644:. The cells then proceed to a second division without an intervening round of DNA replication. The sister chromatids are segregated to separate daughter cells to produce a total of four haploid cells. Female animals employ a slight variation on this pattern and produce one large ovum and three small polar bodies. Because of recombination, an individual chromatid can consist of a new combination of maternal and paternal genetic information, resulting in offspring that are genetically distinct from either parent. Furthermore, an individual gamete can include an assortment of maternal, paternal, and recombinant chromatids. This genetic diversity resulting from sexual reproduction contributes to the variation in traits upon which
1752:. Meiosis of primordial germ cells happens at the time of puberty, much later than in females. Tissues of the male testis suppress meiosis by degrading retinoic acid, proposed to be a stimulator of meiosis. This is overcome at puberty when cells within seminiferous tubules called Sertoli cells start making their own retinoic acid. Sensitivity to retinoic acid is also adjusted by proteins called nanos and DAZL. Genetic loss-of-function studies on retinoic acid-generating enzymes have shown that retinoic acid is required postnatally to stimulate spermatogonia differentiation which results several days later in spermatocytes undergoing meiosis, however retinoic acid is not required during the time when meiosis initiates.
1113:. However, a subset of breaks (at least one per chromosome) form crossovers between non-sister (homologous) chromosomes resulting in the exchange of genetic information. The exchange of information between the homologous chromatids results in a recombination of information; each chromosome has the complete set of information it had before, and there are no gaps formed as a result of the process. Because the chromosomes cannot be distinguished in the synaptonemal complex, the actual act of crossing over is not perceivable through an ordinary light microscope, and chiasmata are not visible until the next stage.
1759:, meiosis begins immediately after primordial germ cells migrate to the ovary in the embryo. Some studies suggest that retinoic acid derived from the primitive kidney (mesonephros) stimulates meiosis in embryonic ovarian oogonia and that tissues of the embryonic male testis suppress meiosis by degrading retinoic acid. However, genetic loss-of-function studies on retinoic acid-generating enzymes have shown that retinoic acid is not required for initiation of either female meiosis which occurs during embryogenesis or male meiosis which initiates postnatally.
1794:
centromeres and male recombination is higher at the telomeres. On average, 1 million bp (1 Mb) correspond to 1 cMorgan (cm = 1% recombination frequency). The frequency of cross-overs remain uncertain. In yeast, mouse and human, it has been estimated that ≥200 double-strand breaks (DSBs) are formed per meiotic cell. However, only a subset of DSBs (~5–30% depending on the organism), go on to produce crossovers, which would result in only 1-2 cross-overs per human chromosome.
238:
1642:. The diploid organism's germ-line cells undergo meiosis to produce spores. The spores proliferate by mitosis, growing into a haploid organism. The haploid organism's gamete then combines with another haploid organism's gamete, creating the zygote. The zygote undergoes repeated mitosis and differentiation to produce a new diploid organism. The haplodiplontic life cycle can be considered a fusion of the diplontic and haplontic life cycles.
2029:
944:
190:
5517:
1651:
1239:
haploid set. Cytokinesis, the pinching of the cell membrane in animal cells or the formation of the cell wall in plant cells, occurs, completing the creation of two daughter cells. However, cytokinesis does not fully complete resulting in "cytoplasmic bridges" which enable the cytoplasm to be shared between daughter cells until the end of meiosis II. Sister chromatids remain attached during telophase I.
1195:. Over time, the MTOCs merge until two poles have formed, generating a barrel shaped spindle. In human oocytes spindle microtubule nucleation begins on the chromosomes, forming an aster that eventually expands to surround the chromosomes. Chromosomes then slide along the microtubules towards the equator of the spindle, at which point the chromosome kinetochores form end-on attachments to microtubules.
935:
889:
93:
1365:. The independent orientation of homologous chromosome pairs along the metaphase plate during metaphase I and orientation of sister chromatids in metaphase II, this is the subsequent separation of homologs and sister chromatids during anaphase I and II, it allows a random and independent distribution of chromosomes to each daughter cell (and ultimately to gametes); and (2)
1040:, from Greek words meaning "paired threads", which in some organisms is also called the bouquet stage because of the way the telomeres cluster at one end of the nucleus. In this stage the homologous chromosomes become much more closely (~100 nm) and stably paired (a process called synapsis) mediated by the installation of the transverse and central elements of the
1690:(singular: oocyte). Each primary oocyte divides twice in meiosis, unequally in each case. The first division produces a daughter cell, and a much smaller polar body which may or may not undergo a second division. In meiosis II, division of the daughter cell produces a second polar body, and a single haploid cell, which enlarges to become an
1109:, from Greek words meaning "thick threads". is the stage at which all autosomal chromosomes have synapsed. In this stage homologous recombination, including chromosomal crossover (crossing over), is completed through the repair of the double strand breaks formed in leptotene. Most breaks are repaired without forming crossovers resulting in
1713:. During this process, the maturing oocytes resume meiosis and continue until metaphase II of meiosis II, where they are again arrested just before ovulation. If these oocytes are fertilized by sperm, they will resume and complete meiosis. During folliculogenesis in humans, usually one follicle becomes dominant while the others undergo
239:
240:
911:, there are also pervasive translational controls (e.g. selective usage of preformed mRNA), regulating the ultimate meiotic stage-specific protein expression of genes during meiosis. Thus, both transcriptional and translational controls determine the broad restructuring of meiotic cells needed to carry out meiosis.
1230:
the cohesin from the chromosome arms is degraded while the cohesin surrounding the centromere remains protected by a protein named
Shugoshin (Japanese for "guardian spirit"), what prevents the sister chromatids from separating. This allows the sister chromatids to remain together while homologs are segregated.
242:
1254:
Meiosis II is the second meiotic division, and usually involves equational segregation, or separation of sister chromatids. Mechanically, the process is similar to mitosis, though its genetic results are fundamentally different. The result is the production of four haploid cells (n chromosomes; 23 in
1216:
holds sister chromatids together from the time of their replication until anaphase. In mitosis, the force of kinetochore microtubules pulling in opposite directions creates tension. The cell senses this tension and does not progress with anaphase until all the chromosomes are properly bi-oriented. In
2075:
Meiotic recombination is mediated through double stranded break, which is catalyzed by Spo11 protein. Also Mre11, Sae2 and Exo1 play role in breakage and recombination. After the breakage happen, recombination take place which is typically homologous. The recombination may go through either a double
1831:
Most monosomic and trisomic human embryos are not viable, but some aneuploidies can be tolerated, such as trisomy for the smallest chromosome, chromosome 21. Phenotypes of these aneuploidies range from severe developmental disorders to asymptomatic. Medical conditions include but are not limited to:
1238:
The first meiotic division effectively ends when the chromosomes arrive at the poles. Each daughter cell now has half the number of chromosomes but each chromosome consists of a pair of chromatids. The microtubules that make up the spindle network disappear, and a new nuclear membrane surrounds each
1229:
Kinetochore microtubules shorten, pulling homologous chromosomes (which each consist of a pair of sister chromatids) to opposite poles. Nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen, pushing the centrosomes farther apart. The cell elongates in preparation for division down the center. Unlike in mitosis, only
1135:
disassembles and homologous chromosomes separate from one another a little. However, the homologous chromosomes of each bivalent remain tightly bound at chiasmata, the regions where crossing-over occurred. The chiasmata remain on the chromosomes until they are severed at the transition to anaphase I
938:
Meiosis
Prophase I in mice. In Leptotene (L), the axial elements (stained by SYCP3) begin to form. In Zygotene (Z), the transverse elements (SYCP1) and central elements of the synaptonemal complex are partially installed (appearing as yellow as they overlap with SYCP3). In Pachytene (P), it is fully
1344:
were once generally regarded as asexual, evidence has been presented that most lineages are anciently sexual and that the majority of asexual groups probably arose recently and independently. Dacks and Rogers proposed, based on a phylogenetic analysis, that facultative sex was likely present in the
857:
Interphase is followed by meiosis I and then meiosis II. Meiosis I separates replicated homologous chromosomes, each still made up of two sister chromatids, into two daughter cells, thus reducing the chromosome number by half. During meiosis II, sister chromatids decouple and the resultant daughter
510:
gametes (ova or sperm) that contain one set of 23 chromosomes. When two gametes (an egg and a sperm) fuse, the resulting zygote is once again diploid, with the mother and father each contributing 23 chromosomes. This same pattern, but not the same number of chromosomes, occurs in all organisms that
1793:
Recombination among the 23 pairs of human chromosomes is responsible for redistributing not just the actual chromosomes, but also pieces of each of them. There is also an estimated 1.6-fold more recombination in females relative to males. In addition, average, female recombination is higher at the
1161:
stage, from Greek words meaning "moving through". This is the first point in meiosis where the four parts of the tetrads are actually visible. Sites of crossing over entangle together, effectively overlapping, making chiasmata clearly visible. Other than this observation, the rest of the stage
1291:, which is similar to telophase I, and is marked by decondensation and lengthening of the chromosomes and the disassembly of the spindle. Nuclear envelopes re-form and cleavage or cell plate formation eventually produces a total of four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of chromosomes.
1207:
from both spindle poles attach to their respective kinetochores, the paired homologous chromosomes align along an equatorial plane that bisects the spindle, due to continuous counterbalancing forces exerted on the bivalents by the microtubules emanating from the two kinetochores of homologous
1658:
Meiosis occurs in all animals and plants. The result, the production of gametes with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell, is the same, but the detailed process is different. In animals, meiosis produces gametes directly. In land plants and some algae, there is an
994:, from Greek words meaning "thin threads". In this stage of prophase I, individual chromosomes—each consisting of two replicated sister chromatids—become "individualized" to form visible strands within the nucleus. The chromosomes each form a linear array of loops mediated by
968:). This process facilitates stable pairing between homologous chromosomes and hence enables accurate segregation of the chromosomes at the first meiotic division. The paired and replicated chromosomes are called bivalents (two chromosomes) or tetrads (four
881:
stages, similar in purpose to their analogous subphases in the mitotic cell cycle. Therefore, meiosis includes the stages of meiosis I (prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I) and meiosis II (prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II).
1535:
1527:
1284:, in which the remaining centromeric cohesin, not protected by Shugoshin anymore, is cleaved, allowing the sister chromatids to segregate. The sister chromatids by convention are now called sister chromosomes as they move toward opposing poles.
800:
which are further divided into
Karyokinesis I, Cytokinesis I, Karyokinesis II, and Cytokinesis II, respectively. The preparatory steps that lead up to meiosis are identical in pattern and name to interphase of the mitotic cell cycle.
1190:
to produce the meiotic spindle. In mice, approximately 80 MicroTubule
Organizing Centers (MTOCs) form a sphere in the ooplasm and begin to nucleate microtubules that reach out towards chromosomes, attaching to the chromosomes at the
858:
chromosomes are segregated into four daughter cells. For diploid organisms, the daughter cells resulting from meiosis are haploid and contain only one copy of each chromosome. In some species, cells enter a resting phase known as
923:, which are joined as tetrads (2n, 4c), producing two haploid cells (n chromosomes, 23 in humans) which each contain chromatid pairs (1n, 2c). Because the ploidy is reduced from diploid to haploid, meiosis I is referred to as a
834:
of the cell since the centromere number remains the same. The identical sister chromatids have not yet condensed into the densely packaged chromosomes visible with the light microscope. This will take place during prophase I in
1623:. Two organisms of opposing sex contribute their haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes meiosis immediately, creating four haploid cells. These cells undergo mitosis to create the organism. Many
1255:
humans) from the two haploid cells (with n chromosomes, each consisting of two sister chromatids) produced in meiosis I. The four main steps of meiosis II are: prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II.
412:, which remain held together through sister chromatid cohesion. This S-phase can be referred to as "premeiotic S-phase" or "meiotic S-phase". Immediately following DNA replication, meiotic cells enter a prolonged
241:
4456:
Bowles J, Knight D, Smith C, Wilhelm D, Richman J, Mamiya S, Yashiro K, Chawengsaksophak K, Wilson MJ, Rossant J, Hamada H, Koopman P (April 2006). "Retinoid signaling determines germ cell fate in mice".
1311:
and to have been present early in eukaryotic evolution. Eukaryotes that were once thought to lack meiotic sex have recently been shown to likely have, or once have had, this capability. As one example,
295:
1212:
of chromosomes is the random orientation of each bivalent along with the metaphase plate, with respect to the orientation of the other bivalents along the same equatorial line. The protein complex
2079:
Seemingly there are checkpoints for meiotic cell division too. In S. pombe, Rad proteins, S. pombe Mek1 (with FHA kinase domain), Cdc25, Cdc2 and unknown factor is thought to form a checkpoint.
1277:
that attach to spindle fibers from the centrosomes at opposite poles. The new equatorial metaphase plate is rotated by 90 degrees when compared to meiosis I, perpendicular to the previous plate.
1373:
during prophase I results in new combinations of genetic information within chromosomes. However, such physical exchange does not always occur during meiosis. In the oocytes of the silkworm
4161:
6562:
1577:
Cycling meiosis and fertilization events results in alternation between haploid and diploid states. The organism phase of the life cycle can occur either during the diploid state (
771:
We propose to apply the terms
Maiosis or Maiotic phase to cover the whole series of nuclear changes included in the two divisions that were designated as Heterotype and Homotype by
1443:, particularly exogenously induced double-strand breaks. DNA repair capability appears to be a key quality control mechanism in the female germ line and a critical determinant of
1667:
generation produces haploid spores instead of gametes. When they germinate, these spores undergo repeated cell division by mitosis, developing into a multicellular haploid
1697:
There are pauses during meiosis in females. Maturing oocytes are arrested in prophase I of meiosis I and lie dormant within a protective shell of somatic cells called the
735:, who noted that two cell divisions were necessary to transform one diploid cell into four haploid cells if the number of chromosomes had to be maintained. In 1911, the
1018:
which invade the homologous chromosomes, forming inter-axis bridges, and resulting in the pairing/co-alignment of homologues (to a distance of ~400 nm in mice).
571:
between the two chromosomes in each pair (one received from each parent), producing lots of recombinant chromosomes with unique genetic combinations in every gamete
1266:
again as well as the shortening and thickening of the chromatids. Centrosomes move to the polar regions and arrange spindle fibers for the second meiotic division.
506:
human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes including 1 pair of sex chromosomes (46 total), half of maternal origin and half of paternal origin. Meiosis produces
6063:
5553:
1044:. Synapsis is thought to occur in a zipper-like fashion starting from a recombination nodule. The paired chromosomes are called bivalent or tetrad chromosomes.
4986:
Pérez-Hidalgo L, Moreno S, San-Segundo PA (January 2003). "Regulation of meiotic progression by the meiosis-specific checkpoint kinase Mek1 in fission yeast".
972:), with one chromosome coming from each parent. Prophase I is divided into a series of substages which are named according to the appearance of chromosomes.
956:
Prophase I is by far the longest phase of meiosis (lasting 13 out of 14 days in mice). During prophase I, homologous maternal and paternal chromosomes pair,
2172:
1505:, a haploid multicellular, facultatively sexual green algae, can be induced by heat shock to reproduce by meiotic sex. This induction can be inhibited by
816:: In this very active phase, the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins, including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G
3344:
1638:(with sporic or intermediate meiosis), the living organism alternates between haploid and diploid states. Consequently, this cycle is also known as the
5845:
5739:
632:, so each homolog now consists of two identical sister chromatids. Then each set of homologs pair with each other and exchange genetic information by
5438:
1318:, a common intestinal parasite, was previously considered to have descended from a lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sex. However,
5088:
1217:
meiosis, establishing tension ordinarily requires at least one crossover per chromosome pair in addition to cohesin between sister chromatids (see
5222:
5138:
5093:
2072:
It has been suggested that Yeast CEP1 gene product, that binds centromeric region CDE1, may play a role in chromosome pairing during meiosis-I.
1427:
are present in the oocytes. The arrest of ooctyes at the four genome copy stage was proposed to provide the informational redundancy needed to
6552:
6193:
5055:
4653:
4612:
4304:
Lin Y, Gill ME, Koubova J, Page DC (December 2008). "Germ cell-intrinsic and -extrinsic factors govern meiotic initiation in mouse embryos".
4196:
4171:
3952:
2794:
2765:
1816:. This results in the production of gametes which have either too many or too few of a particular chromosome, and is a common mechanism for
6557:
5785:
3649:"Inherited differences in crossing over and gene conversion frequencies between wild strains of Sordaria fimicola from "Evolution Canyon""
4269:
Rosenbusch B (November 2006). "The contradictory information on the distribution of non-disjunction and pre-division in female gametes".
2916:
1891:
In order to understand meiosis, a comparison to mitosis is helpful. The table below shows the differences between meiosis and mitosis.
1143:, all developing oocytes develop to this stage and are arrested in prophase I before birth. This suspended state is referred to as the
3088:
1340:, which cause human disease. However, these organisms were shown to have a sexual cycle consistent with a meiotic process. Although
731:
roundworm eggs. The significance of meiosis for reproduction and inheritance, however, was described only in 1890 by German biologist
3745:
Rasmussen SW (April 1977). "The transformation of the
Synaptonemal Complex into the 'elimination chromatin' in Bombyx mori oocytes".
1596:(with pre-gametic meiosis), as in humans, the organism is multicellular and diploid, grown by mitosis from a diploid cell called the
6056:
5546:
3274:
1619:(with post-zygotic meiosis), the organism is haploid, by the proliferation and differentiation of a single haploid cell called the
1097:
176:
3269:
Pierce, Benjamin (2009). «Chromosomes and Cell
Reproduction». Genetics: A Conceptual Approach, Third Edition. W.H. FREEMAN AND CO.
2987:
Chen JM, Cooper DN, Chuzhanova N, Férec C, Patrinos GP (October 2007). "Gene conversion: mechanisms, evolution and human disease".
4779:
2442:
5493:
5308:
1474:
1440:
780:
The spelling was changed to "meiosis" by
Koernicke (1905) and by Pantel and De Sinety (1906) to follow the usual conventions for
2076:
Holliday junction (dHJ) pathway or synthesis-dependent strand annealing (SDSA). (The second one gives to noncrossover product).
1415:
are arrested at the prophase I stage of meiosis. In humans, as an example, oocytes are formed between three and four months of
947:
Schematic of the synaptonemal complex at different stages of prophase I and the chromosomes arranged as a linear array of loops.
498:
that contains two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent. Thus, alternating cycles of meiosis and fertilization enable
447:, Χ) between the homologous chromosomes. In most organisms, these links can help direct each pair of homologous chromosomes to
3976:
Slupphaug G, Kavli B, Krokan HE (October 2003). "The interacting pathways for prevention and repair of oxidative DNA damage".
5416:
1694:. Therefore, in females each primary oocyte that undergoes meiosis results in one mature ovum and two or three polar bodies.
114:
1149:
or dictyate. It lasts until meiosis is resumed to prepare the oocyte for ovulation, which happens at puberty or even later.
939:
installed except on the sex chromosomes. In
Diplotene (D), it disassembles revealing chiasmata. CREST marks the centromeres.
309:
6178:
5473:
1362:
4409:"Two functionally redundant sources of retinoic acid secure spermatogonia differentiation in the seminiferous epithelium"
1002:
assemble forming an "axial element" from which the loops emanate. Recombination is initiated in this stage by the enzyme
6049:
5539:
5488:
5288:
5271:
3163:"Human oocytes. Error-prone chromosome-mediated spindle assembly favors chromosome segregation defects in human oocytes"
2640:"Genetic analysis of chromosome pairing, recombination, and cell cycle control during first meiotic prophase in mammals"
1706:
1589:
life cycle), in which there are two distinct organism phases, one with haploid cells and the other with diploid cells.
6598:
6588:
5855:
5217:
5212:
5207:
5202:
5131:
2060:
157:
1879:
The probability of nondisjunction in human oocytes increases with increasing maternal age, presumably due to loss of
1322:
has now been found to possess a core set of meiotic genes, including five meiosis specific genes. Also evidence for
640:) between the homologs. In the first meiotic division, the homologs are segregated to separate daughter cells by the
458:
During meiosis II, the cohesion between sister chromatids is released and they segregate from one another, as during
354:). Additionally, prior to the division, genetic material from the paternal and maternal copies of each chromosome is
3463:
Akopyants NS, Kimblin N, Secundino N, Patrick R, Peters N, Lawyer P, Dobson DE, Beverley SM, Sacks DL (April 2009).
3114:"Self-organization of MTOCs replaces centrosome function during acentrosomal spindle assembly in live mouse oocytes"
931:
analogous to mitosis, in which the sister chromatids are segregated, creating four haploid daughter cells (1n, 1c).
129:
5996:
5699:
5426:
5266:
4113:"Sex as a response to oxidative stress: a twofold increase in cellular reactive oxygen species activates sex genes"
3892:
Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE (September 1985). "Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex".
3835:"Oocytes can efficiently repair DNA double-strand breaks to restore genetic integrity and protect offspring health"
3696:
Xiang Y, Tsuchiya D, Guo F, Gardner J, McCroskey S, Price A, Tromer EC, Walters JR, Lake CM, Hawley RS (May 2023).
2132:
2097:
1660:
1639:
1549:
763:
378:
63:
5074:
3367:"A phylogenomic inventory of meiotic genes; evidence for sex in Giardia and an early eukaryotic origin of meiosis"
888:
6325:
5694:
5689:
5684:
5679:
5674:
5669:
5664:
5659:
5654:
5256:
4669:
Hassold T, Jacobs P, Kline J, Stein Z, Warburton D (July 1980). "Effect of maternal age on autosomal trisomies".
2400:
2064:
1491:
964:), forming at least one crossover per chromosome. These crossovers become visible as chiasmata (plural; singular
38:
4712:
Tsutsumi M, Fujiwara R, Nishizawa H, Ito M, Kogo H, Inagaki H, Ohye T, Kato T, Fujii T, Kurahashi H (May 2014).
1654:
Overview of chromatides' and chromosomes' distribution within the mitotic and meiotic cycle of a male human cell
6608:
6603:
6379:
6163:
5197:
5098:
1470:
1436:
1396:
1370:
961:
904:
691:
633:
136:
110:
431:, a programmed process in which DNA may be cut and then repaired, which allows them to exchange some of their
4407:
Teletin M, Vernet N, Yu J, Klopfenstein M, Jones JW, Féret B, Kane MA, Ghyselinck NB, Mark M (January 2019).
3336:
3289:"Structure and functions of stable intercellular bridges formed by incomplete cytokinesis during development"
5646:
5478:
3220:"Complete kinetochore tracking reveals error-prone homologous chromosome biorientation in mammalian oocytes"
1608:
in females), which fertilize to form the zygote. The diploid zygote undergoes repeated cellular division by
895:
745:
103:
4510:"Sex-specific timing of meiotic initiation is regulated by Cyp26b1 independent of retinoic acid signalling"
346:. It involves two rounds of division that ultimately result in four cells, each with only one copy of each
6332:
6315:
6285:
6258:
5394:
5389:
5185:
5180:
5124:
1366:
1218:
1209:
849:
phase as seen before mitosis is not present in meiosis. Meiotic prophase corresponds most closely to the G
515:
448:
302:
4803:"Meiosis in protists. Some structural and physiological aspects of meiosis in algae, fungi, and protozoa"
2868:"Regulating double-stranded DNA break repair towards crossover or non-crossover during mammalian meiosis"
1566:
cell division, production of gametes by meiosis and fertilization. At certain stages of the life cycle,
143:
6320:
6218:
5978:
5729:
5498:
2142:
2117:
1721:, and differs from the typical meiosis in that it features a long period of meiotic arrest known as the
1555:
1543:
1455:
1323:
920:
826:: The genetic material is replicated; each of the cell's chromosomes duplicates to become two identical
781:
637:
568:
436:
428:
424:
388:
is followed by two rounds of cell division to produce four daughter cells, each with half the number of
355:
206:
202:
5083:
1824:. Nondisjunction can occur in the meiosis I or meiosis II, phases of cellular reproduction, or during
1469:
that is passed on to progeny. Experimental findings indicate that a substantial benefit of meiosis is
2082:
In vertebrate oogenesis, maintained by cytostatic factor (CSF) has role in switching into meiosis-II.
6540:
6465:
6450:
6280:
6228:
6203:
6143:
5433:
4725:
4521:
4466:
4313:
4077:
3985:
3901:
3846:
3794:
3578:
3476:
3427:
3378:
3174:
2582:
1854:
1411:
Female mammals and birds are born possessing all the oocytes needed for future ovulations, and these
1384:
1334:. Another example of organisms previously thought to be asexual are parasitic protozoa of the genus
1132:
1041:
1007:
999:
759:
667:: haploid cells that can divide vegetatively without undergoing fertilization. Some eukaryotes, like
247:
3465:"Demonstration of genetic exchange during cyclical development of Leishmania in the sand fly vector"
125:
6593:
6208:
5330:
5298:
2386:
2112:
1737:
1559:
1327:
722:
499:
432:
331:
2287:
2239:
Hassold T, Hunt P (April 2001). "To err (meiotically) is human: the genesis of human aneuploidy".
5991:
5796:
5443:
5421:
5406:
5021:
4694:
4618:
4490:
4337:
4251:
3249:
3143:
3061:
3012:
2897:
2326:
2264:
1768:
1714:
1709:
secretion from the anterior pituitary stimulates a few follicles to mature in a process known as
1380:
1313:
1010:(around 300 per meiosis in mice). This process generates single stranded DNA filaments coated by
965:
740:
440:
3569:
Dacks J, Roger AJ (June 1999). "The first sexual lineage and the relevance of facultative sex".
2197:
1808:
The normal separation of chromosomes in meiosis I or sister chromatids in meiosis II is termed
1208:
chromosomes. This attachment is referred to as a bipolar attachment. The physical basis of the
6270:
6182:
5986:
5448:
5234:
5163:
5051:
5013:
4968:
4919:
4881:
4832:
4753:
4686:
4649:
4608:
4547:
4482:
4438:
4386:
4329:
4286:
4243:
4202:
4192:
4167:
4142:
4093:
4068:
Kirk DL, Kirk MM (January 1986). "Heat shock elicits production of sexual inducer in Volvox".
4050:
4001:
3958:
3948:
3917:
3874:
3810:
3762:
3727:
3678:
3629:
3594:
3551:
3502:
3445:
3396:
3318:
3270:
3241:
3200:
3135:
3094:
3084:
3053:
3004:
2969:
2889:
2848:
2790:
2761:
2710:
2661:
2608:
2551:
2500:
2367:
2256:
1866:
1496:
1482:
1354:
1175:
668:
645:
641:
409:
5109:
1419:
within the fetus and are therefore present at birth. During this prophase I arrested stage (
671:, do not have the ability to carry out meiosis and have acquired the ability to reproduce by
6583:
6460:
6359:
5401:
5283:
5003:
4995:
4958:
4950:
4911:
4871:
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4814:
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4678:
4641:
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4529:
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4376:
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4124:
4085:
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3541:
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3435:
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3231:
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3125:
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2959:
2951:
2879:
2838:
2830:
2700:
2692:
2651:
2598:
2590:
2541:
2531:
2520:"Unified single-cell analysis of testis gene regulation and pathology in five mouse strains"
2490:
2480:
2357:
2318:
2248:
2107:
1921:
Production of gametes (sex cells) in sexually reproducing eukaryotes with diplont life cycle
1848:
1710:
1698:
1510:
1486:
1263:
1171:
1065:
827:
772:
263:
218:
6515:
6510:
2940:"Meiotic chromosomes in motion: a perspective from Mus musculus and Caenorhabditis elegans"
1600:. The organism's diploid germ-line stem cells undergo meiosis to make haploid gametes (the
6352:
6173:
6121:
5483:
5465:
5411:
5355:
5104:
5078:
4902:
Honigberg SM, McCarroll RM, Esposito RE (April 1993). "Regulatory mechanisms in meiosis".
3625:
2152:
2127:
1872:
1860:
1733:
1702:
1110:
981:
732:
672:
629:
581:
usually occurs between identical sister chromatids and does not result in genetic changes
539:
385:
624:
Meiosis begins with a diploid cell, which contains two copies of each chromosome, termed
4771:
4729:
4525:
4470:
4317:
4081:
3989:
3905:
3850:
3798:
3722:
3697:
3582:
3480:
3431:
3382:
3178:
2586:
2309:
Bernstein H, Bernstein C (2010). "Evolutionary origin of recombination during meiosis".
1499:
increased the frequency of mating and the formation of meiotic spores by 4 to 18-fold.
550:
Although the process of meiosis is related to the more general cell division process of
6243:
6167:
5239:
4963:
4938:
4876:
4851:
4748:
4713:
4682:
4645:
4604:
4542:
4509:
4433:
4408:
4381:
4356:
4137:
4112:
3935:
Bernstein H, Hopf FA, Michod RE (1987). "The
Molecular Basis of the Evolution of Sex".
3869:
3834:
3698:"A molecular cell biology toolkit for the study of meiosis in the silkworm Bombyx mori"
3673:
3648:
3546:
3521:
3497:
3464:
3313:
3288:
3195:
3162:
2964:
2939:
2843:
2818:
2705:
2680:
2603:
2570:
2546:
2519:
2495:
2468:
2446:
1842:
1803:
1501:
1361:, which may be beneficial. Meiosis generates gamete genetic diversity in two ways: (1)
687:
502:, with successive generations maintaining the same number of chromosomes. For example,
362:, the haploid cells produced by meiosis from a male and a female will fuse to create a
4827:
4802:
4581:
4045:
4020:
3944:
2028:
1462:
process, and that when it occurs during meiosis it is an adaptation for repairing the
66:. For the process whereby cell nuclei divide to produce two copies of themselves, see
6577:
6223:
5925:
5453:
5384:
5350:
5261:
5227:
5044:
4915:
3016:
2137:
2092:
1836:
736:
714:
710:
491:
490:. Because the number of chromosomes is halved during meiosis, gametes can fuse (i.e.
359:
323:
226:
150:
5025:
4698:
4622:
4341:
4255:
4036:
3065:
2901:
2330:
2268:
2059:
How a cell proceeds to meiotic division in meiotic cell division is not well known.
1650:
943:
478:. In female animals, three of the four meiotic products are typically eliminated by
189:
6198:
6072:
5947:
5520:
5372:
5249:
5244:
5190:
4818:
4494:
3253:
3147:
2783:
1781:
1749:
1745:
1571:
1243:
1163:
859:
483:
444:
250:
4568:
Raikov IB (1995). "Meiosis in protists: recent advances and persisting problems".
3664:
2571:"High-resolution view of the yeast meiotic program revealed by ribosome profiling"
2569:
Brar GA, Yassour M, Friedman N, Regev A, Ingolia NT, Weissman JS (February 2012).
1439:
repair Prophase I arrested oocytes have a high capability for efficient repair of
934:
698:
to another and recombination of these DNA molecules of different parental origin.
4852:"Molecular regulation of the mitosis/meiosis decision in multicellular organisms"
4738:
3997:
2419:
1767:
While the majority of eukaryotes have a two-divisional meiosis (though sometimes
1674:
In both animals and plants, the final stage is for the gametes to fuse to form a
1671:
generation, which then produces gametes directly (i.e. without further meiosis).
1509:
indicating that the induction of meiotic sex by heat shock is likely mediated by
659:
to divide one cell into two identical daughter cells. In some plants, fungi, and
6417:
6412:
6275:
6253:
6248:
6116:
5968:
5937:
4954:
4867:
3713:
2834:
2696:
2518:
Jung M, Wells D, Rusch J, Ahmad S, Marchini J, Myers SR, Conrad DF (June 2019).
2069:. there is a role of MeiRNA binding protein for entry to meiotic cell division.
1772:
1668:
1601:
1506:
1375:
1274:
1192:
1015:
749:, which helped to establish that genetic traits are transmitted on chromosomes.
408:, the DNA of each chromosome is replicated so that it consists of two identical
374:
92:
4021:"Sexual reproduction as a response to H2O2 damage in Schizosaccharomyces pombe"
3839:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3522:"The chastity of amoebae: re-evaluating evidence for sex in amoeboid organisms"
3236:
3219:
3130:
3113:
2955:
1353:
The new combinations of DNA created during meiosis are a significant source of
6437:
6427:
6422:
6407:
6347:
6337:
6238:
6213:
6187:
6138:
6128:
6076:
5889:
5773:
5562:
3440:
3415:
3391:
3366:
2884:
2867:
2102:
1726:
1664:
1534:
1526:
1459:
1428:
1400:
1336:
1187:
1144:
969:
802:
797:
718:
707:
405:
397:
389:
370:
347:
327:
214:
198:
194:
4508:
Kumar S, Chatzi C, Brade T, Cunningham TJ, Zhao X, Duester G (January 2011).
4206:
3098:
322: 'lessening', (since it is a reductional division) is a special type of
6389:
6133:
6111:
6092:
6041:
6012:
5962:
5952:
5635:
5631:
5621:
5617:
5613:
5603:
5599:
5589:
5585:
5360:
5335:
5325:
5313:
4478:
4325:
4282:
4238:
4221:
4089:
3913:
3859:
3488:
3186:
3048:
3031:
2594:
2485:
2322:
1718:
1574:
make up the body of the organism and are not involved in gamete production.
1567:
1444:
1416:
1388:
1308:
1167:
1140:
1123:
1053:
878:
870:
793:
656:
535:
519:
479:
393:
343:
210:
5017:
4972:
4885:
4757:
4597:
Emery and Rimoin's Principles and Practice of Medical Genetics and Genomics
4551:
4486:
4442:
4390:
4333:
4290:
4247:
4146:
4128:
4005:
3878:
3806:
3731:
3682:
3612:
Monaghan F, Corcos A (1984-01-01). "On the origins of the Mendelian laws".
3598:
3555:
3537:
3506:
3449:
3400:
3322:
3245:
3204:
3139:
3057:
3008:
2973:
2893:
2852:
2714:
2665:
2612:
2555:
2504:
2371:
2362:
2345:
2260:
1910:
Normally four cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent
4923:
4690:
4097:
4054:
3962:
3921:
3814:
3633:
17:
6375:
6159:
6017:
5957:
5942:
5911:
5897:
5627:
5609:
5595:
5581:
5377:
5278:
4836:
3766:
2656:
2639:
2147:
2122:
1821:
1776:
1771:), a very rare form, one-divisional meiosis, occurs in some flagellates (
1741:
1722:
1691:
1628:
1478:
1432:
1420:
1027:
957:
874:
866:
838:
809:
683:
625:
420:
413:
358:, creating new combinations of code on each chromosome. Later on, during
79:
4372:
2536:
1369:. The physical exchange of homologous chromosomal regions by homologous
6545:
6399:
6305:
5933:
5906:
5565:
5318:
5071:
5008:
4533:
4424:
4357:"Nanos2 suppresses meiosis and promotes male germ cell differentiation"
3758:
3590:
2404:
1933:
1880:
1825:
1817:
1609:
1563:
1358:
1213:
1136:
to allow homologous chromosomes to move to opposite poles of the cell.
995:
823:
727:
695:
679:
660:
652:
599:
551:
507:
503:
463:
459:
452:
401:
351:
335:
75:
67:
5531:
4999:
3304:
1744:. Meiosis during spermatogenesis is specific to a type of cell called
820:, each of the chromosomes consists of a single linear molecule of DNA.
6455:
6342:
6106:
6102:
6097:
5865:
5781:
5767:
5763:
5759:
5751:
5709:
5704:
5573:
5367:
5340:
5173:
2346:"Sex is not a solution for reproduction: the libertine bubble theory"
2252:
1756:
1687:
1675:
1624:
1620:
1597:
1463:
1424:
1412:
1341:
831:
611:
523:
495:
475:
471:
363:
315:
230:
222:
71:
3416:"Population genetics provides evidence for recombination in Giardia"
3000:
392:
as the original parent cell. The two meiotic divisions are known as
455:
cells that have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
373:(an abnormal number of chromosomes) are the leading known cause of
6520:
6505:
6500:
6495:
6490:
6485:
6480:
6475:
6470:
6445:
6383:
5840:
5835:
5724:
5719:
5714:
3833:
Stringer JM, Winship A, Zerafa N, Wakefield M, Hutt K (May 2020).
2387:"On the Maiotic Phase (Reduction Divisions) in Animals and Plants"
1649:
1562:, consisting of the cyclical process of growth and development by
1294:
Meiosis is now complete and ends up with four new daughter cells.
1011:
1003:
664:
531:
527:
467:
339:
236:
2819:"Recombination, Pairing, and Synapsis of Homologs during Meiosis"
5869:
5860:
5830:
5809:
5747:
5168:
4595:
Hegde MR, Crowley MR (2019-01-01). "Genome and Gene Structure".
1977:
Yes, normally occurs between each pair of homologous chromosomes
1605:
908:
487:
6045:
5535:
5120:
5050:(3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
3520:
Lahr DJ, Parfrey LW, Mitchell EA, Katz LA, Lara E (July 2011).
1913:
Two cells, having the same number of chromosomes as the parent
1246:
or interphase II. No DNA replication occurs during this stage.
830:
attached at a centromere. This replication does not change the
5850:
5814:
5804:
5777:
5755:
5147:
4939:"Mechanism and regulation of meiotic recombination initiation"
4222:"Positioning to get out of meiosis: the asymmetry of division"
2023:
1466:
1086:
86:
1203:
Homologous pairs move together along the metaphase plate: As
907:. In addition to strong meiotic stage-specific expression of
753:
514:
Meiosis occurs in all sexually-reproducing single-celled and
3414:
Cooper MA, Adam RD, Worobey M, Sterling CR (November 2007).
3079:
Nussbaum RL, McInnes RR, Willard HF, Hamosh A (2015-05-21).
1924:
Cellular reproduction, growth, repair, asexual reproduction
1857:– extra X chromosomes in males – i.e. XXY, XXXY, XXXXY, etc.
5110:"Abby Dernburg Seminar: Chromosome Dynamics During Meiosis"
4714:"Age-related decrease of meiotic cohesins in human oocytes"
2063:
seemingly have role in frog Oocyte meiosis. In the fungus
706:
Meiosis was discovered and described for the first time in
275:
269:
1186:
Unlike mitotic cells, human and mouse oocytes do not have
3337:"BioCoach Activity: Concept 11: Meiosis II: Metaphase II"
2917:"Meiosis, genetic recombination, and sexual reproduction"
1678:
in which the original number of chromosomes is restored.
1489:
leading to oxidative DNA damage. Treatment of the yeast
1080:
1074:
281:
3265:
3263:
451:
away from each other during meiosis I, resulting in two
6563:
International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature
3939:. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 24. pp. 323–70.
2781:
Krebs JE, Goldstein ES, Kilpatrick ST (November 2009).
2283:
2040:
2010:
Does not occur in Anaphase I, but occurs in Anaphase II
1958:
Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
758:, meaning 'lessening'. It was introduced to biology by
462:. In some cases, all four of the meiotic products form
42:
5116:
3161:
Holubcová Z, Blayney M, Elder K, Schuh M (June 2015).
1938:
In gonads, before gametes (in diplontic life cycles);
1307:
Meiosis appears to be a fundamental characteristic of
766:
in 1905, using the idiosyncratic rendering "maiosis":
3785:
Mira A (September 1998). "Why is meiosis arrested?".
3032:"Meiosis: the chromosomal foundation of reproduction"
1357:
alongside mutation, resulting in new combinations of
1098:
1089:
1077:
284:
278:
1955:
Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II
1812:. When the segregation is not normal, it is called
1083:
1071:
610:
produces two genetically identical cells, each with
6533:
6436:
6398:
6368:
6296:
6152:
6083:
6005:
5977:
5924:
5888:
5879:
5823:
5795:
5738:
5645:
5572:
5464:
5297:
5154:
1932:Almost all eukaryotes (animals, plants, fungi, and
1451:
Meiosis as an adaptation for repairing germline DNA
1262:, we see the disappearance of the nucleoli and the
1068:
694:involves the transfer of DNA from one bacterium or
366:, a cell with two copies of each chromosome again.
272:
266:
117:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
5043:
3218:Kitajima TS, Ohsugi M, Ellenberg J (August 2011).
2782:
2228:(6th ed.). Hoboken, NY: Pearson. p. 210.
1953:Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I,
1863:– lacking of one X chromosome in females – i.e. X0
1717:. The process of meiosis in females occurs during
1423:), which may last for decades, four copies of the
752:The term "meiosis" is derived from the Greek word
717:. It was described again in 1883, at the level of
598:produces four genetically unique cells, each with
4897:
4895:
2728:
2726:
2724:
2469:"Regulation of meiotic gene expression in plants"
2420:"Meiosis and mitosis: a terminological criticism"
3365:Ramesh MA, Malik SB, Logsdon JM (January 2005).
3287:Haglund K, Nezis IP, Stenmark H (January 2011).
2681:"Meiotic Recombination: The Essence of Heredity"
743:detected crossovers in meiosis in the fruit fly
70:. For excessive constriction of the pupils, see
5084:Animations from the U. of Arizona Biology Dept.
3828:
3826:
3824:
2812:
2810:
2808:
2806:
2789:(10th ed.). Jones & Barlett Learning.
2751:
2749:
2747:
2745:
2743:
2741:
903:During meiosis, specific genes are more highly
4111:Nedelcu AM, Marcu O, Michod RE (August 2004).
2638:Cohen PE, Pollack SE, Pollard JW (June 2006).
2219:
2217:
1435:. The repair process used appears to involve
1131:, from Greek words meaning "two threads", the
435:. A subset of recombination events results in
6057:
5547:
5132:
2385:Farmer, J.B.; Moore, J.E.S. (February 1904).
1779:) from the gut of the wood-feeding cockroach
1686:In females, meiosis occurs in cells known as
8:
3081:Thompson & Thompson genetics in medicine
651:Meiosis uses many of the same mechanisms as
579:occurs only if needed to repair DNA damage;
233:) with a complete set of paired chromosomes.
3780:
3778:
3776:
3647:Saleem M, Lamb BC, Nevo E (December 2001).
1481:, as indicated by the following examples.
602:the number of chromosomes as in the parent
486:, and only one cell develops to produce an
26:
6395:
6064:
6050:
6042:
5885:
5554:
5540:
5532:
5139:
5125:
5117:
4943:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
4856:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
4402:
4400:
2823:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
2685:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
2445:. University of Cincinnati. Archived from
2391:Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science
1945:All proliferating cells in all eukaryotes
1242:Cells may enter a period of rest known as
686:, which generally reproduce asexually via
5846:Cellular apoptosis susceptibility protein
5007:
4962:
4875:
4826:
4747:
4737:
4563:
4561:
4541:
4432:
4380:
4237:
4136:
4044:
3868:
3858:
3721:
3672:
3545:
3496:
3439:
3390:
3312:
3235:
3194:
3129:
3047:
2963:
2883:
2842:
2704:
2655:
2602:
2545:
2535:
2494:
2484:
2361:
443:(singular: chiasma, for the Greek letter
253:, played back at 120× the recorded speed.
177:Learn how and when to remove this message
2756:Snustad DP, Simmons MJ (December 2008).
1893:
1533:
1525:
1157:Chromosomes condense further during the
942:
933:
690:. However, a "sexual" process known as
556:
554:, it differs in two important respects:
188:
32:This is an accepted version of this page
4187:Bidlack JE, Jansky S, Stern KR (2011).
3293:Communicative & Integrative Biology
3030:Bolcun-Filas E, Handel MA (July 2018).
2732:
2625:
2164:
1581:life cycle), during the haploid state (
960:, and exchange genetic information (by
865:Meiosis I and II are each divided into
636:often leading to physical connections (
439:, which create physical links known as
377:and the most frequent genetic cause of
59:Cell division producing haploid gametes
28:
3083:(8th ed.). Elsevier. p. 19.
1999:Occurs in Telophase I and Telophase II
6553:List of organisms by chromosome count
3626:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a109868
1174:disintegrates into vesicles, and the
986:The first stage of prophase I is the
213:. The daughter cells divide again in
74:. For the parasitic infestation, see
7:
4782:from the original on 1 November 2012
4638:Encyclopedia of Biological Chemistry
3112:Schuh M, Ellenberg J (August 2007).
2938:Link J, Jantsch V (September 2019).
2467:Zhou A, Pawlowski WP (August 2014).
2290:from the original on 29 January 2018
1748:, which will later mature to become
663:meiosis results in the formation of
655:, the type of cell division used by
209:) during the first division, called
115:adding citations to reliable sources
5235:Heterogametic sex / Homogametic sex
4160:South GR, Whittick A (2009-07-08).
4019:Bernstein C, Johns V (April 1989).
1631:utilize the haplontic life cycle.
5089:Meiosis at Kimball's Biology Pages
4801:Heywood P, Magee PT (March 1976).
4683:10.1111/j.1469-1809.1980.tb00943.x
4646:10.1016/B978-0-12-378630-2.00474-6
4636:Hunter N (2013-01-01). "Meiosis".
4605:10.1016/B978-0-12-812537-3.00004-4
4355:Suzuki A, Saga Y (February 2008).
4189:Stern's Introductory Plant Biology
2866:Baudat F, de Massy B (July 2007).
2817:Zickler D, Kleckner N (May 2015).
2198:"Definition of Reduction division"
1985:Pairing of homologous chromosomes?
1869:– an extra X chromosome in females
1789:Role in human genetics and disease
1725:stage and lacks the assistance of
998:, and the lateral elements of the
862:between meiosis I and meiosis II.
57:
3937:Molecular Genetics of Development
2061:Maturation promoting factor (MPF)
1942:Before spores (in haplodiplontic)
1875:– an extra Y chromosome in males.
1663:such that meiosis in the diploid
1513:leading to increased DNA damage.
1458:can be viewed as fundamentally a
557:
534:. It is an essential process for
427:pair with each other and undergo
5516:
5515:
5309:Evolution of sexual reproduction
4937:Lam I, Keeney S (October 2014).
4570:European Journal of Protistology
4191:. McGraw Hill. pp. 214–29.
2027:
1732:In males, meiosis occurs during
1064:
887:
853:phase of the mitotic cell cycle.
713:in 1876 by the German biologist
614:of chromosomes as in the parent
400:. Before meiosis begins, during
262:
91:
6174:Macrochromosome/Microchromosome
4904:Current Opinion in Cell Biology
4778:. Public Broadcasting Service.
4037:10.1128/jb.171.4.1893-1897.1989
3347:from the original on 2018-02-28
1383:(lacking crossovers). Although
1345:common ancestor of eukaryotes.
585:
369:Errors in meiosis resulting in
102:needs additional citations for
78:. For muscle inflammation, see
5417:Sexual reproduction in animals
4819:10.1128/mmbr.40.1.190-240.1976
3787:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1940:After zygotes (in haplontic);
1273:, the centromeres contain two
805:is divided into three phases:
205:exchange genetic information (
62:For the figure of speech, see
1:
4582:10.1016/s0932-4739(11)80349-4
4220:Brunet S, Verlhac MH (2010).
3945:10.1016/s0065-2660(08)60012-7
1554:Meiosis occurs in eukaryotic
1399:is absent between the paired
1363:Law of Independent Assortment
1032:Leptotene is followed by the
898:Diagram of the meiotic phases
419:-like stage known as meiotic
5289:Sex as a biological variable
5272:Simultaneous hermaphroditism
4916:10.1016/0955-0674(93)90106-z
4739:10.1371/journal.pone.0096710
4163:An Introduction to Phycology
3998:10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2003.06.002
2403:, Third Edition, June 2001,
628:. First, the cell undergoes
609:
597:
578:
567:
334:organisms that produces the
5856:Maturation promoting factor
5105:Stages of Meiosis animation
5094:Khan Academy, video lecture
4955:10.1101/cshperspect.a016634
4868:10.1101/cshperspect.a002683
3665:10.1093/genetics/159.4.1573
2835:10.1101/cshperspect.a016626
2697:10.1101/cshperspect.a016618
1963:Genetically same as parent?
1701:. At the beginning of each
1612:to grow into the organism.
721:, by the Belgian zoologist
592:chromosome number (ploidy)
6625:
6214:Dinoflagellate chromosomes
5997:Postreplication checkpoint
5427:Penile-vaginal intercourse
5267:Sequential hermaphroditism
3237:10.1016/j.cell.2011.07.031
3131:10.1016/j.cell.2007.06.025
2956:10.1007/s00412-019-00698-5
2473:Frontiers in Plant Science
2284:"Interactive Tree of Life"
2282:Letunic I, Bork P (2006).
2133:Alternation of generations
2098:Coefficient of coincidence
1851:– trisomy of chromosome 18
1845:– trisomy of chromosome 13
1839:– trisomy of chromosome 21
1801:
1661:alternation of generations
1640:alternation of generations
1550:Alternation of generations
1547:
1541:
1437:homologous recombinational
1051:
1025:
979:
754:
678:Meiosis does not occur in
618:
379:developmental disabilities
308:
246:A video of meiosis I in a
229:, forming a diploid cell (
225:. Two gametes fuse during
64:Meiosis (figure of speech)
61:
6558:List of sequenced genomes
6326:Chromosomal translocation
6199:A chromosome/B chromosome
6190:(or accessory chromosome)
5511:
5257:Testis-determining factor
4226:Human Reproduction Update
3714:10.1093/g3journal/jkad058
3441:10.1016/j.cub.2007.10.020
3392:10.1016/j.cub.2005.01.003
2885:10.1007/s10577-007-1140-3
2679:Hunter N (October 2015).
2401:Oxford English Dictionary
1636:haplodiplontic life cycle
1492:Schizosaccharomyces pombe
1182:Meiotic spindle formation
1006:which creates programmed
591:
586:
561:
518:organisms (which are all
6380:Telomere-binding protein
6194:Supernumerary chromosome
5198:Sex-determination system
4850:Kimble J (August 2011).
4671:Annals of Human Genetics
2989:Nature Reviews. Genetics
2441:Carter JS (2012-10-27).
1485:is an agent that causes
1429:repair damage in the DNA
1397:homologous recombination
1379:, meiosis is completely
1205:kinetochore microtubules
962:homologous recombination
792:Meiosis is divided into
692:horizontal gene transfer
634:homologous recombination
39:latest accepted revision
5101:The Cell-Cycle Ontology
5072:Meiosis Flash Animation
4988:Journal of Cell Science
4807:Bacteriological Reviews
4640:(2nd ed.): 17–23.
4479:10.1126/science.1125691
4361:Genes & Development
4326:10.1126/science.1166340
4090:10.1126/science.3941891
3914:10.1126/science.3898363
3860:10.1073/pnas.2001124117
3614:The Journal of Heredity
3489:10.1126/science.1169464
3187:10.1126/science.aaa9529
3036:Biology of Reproduction
2760:(5th ed.). Wiley.
2595:10.1126/science.1215110
2486:10.3389/fpls.2014.00413
2323:10.1525/bio.2010.60.7.5
2241:Nature Reviews Genetics
1387:are present during the
746:Drosophila melanogaster
6316:Structural alterations
5979:Cell cycle checkpoints
5181:Sexual differentiation
4129:10.1098/rspb.2004.2747
3807:10.1006/jtbi.1998.0761
3538:10.1098/rspb.2011.0289
2758:Principles of Genetics
2363:10.1002/bies.201000125
1974:Crossing over happens?
1655:
1585:life cycle), or both (
1539:
1531:
1471:recombinational repair
1385:synaptonemal complexes
1287:The process ends with
1219:Chromosome segregation
1210:independent assortment
948:
940:
921:homologous chromosomes
778:
425:homologous chromosomes
254:
234:
203:homologous chromosomes
6333:Numerical alterations
6321:Chromosomal inversion
6219:Homologous chromosome
6006:Other cellular phases
5730:CDK-activating kinase
5223:Temperature-dependent
4514:Nature Communications
4283:10.1093/humrep/del122
4239:10.1093/humupd/dmq044
3049:10.1093/biolre/ioy021
2143:Mitotic recombination
2118:Biological life cycle
1929:Where does it happen?
1887:Comparison to mitosis
1653:
1646:In plants and animals
1544:Biological life cycle
1538:Haplontic life cycle.
1537:
1529:
1456:Genetic recombination
1324:meiotic recombination
1127:stage, also known as
1036:stage, also known as
990:stage, also known as
946:
937:
919:Meiosis I segregates
782:transliterating Greek
768:
429:genetic recombination
245:
207:chromosomal crossover
192:
6541:Extrachromosomal DNA
6229:Satellite chromosome
6204:Lampbrush chromosome
6144:Nuclear organization
2657:10.1210/er.2005-0017
2418:Battaglia E (1985).
2344:Lodé T (June 2011).
2020:Molecular regulation
2002:Occurs in Telophase
1855:Klinefelter syndrome
1738:seminiferous tubules
1617:haplontic life cycle
1594:diplontic life cycle
1530:Diplontic life cycle
1391:stage of meiosis in
1315:Giardia intestinalis
1309:eukaryotic organisms
1280:This is followed by
1133:synaptonemal complex
1042:synaptonemal complex
1008:double strand breaks
1000:synaptonemal complex
925:reductional division
494:) to form a diploid
423:. During this time,
332:sexually-reproducing
111:improve this article
6234:Centromere position
6209:Polytene chromosome
6179:Circular chromosome
5439:Hormonal motivation
5412:Fungal reproduction
5331:Reproductive system
4730:2014PLoSO...996710T
4526:2011NatCo...2..151K
4471:2006Sci...312..596B
4373:10.1101/gad.1612708
4318:2008Sci...322.1685L
4082:1986Sci...231...51K
3990:2003MRFMM.531..231S
3906:1985Sci...229.1277B
3851:2020PNAS..11711513S
3845:(21): 11513–11522.
3799:1998JThBi.194..275M
3583:1999JMolE..48..779D
3481:2009Sci...324..265A
3432:2007CBio...17.1984C
3383:2005CBio...15..185R
3179:2015Sci...348.1143H
2915:O'Connor C (2008).
2872:Chromosome Research
2587:2012Sci...335..552B
2537:10.7554/eLife.43966
2113:Synizesis (biology)
2013:Occurs in Anaphase
1560:sexual reproduction
1328:sexual reproduction
1298:Origin and function
929:equational division
927:. Meiosis II is an
824:Synthesis (S) phase
723:Edouard Van Beneden
558:
500:sexual reproduction
433:genetic information
29:Page version status
6599:Molecular genetics
6589:Cellular processes
5992:Spindle checkpoint
5797:P53 p63 p73 family
5444:Human reproduction
5422:Sexual intercourse
5407:Plant reproduction
5077:2010-08-23 at the
5046:Biological Science
5042:Freeman S (2005).
4772:"How Cells Divide"
4534:10.1038/ncomms1136
4425:10.1242/dev.170225
4271:Human Reproduction
3759:10.1007/BF00329771
3591:10.1007/pl00013156
2735:, pp. 249–250
2424:Annali di Botanica
2226:Biological Science
2224:Freeman S (2011).
2177:Biology LibreTexts
2039:. You can help by
1656:
1540:
1532:
1162:closely resembles
949:
941:
741:Thomas Hunt Morgan
569:shuffles the genes
255:
235:
197:duplicate (during
35:
6571:
6570:
6529:
6528:
6266:Centromere number
6183:Linear chromosome
6039:
6038:
6035:
6034:
5987:Restriction point
5529:
5528:
5449:Lordosis behavior
5164:Sexual dimorphism
5057:978-0-13-140941-5
5000:10.1242/jcs.00232
4655:978-0-12-378631-9
4614:978-0-12-812537-3
4465:(5773): 596–600.
4198:978-0-07-304052-3
4173:978-1-4443-1420-5
3954:978-0-12-017624-3
3900:(4719): 1277–81.
3532:(1715): 2081–90.
3341:The Biology Place
3305:10.4161/cib.13550
2796:978-0-7637-6632-0
2767:978-0-470-38825-9
2644:Endocrine Reviews
2628:, pp. 244–45
2399:as quoted in the
2057:
2056:
2017:
2016:
2007:Centromeres split
1867:Triple X syndrome
1570:produce gametes.
1497:hydrogen peroxide
1483:Hydrogen peroxide
1407:Prophase I arrest
1355:genetic variation
1349:Genetic variation
1303:Origin of meiosis
1105:), also known as
828:sister chromatids
669:bdelloid rotifers
646:natural selection
642:spindle apparatus
622:
621:
511:utilize meiosis.
410:sister chromatids
243:
219:sister chromatids
187:
186:
179:
161:
16:(Redirected from
6616:
6396:
6360:Polyploidization
6188:Extra chromosome
6103:Genetic material
6066:
6059:
6052:
6043:
5886:
5556:
5549:
5542:
5533:
5519:
5518:
5479:Animal sexuality
5402:Sexual selection
5141:
5134:
5127:
5118:
5061:
5049:
5030:
5029:
5011:
4994:(Pt 2): 259–71.
4983:
4977:
4976:
4966:
4934:
4928:
4927:
4899:
4890:
4889:
4879:
4847:
4841:
4840:
4830:
4798:
4792:
4791:
4789:
4787:
4768:
4762:
4761:
4751:
4741:
4709:
4703:
4702:
4666:
4660:
4659:
4633:
4627:
4626:
4592:
4586:
4585:
4565:
4556:
4555:
4545:
4505:
4499:
4498:
4453:
4447:
4446:
4436:
4419:(1): dev170225.
4404:
4395:
4394:
4384:
4352:
4346:
4345:
4312:(5908): 1685–7.
4301:
4295:
4294:
4266:
4260:
4259:
4241:
4217:
4211:
4210:
4184:
4178:
4177:
4157:
4151:
4150:
4140:
4123:(1548): 1591–6.
4108:
4102:
4101:
4065:
4059:
4058:
4048:
4016:
4010:
4009:
3973:
3967:
3966:
3932:
3926:
3925:
3889:
3883:
3882:
3872:
3862:
3830:
3819:
3818:
3782:
3771:
3770:
3742:
3736:
3735:
3725:
3693:
3687:
3686:
3676:
3644:
3638:
3637:
3609:
3603:
3602:
3566:
3560:
3559:
3549:
3517:
3511:
3510:
3500:
3460:
3454:
3453:
3443:
3411:
3405:
3404:
3394:
3362:
3356:
3355:
3353:
3352:
3333:
3327:
3326:
3316:
3284:
3278:
3267:
3258:
3257:
3239:
3215:
3209:
3208:
3198:
3173:(6239): 1143–7.
3158:
3152:
3151:
3133:
3109:
3103:
3102:
3076:
3070:
3069:
3051:
3027:
3021:
3020:
2984:
2978:
2977:
2967:
2935:
2929:
2928:
2921:Nature Education
2912:
2906:
2905:
2887:
2863:
2857:
2856:
2846:
2814:
2801:
2800:
2788:
2778:
2772:
2771:
2753:
2736:
2730:
2719:
2718:
2708:
2676:
2670:
2669:
2659:
2635:
2629:
2623:
2617:
2616:
2606:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2549:
2539:
2515:
2509:
2508:
2498:
2488:
2464:
2458:
2457:
2455:
2454:
2438:
2432:
2431:
2415:
2409:
2398:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2365:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2306:
2300:
2299:
2297:
2295:
2279:
2273:
2272:
2253:10.1038/35066065
2236:
2230:
2229:
2221:
2212:
2211:
2209:
2208:
2194:
2188:
2187:
2185:
2184:
2169:
2108:Oxidative stress
2052:
2049:
2031:
2024:
1894:
1849:Edwards syndrome
1711:folliculogenesis
1511:oxidative stress
1487:oxidative stress
1395:, crossing-over
1326:, indicative of
1264:nuclear envelope
1178:begins to form.
1172:nuclear membrane
1166:of mitosis; the
1146:dictyotene stage
1101:
1096:
1095:
1092:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1070:
891:
757:
756:
559:
319:
312:
300:
299:
298:
297:
290:
287:
286:
283:
280:
277:
274:
271:
268:
244:
221:to form haploid
193:In meiosis, the
182:
175:
171:
168:
162:
160:
119:
95:
87:
21:
6624:
6623:
6619:
6618:
6617:
6615:
6614:
6613:
6609:1876 in science
6604:Plant sexuality
6574:
6573:
6572:
6567:
6525:
6432:
6394:
6364:
6353:Paleopolyploidy
6298:
6292:
6148:
6122:Heterochromatin
6085:
6079:
6070:
6040:
6031:
6021:
6001:
5973:
5920:
5915:
5901:
5881:
5875:
5819:
5791:
5734:
5641:
5568:
5560:
5530:
5525:
5507:
5494:Differentiation
5484:Human sexuality
5474:Plant sexuality
5460:
5356:Spermatogenesis
5300:
5293:
5156:
5150:
5145:
5079:Wayback Machine
5068:
5058:
5041:
5038:
5033:
4985:
4984:
4980:
4936:
4935:
4931:
4901:
4900:
4893:
4849:
4848:
4844:
4800:
4799:
4795:
4785:
4783:
4770:
4769:
4765:
4711:
4710:
4706:
4668:
4667:
4663:
4656:
4635:
4634:
4630:
4615:
4594:
4593:
4589:
4567:
4566:
4559:
4507:
4506:
4502:
4455:
4454:
4450:
4406:
4405:
4398:
4354:
4353:
4349:
4303:
4302:
4298:
4277:(11): 2739–42.
4268:
4267:
4263:
4219:
4218:
4214:
4199:
4186:
4185:
4181:
4174:
4159:
4158:
4154:
4110:
4109:
4105:
4067:
4066:
4062:
4018:
4017:
4013:
3984:(1–2): 231–51.
3975:
3974:
3970:
3955:
3934:
3933:
3929:
3891:
3890:
3886:
3832:
3831:
3822:
3784:
3783:
3774:
3744:
3743:
3739:
3695:
3694:
3690:
3646:
3645:
3641:
3611:
3610:
3606:
3568:
3567:
3563:
3519:
3518:
3514:
3475:(5924): 265–8.
3462:
3461:
3457:
3413:
3412:
3408:
3364:
3363:
3359:
3350:
3348:
3335:
3334:
3330:
3286:
3285:
3281:
3268:
3261:
3217:
3216:
3212:
3160:
3159:
3155:
3111:
3110:
3106:
3091:
3078:
3077:
3073:
3029:
3028:
3024:
3001:10.1038/nrg2193
2986:
2985:
2981:
2937:
2936:
2932:
2914:
2913:
2909:
2865:
2864:
2860:
2816:
2815:
2804:
2797:
2785:Lewin's Genes X
2780:
2779:
2775:
2768:
2755:
2754:
2739:
2731:
2722:
2691:(12): a016618.
2678:
2677:
2673:
2637:
2636:
2632:
2624:
2620:
2581:(6068): 552–7.
2568:
2567:
2563:
2517:
2516:
2512:
2466:
2465:
2461:
2452:
2450:
2440:
2439:
2435:
2417:
2416:
2412:
2397:(192): 489–558.
2384:
2383:
2379:
2343:
2342:
2338:
2308:
2307:
2303:
2293:
2291:
2281:
2280:
2276:
2238:
2237:
2233:
2223:
2222:
2215:
2206:
2204:
2196:
2195:
2191:
2182:
2180:
2171:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2157:
2153:Mating of yeast
2128:Parthenogenesis
2088:
2053:
2047:
2044:
2037:needs expansion
2022:
1954:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1889:
1873:Jacobs syndrome
1861:Turner syndrome
1806:
1800:
1791:
1765:
1734:spermatogenesis
1703:menstrual cycle
1684:
1648:
1552:
1546:
1524:
1519:
1453:
1409:
1351:
1332:G. intestinalis
1330:, was found in
1320:G. intestinalis
1305:
1300:
1252:
1236:
1227:
1201:
1184:
1176:meiotic spindle
1170:disappear, the
1155:
1139:In human fetal
1119:
1111:gene conversion
1099:
1067:
1063:
1056:
1050:
1030:
1024:
984:
982:Leptotene stage
978:
954:
917:
901:
900:
899:
897:
892:
852:
848:
842:
819:
813:
790:
733:August Weismann
704:
673:parthenogenesis
630:DNA replication
612:the same number
548:
540:spermatogenesis
417:
386:DNA replication
294:
293:
292:
265:
261:
237:
217:, splitting up
183:
172:
166:
163:
120:
118:
108:
96:
83:
60:
55:
54:
53:
52:
51:
50:
34:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6622:
6620:
6612:
6611:
6606:
6601:
6596:
6591:
6586:
6576:
6575:
6569:
6568:
6566:
6565:
6560:
6555:
6550:
6549:
6548:
6537:
6535:
6531:
6530:
6527:
6526:
6524:
6523:
6518:
6513:
6508:
6503:
6498:
6493:
6488:
6483:
6478:
6473:
6468:
6463:
6458:
6453:
6448:
6442:
6440:
6434:
6433:
6431:
6430:
6425:
6420:
6415:
6410:
6404:
6402:
6393:
6392:
6387:
6372:
6370:
6366:
6365:
6363:
6362:
6357:
6356:
6355:
6350:
6345:
6340:
6330:
6329:
6328:
6323:
6313:
6308:
6302:
6300:
6294:
6293:
6291:
6290:
6289:
6288:
6283:
6278:
6273:
6263:
6262:
6261:
6256:
6251:
6246:
6244:Submetacentric
6241:
6231:
6226:
6221:
6216:
6211:
6206:
6201:
6196:
6191:
6185:
6176:
6171:
6170:or heterosome)
6164:Sex chromosome
6156:
6154:
6150:
6149:
6147:
6146:
6141:
6136:
6131:
6126:
6125:
6124:
6119:
6109:
6100:
6095:
6089:
6087:
6081:
6080:
6071:
6069:
6068:
6061:
6054:
6046:
6037:
6036:
6033:
6032:
6030:
6029:
6024:
6019:
6015:
6009:
6007:
6003:
6002:
6000:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5983:
5981:
5975:
5974:
5972:
5971:
5966:
5960:
5955:
5950:
5945:
5940:
5930:
5928:
5922:
5921:
5919:
5918:
5913:
5909:
5904:
5899:
5894:
5892:
5883:
5877:
5876:
5874:
5873:
5863:
5858:
5853:
5848:
5843:
5838:
5833:
5827:
5825:
5821:
5820:
5818:
5817:
5812:
5807:
5801:
5799:
5793:
5792:
5790:
5789:
5771:
5744:
5742:
5736:
5735:
5733:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5712:
5707:
5702:
5697:
5692:
5687:
5682:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5662:
5657:
5651:
5649:
5643:
5642:
5640:
5639:
5625:
5607:
5593:
5578:
5576:
5570:
5569:
5561:
5559:
5558:
5551:
5544:
5536:
5527:
5526:
5524:
5523:
5512:
5509:
5508:
5506:
5505:
5504:
5503:
5502:
5501:
5496:
5491:
5476:
5470:
5468:
5462:
5461:
5459:
5458:
5457:
5456:
5451:
5446:
5441:
5436:
5431:
5430:
5429:
5414:
5409:
5404:
5399:
5398:
5397:
5392:
5382:
5381:
5380:
5375:
5365:
5364:
5363:
5358:
5348:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5328:
5323:
5322:
5321:
5316:
5305:
5303:
5295:
5294:
5292:
5291:
5286:
5281:
5276:
5275:
5274:
5269:
5259:
5254:
5253:
5252:
5247:
5240:Sex chromosome
5237:
5232:
5231:
5230:
5225:
5220:
5215:
5210:
5205:
5195:
5194:
5193:
5188:
5178:
5177:
5176:
5171:
5160:
5158:
5152:
5151:
5146:
5144:
5143:
5136:
5129:
5121:
5115:
5114:
5113:
5112:
5102:
5096:
5091:
5086:
5081:
5067:
5066:External links
5064:
5063:
5062:
5056:
5037:
5034:
5032:
5031:
4978:
4949:(1): a016634.
4929:
4891:
4862:(8): a002683.
4842:
4813:(1): 190–240.
4793:
4763:
4704:
4661:
4654:
4628:
4613:
4587:
4557:
4500:
4448:
4396:
4347:
4296:
4261:
4212:
4197:
4179:
4172:
4152:
4103:
4076:(4733): 51–4.
4060:
4011:
3968:
3953:
3927:
3884:
3820:
3772:
3737:
3688:
3659:(4): 1573–93.
3639:
3604:
3561:
3512:
3455:
3426:(22): 1984–8.
3406:
3357:
3328:
3279:
3259:
3210:
3153:
3104:
3090:978-1437706963
3089:
3071:
3042:(1): 112–126.
3022:
2995:(10): 762–75.
2979:
2950:(3): 317–330.
2930:
2907:
2858:
2829:(6): a016626.
2802:
2795:
2773:
2766:
2737:
2720:
2671:
2650:(4): 398–426.
2630:
2618:
2561:
2510:
2459:
2433:
2410:
2377:
2336:
2317:(7): 498–505.
2301:
2274:
2231:
2213:
2189:
2173:"4.1: Meiosis"
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2055:
2054:
2034:
2032:
2021:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2008:
2004:
2003:
2000:
1997:
1993:
1992:
1989:
1986:
1982:
1981:
1978:
1975:
1971:
1970:
1967:
1964:
1960:
1959:
1956:
1951:
1947:
1946:
1943:
1930:
1926:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1915:
1914:
1911:
1908:
1904:
1903:
1900:
1897:
1888:
1885:
1877:
1876:
1870:
1864:
1858:
1852:
1846:
1843:Patau syndrome
1840:
1814:nondisjunction
1804:Nondisjunction
1802:Main article:
1799:
1798:Nondisjunction
1796:
1790:
1787:
1764:
1761:
1757:female mammals
1683:
1680:
1647:
1644:
1587:haplodiplontic
1542:Main article:
1523:
1522:In life cycles
1520:
1518:
1515:
1502:Volvox carteri
1452:
1449:
1408:
1405:
1350:
1347:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1251:
1248:
1235:
1232:
1226:
1223:
1200:
1197:
1183:
1180:
1154:
1151:
1118:
1115:
1052:Main article:
1049:
1046:
1026:Main article:
1023:
1020:
980:Main article:
977:
974:
953:
950:
916:
913:
894:
893:
886:
885:
884:
855:
854:
850:
846:
840:
836:
821:
817:
811:
789:
786:
703:
700:
688:binary fission
620:
619:
616:
615:
608:
604:
603:
596:
593:
589:
588:
584:
583:
577:
573:
572:
566:
563:
562:recombination
547:
544:
415:
185:
184:
99:
97:
90:
58:
56:
47:22 August 2024
36:
30:
27:
25:
24:
23:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6621:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6602:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6592:
6590:
6587:
6585:
6582:
6581:
6579:
6564:
6561:
6559:
6556:
6554:
6551:
6547:
6544:
6543:
6542:
6539:
6538:
6536:
6532:
6522:
6519:
6517:
6514:
6512:
6509:
6507:
6504:
6502:
6499:
6497:
6494:
6492:
6489:
6487:
6484:
6482:
6479:
6477:
6474:
6472:
6469:
6467:
6464:
6462:
6459:
6457:
6454:
6452:
6449:
6447:
6444:
6443:
6441:
6439:
6435:
6429:
6426:
6424:
6421:
6419:
6416:
6414:
6411:
6409:
6406:
6405:
6403:
6401:
6397:
6391:
6388:
6385:
6381:
6377:
6374:
6373:
6371:
6367:
6361:
6358:
6354:
6351:
6349:
6346:
6344:
6341:
6339:
6336:
6335:
6334:
6331:
6327:
6324:
6322:
6319:
6318:
6317:
6314:
6312:
6309:
6307:
6304:
6303:
6301:
6299:and evolution
6295:
6287:
6284:
6282:
6279:
6277:
6274:
6272:
6269:
6268:
6267:
6264:
6260:
6257:
6255:
6252:
6250:
6247:
6245:
6242:
6240:
6237:
6236:
6235:
6232:
6230:
6227:
6225:
6224:Isochromosome
6222:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6212:
6210:
6207:
6205:
6202:
6200:
6197:
6195:
6192:
6189:
6186:
6184:
6180:
6177:
6175:
6172:
6169:
6165:
6161:
6158:
6157:
6155:
6151:
6145:
6142:
6140:
6137:
6135:
6132:
6130:
6127:
6123:
6120:
6118:
6115:
6114:
6113:
6110:
6108:
6104:
6101:
6099:
6096:
6094:
6091:
6090:
6088:
6082:
6078:
6074:
6067:
6062:
6060:
6055:
6053:
6048:
6047:
6044:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6016:
6014:
6011:
6010:
6008:
6004:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5984:
5982:
5980:
5976:
5970:
5967:
5964:
5961:
5959:
5956:
5954:
5951:
5949:
5946:
5944:
5941:
5939:
5935:
5932:
5931:
5929:
5927:
5923:
5917:
5910:
5908:
5905:
5903:
5896:
5895:
5893:
5891:
5887:
5884:
5878:
5871:
5867:
5864:
5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5834:
5832:
5829:
5828:
5826:
5822:
5816:
5813:
5811:
5808:
5806:
5803:
5802:
5800:
5798:
5794:
5787:
5783:
5779:
5775:
5772:
5769:
5765:
5761:
5757:
5753:
5749:
5746:
5745:
5743:
5741:
5740:CDK inhibitor
5737:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5701:
5698:
5696:
5693:
5691:
5688:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5673:
5671:
5668:
5666:
5663:
5661:
5658:
5656:
5653:
5652:
5650:
5648:
5644:
5637:
5633:
5629:
5626:
5623:
5619:
5615:
5611:
5608:
5605:
5601:
5597:
5594:
5591:
5587:
5583:
5580:
5579:
5577:
5575:
5571:
5567:
5564:
5557:
5552:
5550:
5545:
5543:
5538:
5537:
5534:
5522:
5514:
5513:
5510:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5486:
5485:
5482:
5481:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5472:
5471:
5469:
5467:
5463:
5455:
5454:Pelvic thrust
5452:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5442:
5440:
5437:
5435:
5432:
5428:
5425:
5424:
5423:
5420:
5419:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5396:
5393:
5391:
5388:
5387:
5386:
5385:Fertilization
5383:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
5370:
5369:
5366:
5362:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5353:
5352:
5351:Gametogenesis
5349:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5332:
5329:
5327:
5324:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5311:
5310:
5307:
5306:
5304:
5302:
5296:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5284:parasexuality
5282:
5280:
5277:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5264:
5263:
5262:Hermaphrodite
5260:
5258:
5255:
5251:
5248:
5246:
5243:
5242:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5229:
5228:Haplodiploidy
5226:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5201:
5200:
5199:
5196:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5184:
5183:
5182:
5179:
5175:
5172:
5170:
5167:
5166:
5165:
5162:
5161:
5159:
5153:
5149:
5142:
5137:
5135:
5130:
5128:
5123:
5122:
5119:
5111:
5108:
5107:
5106:
5103:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5082:
5080:
5076:
5073:
5070:
5069:
5065:
5059:
5053:
5048:
5047:
5040:
5039:
5035:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5010:
5005:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4989:
4982:
4979:
4974:
4970:
4965:
4960:
4956:
4952:
4948:
4944:
4940:
4933:
4930:
4925:
4921:
4917:
4913:
4910:(2): 219–25.
4909:
4905:
4898:
4896:
4892:
4887:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4869:
4865:
4861:
4857:
4853:
4846:
4843:
4838:
4834:
4829:
4824:
4820:
4816:
4812:
4808:
4804:
4797:
4794:
4781:
4777:
4773:
4767:
4764:
4759:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4731:
4727:
4724:(5): e96710.
4723:
4719:
4715:
4708:
4705:
4700:
4696:
4692:
4688:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4672:
4665:
4662:
4657:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4632:
4629:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4591:
4588:
4583:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4564:
4562:
4558:
4553:
4549:
4544:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4504:
4501:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4452:
4449:
4444:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4426:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4410:
4403:
4401:
4397:
4392:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4374:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4351:
4348:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4311:
4307:
4300:
4297:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4280:
4276:
4272:
4265:
4262:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4216:
4213:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4194:
4190:
4183:
4180:
4175:
4169:
4165:
4164:
4156:
4153:
4148:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4118:
4117:Proc Biol Sci
4114:
4107:
4104:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4064:
4061:
4056:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4031:(4): 1893–7.
4030:
4026:
4022:
4015:
4012:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3979:
3972:
3969:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3931:
3928:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3888:
3885:
3880:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3829:
3827:
3825:
3821:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3793:(2): 275–87.
3792:
3788:
3781:
3779:
3777:
3773:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3753:(3): 205–21.
3752:
3748:
3741:
3738:
3733:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3702:G3 (Bethesda)
3699:
3692:
3689:
3684:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3643:
3640:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3608:
3605:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3577:(6): 779–83.
3576:
3572:
3565:
3562:
3557:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3526:Proc Biol Sci
3523:
3516:
3513:
3508:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3459:
3456:
3451:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3410:
3407:
3402:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3377:(2): 185–91.
3376:
3372:
3368:
3361:
3358:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3332:
3329:
3324:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3283:
3280:
3276:
3275:9780716779285
3272:
3266:
3264:
3260:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3230:(4): 568–81.
3229:
3225:
3221:
3214:
3211:
3206:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3157:
3154:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3124:(3): 484–98.
3123:
3119:
3115:
3108:
3105:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3086:
3082:
3075:
3072:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3026:
3023:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2983:
2980:
2975:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2934:
2931:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2911:
2908:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2878:(5): 565–77.
2877:
2873:
2869:
2862:
2859:
2854:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2813:
2811:
2809:
2807:
2803:
2798:
2792:
2787:
2786:
2777:
2774:
2769:
2763:
2759:
2752:
2750:
2748:
2746:
2744:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2729:
2727:
2725:
2721:
2716:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2675:
2672:
2667:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2634:
2631:
2627:
2622:
2619:
2614:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2565:
2562:
2557:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2514:
2511:
2506:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2463:
2460:
2449:on 2012-10-27
2448:
2444:
2437:
2434:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2407:
2402:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2381:
2378:
2373:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2356:(6): 419–22.
2355:
2351:
2347:
2340:
2337:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2305:
2302:
2289:
2285:
2278:
2275:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2247:(4): 280–91.
2246:
2242:
2235:
2232:
2227:
2220:
2218:
2214:
2203:
2199:
2193:
2190:
2178:
2174:
2168:
2165:
2159:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2138:Brachymeiosis
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2093:Fertilisation
2091:
2090:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2077:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2067:
2062:
2051:
2042:
2038:
2035:This section
2033:
2030:
2026:
2025:
2019:
2012:
2009:
2006:
2005:
2001:
1998:
1995:
1994:
1990:
1987:
1984:
1983:
1979:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1968:
1965:
1962:
1961:
1957:
1952:
1949:
1948:
1944:
1935:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1923:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1912:
1909:
1906:
1905:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1895:
1892:
1886:
1884:
1882:
1874:
1871:
1868:
1865:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1850:
1847:
1844:
1841:
1838:
1837:Down syndrome
1835:
1834:
1833:
1829:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1805:
1797:
1795:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1783:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1753:
1751:
1747:
1746:spermatocytes
1743:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1672:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1652:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1632:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1613:
1611:
1607:
1604:in males and
1603:
1599:
1595:
1590:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1575:
1573:
1572:Somatic cells
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1551:
1545:
1536:
1528:
1521:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1503:
1498:
1494:
1493:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1377:
1372:
1371:recombination
1368:
1367:Crossing Over
1364:
1360:
1356:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1339:
1338:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1316:
1310:
1302:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1285:
1283:
1278:
1276:
1272:
1267:
1265:
1261:
1256:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1240:
1233:
1231:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1215:
1211:
1206:
1198:
1196:
1194:
1189:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1160:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1147:
1142:
1137:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1125:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1103:
1094:
1061:
1055:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1029:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
983:
975:
973:
971:
967:
963:
959:
951:
945:
936:
932:
930:
926:
922:
914:
912:
910:
906:
896:
890:
883:
880:
876:
872:
868:
863:
861:
844:
837:
833:
829:
825:
822:
815:
808:
807:
806:
804:
799:
795:
787:
785:
783:
777:
775:
774:
767:
765:
761:
750:
748:
747:
742:
738:
734:
730:
729:
724:
720:
716:
715:Oscar Hertwig
712:
709:
701:
699:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
676:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
649:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
617:
613:
606:
605:
601:
594:
590:
582:
575:
574:
570:
564:
560:
555:
553:
545:
543:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
522:), including
521:
517:
516:multicellular
512:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
492:fertilization
489:
485:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
456:
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450:
446:
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438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
382:
380:
376:
372:
367:
365:
361:
360:fertilisation
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
324:cell division
321:
318:
311:
307:
304:
303:Ancient Greek
296:
289:
259:
252:
249:
232:
228:
227:fertilization
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
191:
181:
178:
170:
167:February 2023
159:
156:
152:
149:
145:
142:
138:
135:
131:
128: –
127:
123:
122:Find sources:
116:
112:
106:
105:
100:This article
98:
94:
89:
88:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
6310:
6265:
6233:
6073:Cytogenetics
6026:
5948:Prometaphase
5373:spermatozoon
5345:
5301:reproduction
5250:Y chromosome
5245:X chromosome
5191:Virilization
5186:Feminization
5045:
4991:
4987:
4981:
4946:
4942:
4932:
4907:
4903:
4859:
4855:
4845:
4810:
4806:
4796:
4784:. Retrieved
4775:
4766:
4721:
4717:
4707:
4677:(1): 29–36.
4674:
4670:
4664:
4637:
4631:
4596:
4590:
4573:
4569:
4517:
4513:
4503:
4462:
4458:
4451:
4416:
4412:
4367:(4): 430–5.
4364:
4360:
4350:
4309:
4305:
4299:
4274:
4270:
4264:
4232:(1): 68–75.
4229:
4225:
4215:
4188:
4182:
4162:
4155:
4120:
4116:
4106:
4073:
4069:
4063:
4028:
4024:
4014:
3981:
3977:
3971:
3936:
3930:
3897:
3893:
3887:
3842:
3838:
3790:
3786:
3750:
3746:
3740:
3705:
3701:
3691:
3656:
3652:
3642:
3617:
3613:
3607:
3574:
3570:
3564:
3529:
3525:
3515:
3472:
3468:
3458:
3423:
3419:
3409:
3374:
3370:
3360:
3349:. Retrieved
3340:
3331:
3296:
3292:
3282:
3227:
3223:
3213:
3170:
3166:
3156:
3121:
3117:
3107:
3080:
3074:
3039:
3035:
3025:
2992:
2988:
2982:
2947:
2943:
2933:
2924:
2920:
2910:
2875:
2871:
2861:
2826:
2822:
2784:
2776:
2757:
2733:Freeman 2005
2688:
2684:
2674:
2647:
2643:
2633:
2626:Freeman 2005
2621:
2578:
2574:
2564:
2527:
2523:
2513:
2476:
2472:
2462:
2451:. Retrieved
2447:the original
2436:
2427:
2423:
2413:
2405:
2394:
2390:
2380:
2353:
2349:
2339:
2314:
2310:
2304:
2292:. Retrieved
2277:
2244:
2240:
2234:
2225:
2205:. Retrieved
2201:
2192:
2181:. Retrieved
2179:. 2019-10-01
2176:
2167:
2081:
2078:
2074:
2071:
2065:
2058:
2045:
2041:adding to it
2036:
1980:Very rarely
1890:
1878:
1830:
1813:
1809:
1807:
1792:
1782:Cryptocercus
1780:
1773:parabasalids
1766:
1754:
1731:
1696:
1685:
1673:
1657:
1635:
1633:
1616:
1614:
1593:
1591:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1576:
1553:
1507:antioxidants
1500:
1490:
1454:
1410:
1392:
1374:
1352:
1335:
1331:
1319:
1314:
1306:
1293:
1289:telophase II
1288:
1286:
1281:
1279:
1275:kinetochores
1271:metaphase II
1270:
1268:
1259:
1257:
1253:
1244:interkinesis
1241:
1237:
1228:
1204:
1202:
1185:
1164:prometaphase
1158:
1156:
1145:
1138:
1128:
1122:
1120:
1106:
1059:
1057:
1037:
1033:
1031:
991:
987:
985:
955:
928:
924:
918:
902:
864:
860:interkinesis
856:
791:
779:
770:
769:
764:J.E.S. Moore
751:
744:
726:
705:
677:
650:
623:
580:
549:
513:
484:polar bodies
457:
384:In meiosis,
383:
368:
356:crossed over
316:
313:
306:
257:
256:
251:spermatocyte
173:
164:
154:
147:
140:
133:
121:
109:Please help
104:verification
101:
84:
46:
37:This is the
31:
6286:Polycentric
6276:Monocentric
6259:Holocentric
6254:Acrocentric
6249:Telocentric
6239:Metacentric
6117:Euchromatin
6077:chromosomes
5969:Cytokinesis
5938:Preprophase
5882:checkpoints
5036:Cited texts
5009:10261/62904
4413:Development
4025:J Bacteriol
3620:(1): 67–9.
3343:. Pearson.
2202:MedicineNet
2048:August 2020
1996:Cytokinesis
1883:over time.
1810:disjunction
1769:achiasmatic
1763:Flagellates
1750:spermatozoa
1727:centrosomes
1669:gametophyte
1602:spermatozoa
1556:life cycles
1401:chromosomes
1376:Bombyx mori
1282:anaphase II
1260:prophase II
1234:Telophase I
1199:Metaphase I
1193:kinetochore
1188:centrosomes
1121:During the
905:transcribed
839:Growth 2 (G
810:Growth 1 (G
760:J.B. Farmer
739:geneticist
719:chromosomes
390:chromosomes
375:miscarriage
301:; from
195:chromosomes
6594:Cell cycle
6578:Categories
6438:Centromere
6369:Structures
6348:Polyploidy
6338:Aneuploidy
6139:Nucleosome
6129:Chromosome
5890:Interphase
5880:Phases and
5563:Cell cycle
5434:Copulation
5155:Biological
4786:6 December
4520:(1): 151.
3747:Chromosoma
3571:J Mol Evol
3351:2018-02-10
3299:(1): 1–9.
2944:Chromosoma
2530:: e43966.
2453:2018-02-09
2430:: 101–140.
2311:BioScience
2207:2021-05-29
2183:2021-05-29
2160:References
2103:DNA repair
1907:End result
1682:In mammals
1665:sporophyte
1568:germ cells
1558:involving
1548:See also:
1517:Occurrence
1475:DNA damage
1460:DNA repair
1441:DNA damage
1381:achiasmate
1337:Leishmania
1250:Meiosis II
1225:Anaphase I
1159:diakinesis
1153:Diakinesis
970:chromatids
952:Prophase I
803:Interphase
798:meiosis II
708:sea urchin
657:eukaryotes
638:crossovers
520:eukaryotes
437:crossovers
406:cell cycle
398:meiosis II
371:aneuploidy
348:chromosome
328:germ cells
215:meiosis II
199:interphase
137:newspapers
18:Anaphase I
6390:Protamine
6297:Processes
6281:Dicentric
6134:Chromatid
6112:Chromatin
6093:Karyotype
6013:Apoptosis
5963:Telophase
5953:Metaphase
5748:INK4a/ARF
5489:Mechanics
5466:Sexuality
5361:Oogenesis
5336:Sex organ
5326:Germ cell
5314:Anisogamy
4599:: 53–77.
4207:320895017
4166:. Wiley.
3978:Mutat Res
3420:Curr Biol
3371:Curr Biol
3099:908336124
3017:205484180
2927:(1): 174.
2443:"Mitosis"
2350:BioEssays
1777:oxymonads
1742:testicles
1719:oogenesis
1627:and many
1583:haplontic
1579:diplontic
1445:fertility
1417:gestation
1389:pachytene
1141:oogenesis
1129:diplonema
1124:diplotene
1117:Diplotene
1107:pachynema
1060:pachytene
1054:Pachytene
1048:Pachytene
992:leptonema
988:leptotene
976:Leptotene
915:Meiosis I
879:telophase
871:metaphase
794:meiosis I
648:can act.
536:oogenesis
480:extrusion
449:segregate
441:chiasmata
394:meiosis I
344:egg cells
248:crane fly
211:meiosis I
126:"Meiosis"
6534:See also
6376:Telomere
6343:Euploidy
6271:Acentric
6168:allosome
6160:Autosome
6086:concepts
5958:Anaphase
5943:Prophase
5566:proteins
5521:Category
5499:Activity
5395:Internal
5390:External
5279:Intersex
5075:Archived
5026:14608163
5018:12482912
4973:25324213
4886:21646377
4780:Archived
4758:24806359
4718:PLOS ONE
4699:24469567
4623:92480716
4552:21224842
4487:16574820
4443:30487180
4391:18281459
4342:11261341
4334:19074348
4291:16982661
4256:13988521
4248:20833637
4147:15306305
4006:14637258
3879:32381741
3732:36911915
3723:10151401
3683:11779798
3653:Genetics
3599:10229582
3556:21429931
3507:19359589
3450:17980591
3401:15668177
3345:Archived
3323:21509167
3246:21854982
3205:26045437
3140:17693257
3066:38589675
3058:29385397
3009:17846636
2974:30877366
2902:26696085
2894:17674146
2853:25986558
2715:26511629
2666:16543383
2613:22194413
2556:31237565
2505:25202317
2372:21472739
2331:86663600
2288:Archived
2269:22264575
2261:11283700
2148:Dikaryon
2123:Apomixis
2086:See also
2066:S. pombe
1934:protists
1918:Function
1902:Mitosis
1822:monosomy
1723:dictyate
1699:follicle
1629:protozoa
1479:germline
1433:germline
1421:dictyate
1168:nucleoli
1038:zygonema
1034:zygotene
1028:Zygotene
1022:Zygotene
875:anaphase
867:prophase
835:meiosis.
773:Flemming
737:American
696:archaeon
684:bacteria
661:protists
626:homologs
607:mitosis
595:meiosis
576:mitosis
565:meiosis
546:Overview
466:such as
421:prophase
80:Myositis
43:reviewed
6584:Meiosis
6546:Plasmid
6400:Histone
6311:Meiosis
6306:Mitosis
6027:Meiosis
5934:Mitosis
5926:M phase
5907:S phase
5774:cip/kip
5346:Meiosis
5319:Isogamy
4964:4292169
4924:8389567
4877:3140684
4749:4013030
4726:Bibcode
4691:7198887
4576:: 1–7.
4543:3034736
4522:Bibcode
4495:2514848
4467:Bibcode
4459:Science
4434:6340151
4382:2238665
4314:Bibcode
4306:Science
4138:1691771
4098:3941891
4078:Bibcode
4070:Science
4055:2703462
3986:Bibcode
3963:3324702
3922:3898363
3902:Bibcode
3894:Science
3870:7260990
3847:Bibcode
3815:9778439
3795:Bibcode
3674:1461899
3634:6368675
3579:Bibcode
3547:3107637
3498:2729066
3477:Bibcode
3469:Science
3428:Bibcode
3379:Bibcode
3314:3073259
3254:5637615
3196:4477045
3175:Bibcode
3167:Science
3148:5219323
2965:6823321
2844:4448610
2706:4665078
2604:3414261
2583:Bibcode
2575:Science
2547:6615865
2496:4142721
2479:: 413.
2294:23 July
1899:Meiosis
1881:cohesin
1826:mitosis
1818:trisomy
1740:of the
1736:in the
1715:atresia
1688:oocytes
1634:In the
1615:In the
1610:mitosis
1592:In the
1564:mitotic
1477:in the
1464:genomic
1431:of the
1413:oocytes
1393:B. mori
1359:alleles
1214:cohesin
1102:-i-teen
1062:stage (
996:cohesin
966:chiasma
958:synapse
843:) phase
814:) phase
755:μείωσις
728:Ascaris
702:History
680:archaea
653:mitosis
587:
552:mitosis
524:animals
508:haploid
504:diploid
464:gametes
460:mitosis
453:haploid
404:of the
402:S phase
352:haploid
336:gametes
317:meíōsis
310:μείωσις
258:Meiosis
223:gametes
151:scholar
76:Myiasis
68:Mitosis
6107:Genome
6098:Ploidy
5866:Cullin
5752:p14arf
5574:Cyclin
5368:Gamete
5341:Mating
5299:Sexual
5174:Female
5054:
5024:
5016:
4971:
4961:
4922:
4884:
4874:
4837:773364
4835:
4828:413949
4825:
4756:
4746:
4697:
4689:
4652:
4621:
4611:
4550:
4540:
4493:
4485:
4441:
4431:
4389:
4379:
4340:
4332:
4289:
4254:
4246:
4205:
4195:
4170:
4145:
4135:
4096:
4053:
4046:209837
4043:
4004:
3961:
3951:
3920:
3877:
3867:
3813:
3767:870294
3765:
3730:
3720:
3681:
3671:
3632:
3597:
3554:
3544:
3505:
3495:
3448:
3399:
3321:
3311:
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