Anglo-Egyptian conquest of Sudan

665: 468:

established a forward position. Instead of defending it however he moved his forces across the river so that as the Egyptian gunboats came upstream he was able to concentrate heavy fire on them. On 19 September the gunboats made several runs at the Mahdist positions, firing at their trenches, but the fire returned was too intense for them to maintain their position safely. Kitchener therefore ordered them to simply steam on, past the Mahdist position, towards Dongola. Seeing them proceed, Wad Bishara withdrew his forces to Dongola. On 20 September the gunboats exchanged fire with the town's defenders and on 23 Kitchener's main force reached the town. Wad Bishara, seeing the overwhelming size of the Egyptian force, and unnerved by several days of bombardment by the gunboats, withdrew. The town was occupied, as were

390: 673: 226: 110:, had been the architect of the British withdrawal after the Mahdist uprising. He remained sure that Egypt needed to recover its financial position before any invasion could be contemplated. "Sudan is worth a good deal to Egypt," he said, "but it is not worth bankruptcy and extremely oppressive taxation." He felt it was necessary to avoid "being driven into premature action by the small but influential section of public opinion which persistently and strenuously advocated the cause of immediate reconquest." As late as 15 November 1895 he had been assured by the 20: 688:, although destruction was not very widespread. There is some controversy about the conduct of Kitchener and his troops during and immediately following the battle. In February 1899, Kitchener responded to criticisms by categorically denying that he had ordered or permitted the Mahdist wounded in the battlefield to be massacred by his troops; that Omdurman had been looted; and that civilian fugitives in the city had been deliberately fired on. There is no evidence for the last accusation, but some foundation for the others. In 485: 448:, and were now pressed into service as part of the invasion force. They had to wait however for the Nile to flood before they could navigate over the second cataract, and in 1896 the flood was unusually late, meaning that the first boat could not pass until 14 August. Each of the seven boats had to be physically hauled up over the cataract by two thousand men, at the rate of one boat per day. To this force were added the three new gunboats brought round the cataract by rail and assembled on the river at Kosheh. 703:, the largest building in Omdurman, had already been looted when Kitchener gave the order for it to be blown up. Kitchener ordered that the Mahdi's remains be dumped in the Nile. He considered and discussed keeping his skull, either as some kind of trophy or as a medical exhibit at the Royal College of Surgeons. Eventually however the head was buried, although anecdotes about its having been turned into an inkpot or a drinking vessel continue to circulate even today. 287: 409:, led around 3,000 soldiers and had evidently decided to hold his ground rather than withdraw as the Egyptian army advanced. At dawn on 7 June, two Egyptian columns attacked the village from north and south, killing 800 Mahdist soldiers, with others plunging naked into the Nile to make their escape. This left the road to Dongola clear, but despite advice to move rapidly and take it, Kitchener adhered to his usual cautious and carefully prepared approach. 91: 252:. The use of British troops was kept to a minimum and Sudanese troops were used wherever possible, partly because they were cheaper, and partly because they could survive the extreme conditions of campaigning in Sudan which Europeans often could not. To maximise the number of Sudanese troops deployed for the invasion, the Sudanese garrison was withdrawn from Suakin on the 589:, Zeki Osman, to abandon the town on 24 August, and it was occupied by the Egyptians on 5 September. The overland route from Berber to Suakin was now reopened, meaning that the Egyptian army could be reinforced and resupplied by river, by rail and by sea. As the Red Sea area returned its loyalty to Egypt, an Egyptian force also marched from Suakin to retake 550:

asking for men and weapons to assist them against the Khalifa. Kitchener sent 1,100 Remington rifles and ammunition, but they did not arrive in time to help the Ja'alin defend Metemma from the Khalifa's army, which arrived on 30 June and stormed the town, killing wad Saad and driving his surviving followers away.

681:

hundred wounded. The Khalifa retreated into the city of Omdurman but could not rally his followers to defend it. Instead they scattered across the plains to the west and escaped. Kitchener entered the city, which formally surrendered without further fighting, and the Khalifa escaped before he could be captured.

467:

broke out in the Egyptian camp, and killed over 900 men in July and early August 1896. With the summer of 1896 marked by disease and severe weather, Kitchener's columns, supported by gunboats on the Nile, finally began to advance up the Nile towards Kerma, at the third cataract, where Wad Bishara had

373:

The Sudan Military Railway was later described as the deadliest weapon ever used against Mahdism. The 230 miles of railway reduced the journey time between Wadi Halfa and Abu Hamad from 18 days by camel and steamer to 24 hours by train, all year round, regardless of the season and the flooding of the

322:. At the end of August 1896 storms washed away a 12-mile section of the railway as preparations were being made to advance on Dongola. Kitchener personally supervised 5,000 men who worked night and day to ensure it was rebuilt in a week. After Dongola was taken, this line was extended south to Kerma. 549:

country. The loyalty of the Ja'alin to the Mahdist state had weakened as the Egyptian army advanced, and they were particularly unwilling to have a large army quartered with them. Their chief, Abdallah wad Saad, therefore wrote to Kitchener on 24 June, pledging the loyalty of his people to Egypt and

341:

to undertake the project. Work began on the line on 1 January 1897, but little progress made until the line to Kerma was completed in May, when work began in earnest. By 23 July, 103 miles had been laid, but the project was continually under attack from Mahdists based in Abu Hamad. Kitchener ordered

317:

and thereby ensured that supplies could reach Dongola all year round, whether the Nile was in flood or not. The railway extended as far as Akasha on 26 June and as far as Kosheh on 4 August 1896. A dockyard was constructed and three entirely new gunboats, larger than the Egyptian river boats already

626:

had to march the last thirty miles as the railway had not yet caught up with the front line. Skirmishes took place in the early Spring, as the Mahdist forces made an attempt in March to outflank Kitchener by crossing the Atbara, but they were outmaneuvered; the Egyptians steamed upstream and raided

369:

to work on the line. Kitchener's workforce were soldiers and convicts, and he worked them very hard, sleeping just four hours each night, and doing physical labour himself. As the railway progressed in the extreme conditions of the desert, the number of deaths among his men increased, and Kitchener

360:

There were major problems in undertaking a major construction project in a waterless desert, but Kitchener had the good fortune to locate two sources and had wells dug to provide the water needed. To keep within the tight budget limits set by Lord Cromer, Kitchener ordered that the first section of

638:

The Khalifa's forces then withdrew to Omdurman, abandoning Metemma and the sixth cataract so that the Egyptian army could pass unmolested. Preparations then continued for an advance on Omdurman. The railway was extended southwards and additional reinforcements arrived. By mid-August 1898 Kitchener

553:

For Kitchener, much of 1897 was taken up extending the railway to Abu Hamed. The town was taken on 7 August and the railway reached it on 31 October. Even before this river strongpoint was secured, Kitchener ordered his gunboats to proceed upriver past the fourth cataract. With help from the local

680:

The defeat of the Khalifah's forces at Omdurman marked the effective end of the Mahdist State, though not the end of campaigning. Over 11,000 Mahdist fighters died at Omdurman, and another 16,000 were seriously wounded. On the British and Egyptian side there were fewer than fifty dead and several

397:

The Egyptian army moved swiftly to the border at Wadi Halfa and began moving south on 18 March to take Akasha, a village which was to be the base for the expedition. Akasha was deserted when they entered on 20 March and Kitchener devoted the next two months to building up his forces and supplies

728:

was reoccupied on 7 December, although the two Ethiopian flags that had been raised there after the Mahdist evacuation were left flying pending instructions from Cairo. Despite the easy recovery of these key towns there remained a great deal of fear and confusion in the countryside across the

544:

Kitchener did not advance on Omdurman after taking Dongola, and by May 1897 the Khalifa's forces from Kordofan had increased the size of his forces to the point where he felt able to take a more offensive stance. He therefore decided to advance the Kordofan army down the river to Metemma, in

271:

status and precise recruitment conditions of many Sudanese soldiers in the Egyptian army was unclear. Egyptian conscripts were required to serve six years in the army, whereas Sudanese soldiers enlisted before 1903 were signed up for life, or until medically unfit to serve. While no official

160:

for this purpose. Salisbury was also at pains to reassure the French government that Britain intended to proceed no further than Dongola, so as to forestall any move by the French to advance some claim of their own on part of Sudan. The French government had in fact just dispatched

1485: 715:

which was retaken from Mahdist forces on 22 September. A flotilla of two boats under General Hunter was sent up the Blue Nile on 19 September to plant flags and establish garrisons wherever seemed expedient. They planted the Egyptian and British flags at

740:

and raised the French flag. Kitchener hurried south from Khartoum with his five gunboats, and reached Fashoda on 18 September. Careful diplomacy on both men's part ensured that French claims were not pressed and Anglo-Egyptian control was reasserted.

537:, the Khalifa sought to prevent it steaming further upriver by blocking the sixth cataract at the Shabluka gorge, which was the last river obstacle before Omdurman. To this end forts were built at the northern end of the gorge, and the paddle-steamer 733:, where bands of Mahdist supporters continued to roam, pillaging and killing for several months after the fall of Omdurman. Once control was established in the Jazirah and eastern Sudan, the recovery of Kordofan remained a major military challenge. 604:. Meanwhile, the Khalifa strengthened the defences of Omdurman and Metemma and prepared an attack on the Egyptian positions while the river was low and the gunboats could neither retreat below the fifth cataract nor advance above the sixth. 272:

requirement existed for the practice, it is clear that in many instances at least, new Sudanese recruits into the Egyptian army were branded by their British officers, to help identify deserters and those discharged seeking to re-enlist.

643:, proceeding upriver, foundered and sank opposite Metemma on 28 August. Meanwhile, the Khalifa attempted to lay a mine in the river to prevent the Egyptian boats from bombarding Omdurman, but this resulted in the mine-laying ship 639:

had at his command 25,800 troops, composed of the British Division under Major-General Gatacre, with two British infantry brigades; and the Egyptian Division with four Egyptian brigades under Major General Hunter. The gunboat

177:

and claiming it for France. This encouraged the British to attempt the full-scale defeat of the Mahdist State and the restoration of Anglo-Egyptian rule, rather than just providing a military diversion as Italy had requested.

528:

and other regions to bring their forces in to Omdurman, strengthening its defences with some 150,000 additional fighters. This concentrated the Mahdist forces in the capital and the northern approaches, down the Nile to

664: 770:

was not taken until December 1899, by which it had already been abandoned. In December 1899 Wingate succeeded Kitchener as Sirdar and Governor-General of Sudan when Kitchener departed for South Africa.

350:

and eliminate the threat. Hunter's forces travelled 146 miles in eight days and took Abu Hamad on 7 August 1897. Work could then proceed, and the railway eventually reached Abu Hamad on 31 October.

635:

with three infantry brigades, holding one in reserve. Fighting lasted less than an hour and concluded with 81 Anglo-Egyptian soldiers killed and 478 wounded, to over 3,000 Mahdist troops dead.

201:

from the Red Sea coast, but he had never commanded a large army in battle. Kitchener took a methodical, unhurried approach to recovering Sudan. In the first year his objective was to recover

1540: 381:, Kitchener was able to transport three heavily armed gunboats in sections to be reassembled at Abadieh, enabling him to patrol and reconnoitre the river up to the sixth cataract. 600:

For the remainder of the year Kitchener extended the railway line forward from Abu Hamad, built up his forces in Berber, and fortified the north bank of the confluence with the

152:

of Sudan. After Adwa the Italian government appealed to Britain to create some kind of military diversion to prevent Mahdist forces from attacking their isolated garrison at

107: 264: 118: 463:

Arabs, 2,800 spearmen, 450 camel and 650 horse cavalry. Kitchener was unable to advance on Dongola immediately after the Battle of Farka because not long afterwards,

318:

deployed, were brought in sections by rail, and then assembled on the river. Each carried one 12-pounder forward-firing gun, two 6-pounders midships and four

416:, and brought his gunboats south through the second cataract of the Nile ready for an assault on Dongola. The Egyptian river navy consisted of the gunboats 374:

Nile. He also had 630 miles of telegraph cable laid, and 19 telegraph offices built along the railway, which were soon handling up to 277 messages per day.

256:

and replaced with Indian soldiers. The Indians arrived in Suakin on 30 May, releasing the Xth Egyptian and Sudanese battalions for the Dongola expedition.

306:

to failure in 1885, and Kitchener was determined not to let that happen again. This required the building of new railways to support his invasion forces.

389: 585:

The sudden advance of the river force and uncertainty about whether he would be reinforced by the Kordofan Army prompted the Mahdist commander in

500:, as it immediately placed their capital under threat. They thought it was likely that Kitchener would attack by striking across the desert from 299: 133:

all had designs on the region that could only be contained by re-establishing Anglo-Egyptian rule. The catastrophic defeat of the Italians by

79: 186: 333:

was a much more ambitious undertaking. General opinion held the construction of such a railway to be impossible, but Kitchener commissioned

309:

The first phase of railway building followed the initial campaign up the Nile to the supply base at Akasha and then on southward towards

618:

To be sure he had the necessary strength to defeat the Mahdist forces in their heartland, Kitchener brought up reinforcements from the

623: 103: 672: 793: 111: 759:. In the ensuing battle the Khalifah was killed along with about 1,000 of his men. Osman Digna was captured, but escaped again. 622:, and a brigade under Major General William F. Gatacre arrived in Sudan at the end of January 1898. The Warwicks, Lincolns and 244:, and three artillery batteries. All the soldiers were Sudanese or Egyptian, with the exception of a few hundred men from the 698:'the victory at Omdurman was disgraced by the inhuman slaughter of the wounded and that Kitchener was responsible for this.' 476:. Total Egyptian losses for the capture of Dongola were one killed and 25 wounded. Kitchener was promoted to Major-General. 294:

Kitchener placed great importance on transport and communications. Reliance on river transport, and the vagaries of the

245: 233:

The Egyptian army mobilised and by 4 June 1896 Kitchener had assembled a force of 9,000 men, consisting of ten infantry

774:

The newly established Anglo-Egyptian government in Khartoum did not attempt to reconquer the far western territory of

225: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1520: 401:

Apart from occasional skirmishing, the first serious contact with Mahdist forces took place in early June at the

362: 762: 484: 338: 98:

There was a considerable body of opinion in Britain in favour of retaking Sudan after 1885, largely to "avenge

19: 533:. Aware that Kitchener had a substantial river force which had by now passed up the second cataract into the 1515: 1505: 281: 953: 817: 779: 162: 149: 314: 260: 122: 99: 684:

British gunboats bombarded Omdurman before and during the battle, damaging part of the city walls and

631:. Eventually, at dawn on 8 April, the Anglo-Egyptians mounted a full frontal assault on the forces of 365:'s derelict railway from the 1870s. In another economy measure, Kitchener borrowed steam engines from 1510: 837: 295: 238: 75: 55: 1430: 1296: 1162: 1116: 1099: 983: 940: 861: 700: 685: 413: 353: 134: 405:. The village was a Mahdist strongpoint some way upriver from Akasha; its commanders, Hammuda and 730: 659: 513: 452: 406: 39: 1480: 593:, which had been temporarily occupied by the Italians since 1893. The Italians ceded control on 286: 693: 59: 1490: 752: 744: 613: 402: 343: 141: 126: 259:

The Egyptian army in the 1880s was consciously trying to distance itself from the times of

148:

in March 1896 also raised the possibility of an anti-European alliance between Menelik and

505: 347: 303: 241: 121:

that the interests of other powers in Sudan could not be contained by diplomacy alone –

70:

under Egyptian control after 1885. The conquest of 1896–1899 defeated and destroyed the

812: 555: 334: 145: 47: 790:, grandson of Muhammad al-Fadl, and did not establish control over Darfur until 1913. 1499: 832: 827: 783: 601: 586: 534: 530: 469: 130: 71: 51: 756: 619: 366: 822: 800: 717: 632: 558:, the attempt began on 4 August, but the current was so strong that the gunboat 521: 310: 268: 198: 166: 43: 696:

was critical of Kitchener's conduct, and in private correspondence he said that

778:, which the Egyptians had held only briefly between 1875 and the surrender of 712: 546: 517: 326: 206: 174: 137: 787: 594: 330: 319: 249: 234: 210: 90: 67: 1323:

British Military Operations in Egypt and the Sudan: A Selected Bibliography

1083:

British Military Operations in Egypt and the Sudan: A Selected Bibliography

1015:

British Military Operations in Egypt and the Sudan: A Selected Bibliography

924:

British Military Operations in Egypt and the Sudan: A Selected Bibliography

906:

British Military Operations in Egypt and the Sudan: A Selected Bibliography

767: 725: 525: 509: 497: 451:

Dongola was defended by a substantial Mahdist force under the command of

214: 590: 464: 460: 253: 202: 157: 153: 35: 775: 721: 628: 508:

had done in 1885. The Khalifa therefore directed Osman Azraq to hold

378: 361:

the railway should be built from reused materials scavenged from the

194: 182: 63: 496:

The fall of Dongola was a shock to the Khalifa and his followers in

393:

General Kitchener and the Anglo-egyptian Nile Campaign, 1898 HU93828

290:

Rail, river and caravan communications in Sudan during the campaign

197:

from 1886 to 1888, Kitchener had held off the Mahdist forces under

737: 671: 663: 501: 483: 473: 445: 388: 285: 224: 170: 89: 24: 18: 1054:

Slaves of Fortune: Sudanese Soldiers and the River War, 1896–1898

1041:

Slaves of Fortune: Sudanese Soldiers and the River War, 1896–1898

893:

The British in the Sudan, 1898–1956: The Sweetness and the Sorrow

1491:

The National Archives – Papers of 1st Earl Kitchener of Khartoum

444:. They had been used to patrol the river between Wadi Halfa and 190: 954:"Marchand and the Race for Fashoda | Military Sun Helmets" 676:

Bombardment of Mahdist positions by one of Kitchener's gunboats

562:

could not be hauled over the rapids, and capsized. However the

156:, and on 12 March the British cabinet authorised an advance on 16:

1896–99 British and Egyptian campaign during the Mahdist War

1427: