–181 . 3071: 3067: 3054: 3045: 3039: 3015: 2987:. Retrieved 2983: 2973: 2949:24 September 2947:. Retrieved 2943:the original 2938: 2928: 2920: 2915: 2900: 2899:H. Johnson, 2884: 2877: 2872: 2852: 2845: 2826: 2820: 2811: 2781: 2780:H. Johnson, 2748: 2706: 2679: 2669: 2654: 2567:Italy portal 2537:, wine, and 2523: 2518: 2494: 2490:De Antidotis 2489: 2443: 2439:pomegranates 2416: 2384:constipation 2365: 2356:Medical uses 2350: 2322: 2290:Christianity 2283: 2242: 2203:Bacchic cult 2189: 2178: 2168: 2159: 2155: 2149: 2138: 2136: 2122: 2118: 2080: 2075: 2051: 2032: 2030: 1981: 1976:Colli Albani 1965: 1957: 1953:Roman Africa 1925: 1921: 1917: 1909: 1908:(modern-day 1905: 1899: 1895: 1885: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1867: 1860: 1850: 1808: 1800: 1789: 1783: 1779: 1758: 1750:preservative 1743: 1721: 1709:Fermentation 1702: 1689: 1682: 1670: 1655: 1649: 1597: 1593: 1588: 1568: 1554: 1539: 1525: 1504:Theophrastus 1491: 1487: 1475: 1463: 1461: 1441: 1434: 1431: 1422: 1416: 1414:encyclopedia 1404: 1359: 1349: 1336: 1331: 1310: 1305: 1299: 1290: 1281:fermentation 1279:aging after 1274: 1247: 1228: 1217:, the early 1204: 1199: 1176: 1163: 1156: 1123: 1098: 1079: 1071: 1055: 1053: 1048:Roman bridge 1009: 996:Augustodunum 966: 962:Petit Verdot 945: 887: 854:Quercus ilex 852: 841:Rhone Valley 834: 810:ripen grapes 806: 775: 755: 744: 725:Loire Valley 709:Hugh Johnson 700: 694: 674: 595: 578: 542: 528:in Gaul and 510:wine regions 507: 498: 483: 460: 448: 402:, the Roman 397: 385: 359: 356: 290: 264: 258: 226: 218: 199: 187: 143: 136: 118: 86:Roman Empire 58:Ancient Rome 56: 47:Prado Museum 35:Roman statue 26: 6046:Geographers 5730:Dioscorides 5710:Cassius Dio 5332:Cassiodorus 5235:Renaissance 4841:Agriculture 4813:Auxiliaries 4754:Engineering 4591:Magistrates 4443:Citizenship 4438:Mos maiorum 4373:Late Empire 4051:: 301–310. 3981:eleutherios 2581:Wine portal 2510:Mark Antony 2486:mouth sores 2446:Greco-Roman 2372:memory loss 2306:Great Flood 2294:allegorical 2209:Bacchanalia 2052:Liber pater 1823:mulled wine 1767:Wine styles 1760:süssreserve 1699:earthenware 1614:Renaissance 1610:Middle Ages 1580:Callimachus 1576:Alexandrian 1481:rhetorician 1479:, whom the 1196:Nene Valley 1164:V. vinifera 1111:German wine 1056:V. vinifera 1005:Constantine 932:and to the 922:Len de l'El 875:French wine 818:Via Domitia 786:Lake Geneva 746:Geographica 677:Phoenicians 545:Gallic Wars 543:During the 522:settlements 380:thermopolia 206:city-states 125:aristocrats 70:viticulture 43:Hellenistic 6126:Categories 5935:Mediolanum 5875:Alexandria 5840:Themistius 5805:Porphyrius 5632:Tertullian 5567:Quintilian 5557:Propertius 5452:Lactantius 5402:Fulgentius 5337:Censorinus 5159:Sanitation 5144:Metallurgy 5101:Technology 5066:Demography 5014:Patricians 4981:Spectacles 4939:Literature 4934:Hairstyles 4771:Technology 4521:Praefectus 4473:Government 4463:Litigation 4448:Auctoritas 4393:Centuriate 4280:Principate 4275:Pax Romana 4235:Foundation 3480:Quintilian 3184:: 104636. 2989:5 November 2726:1139263254 2629:References 2482:the plague 2462:antiseptic 2458:gladiators 2448:physician 2400:snakebites 2368:depression 2360:See also: 2314:the Exodus 2312:following 2213:See also: 1972:Chian wine 1961:Democritus 1868:The term " 1780:(pictured) 1636:See also: 1565:moderation 1484:Quintilian 1410:naturalist 1259:trellising 1235:senatorial 1231:equestrian 1215:Colchester 1024:Montmartre 976:Beaujolais 871:Rhone wine 569:Colchester 512:. Through 469:issued an 436:wine fraud 374:A painted 261:Greek wine 255:Golden age 229:Punic Wars 221:Republican 210:indigenous 121:democratic 90:winemaking 45:original, 6091:Quaestors 6021:Empresses 6011:Dynasties 6001:Dictators 5976:and other 5965:Volubilis 5960:Vindobona 5920:Londinium 5845:Theodoret 5815:Procopius 5795:Polyaenus 5770:Pausanias 5672:Vitruvius 5617:Symmachus 5612:Suetonius 5522:Petronius 5507:Obsequens 5472:Macrobius 5467:Lucretius 5392:Frontinus 5367:Eutropius 5352:Columella 5302:Augustine 5292:Appuleius 5240:Neo-Latin 5215:Classical 5206:Versions 5114:Aqueducts 5056:Patronage 4976:Sexuality 4949:Mythology 4924:Education 4914:Cosmetics 4739:Campaigns 4734:Structure 4687:Decemviri 4546:Imperator 4245:overthrow 4065:0073-0688 3833:162683316 3819:(1): 44. 3809:see also 3743:11 August 3648:237443974 3640:0017-3835 3303:Antiquity 3200:2352-409X 2497:Lucretius 2466:analgesic 2427:hellebore 2404:tapeworms 2396:halitosis 2333:Eucharist 2300:. In the 2237:Eucharist 2171:Etruscans 2154:. At the 2044:libations 1945:Cherchell 1803:Roman law 1590:Palladius 1561:Epicurean 1500:Aristotle 1345:hexameter 1333:Columella 1320:Columella 1314:oxidation 1184:Middlesex 1145:Britannia 1119:North Sea 988:Côte d'Or 980:Mâconnais 972:tributary 942:Bituriges 898:Burdigala 867:resinated 835:From the 814:Languedoc 802:fig trees 717:Aquitaine 701:ceretanum 638:Andalusia 618:Catalonia 553:Cabyllona 392:Campanian 308:Hadrianum 296:Falernian 266:grand cru 162:Palladius 150:Columella 82:Etruscans 6096:Tribunes 6086:Praetors 6036:Generals 6016:Emperors 5925:Lugdunum 5910:Eboracum 5900:Carthage 5885:Aquileia 5800:Polybius 5790:Plutarch 5760:Libanius 5750:Josephus 5745:Herodian 5637:Tibullus 5552:Priscian 5527:Phaedrus 5487:Manilius 5432:Jordanes 5417:Hydatius 5347:Claudian 5327:Catullus 5317:Boëthius 5312:Ausonius 5230:Medieval 5202:Alphabet 5174:Theatres 5149:Numerals 5134:Concrete 5124:Circuses 5091:Bagaudae 5081:Adoption 5076:Marriage 5049:Assembly 4954:Religion 4929:Folklore 4909:Clothing 4904:Calendar 4861:Currency 4851:Commerce 4749:Strategy 4711:Military 4697:Triumvir 4677:Dictator 4672:Interrex 4651:Governor 4636:Quaestor 4599:Ordinary 4581:Province 4571:Tetrarch 4561:Augustus 4526:Vicarius 4516:Officium 4453:Imperium 4403:Plebeian 4363:Republic 4285:Dominate 4252:Republic 4213:Timeline 3852:article. 3850:Bona Dea 3840:Plutarch 3486:10.1.95. 2959:cite web 2680:Chronika 2553:See also 2545:— 2474:theriacs 2454:Pergamon 2419:laxative 2388:diarrhea 2380:bloating 2269:morality 2251:and the 2249:Dionysia 2223:Dionysia 2193:porridge 2131:Bona Dea 2107:Dionysus 2091:libation 2060:Bona Dea 2013:Dionysos 1910:piquette 1857:fumarium 1839:lavender 1819:vermouth 1796:seawater 1745:defrutum 1678:windlass 1673:concrete 1662:pressing 1606:grafting 1584:Cratinus 1550:ice wine 1541:Georgics 1536:didactic 1512:dialogue 1508:Xenophon 1448:Campania 1389:family. 1387:Cabernet 1378:chestnut 1211:Hercules 1188:Domitian 1126:Alamanni 1115:Riesling 1068:Ausonius 1060:Germania 1038:Germania 1012:Sancerre 986:and the 892:towards 790:Massalia 735:and the 729:Normandy 721:Brittany 648:and the 606:Augustus 598:conquest 584:Hispania 557:Bordeaux 467:Domitian 432:amphoras 424:Toulouse 420:Narbonne 416:Bordeaux 412:Amphoras 408:frescoes 376:Lararium 320:Lombardy 304:Caecuban 233:Carthage 214:Oenotria 158:Catullus 138:amphorae 133:Germania 110:Portugal 80:and the 6066:Legions 6026:Fiction 5996:Consuls 5991:Climate 5945:Ravenna 5940:Pompeii 5930:Lutetia 5895:Bononia 5890:Berytus 5880:Antioch 5855:Zosimus 5850:Zonaras 5825:Sozomen 5810:Priscus 5785:Photius 5627:Terence 5622:Tacitus 5607:Statius 5592:Servius 5577:Sallust 5532:Plautus 5512:Orosius 5492:Martial 5447:Juvenal 5422:Hyginus 5407:Gellius 5266:Writers 5197:History 5179:Thermae 5169:Temples 5119:Bridges 5086:Slavery 5034:Equites 5006:Society 4986:Theatre 4959:Deities 4919:Cuisine 4899:Bathing 4881:Culture 4856:Finance 4833:Economy 4724:Borders 4719:History 4621:Tribune 4616:Praetor 4506:Legatus 4501:Emperor 4388:Curiate 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Ancient Rome and wine

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