2857:, no distinction being made among the three orders; the members of the town and country municipalités were to elect representatives for the district municipalités, which in turn would elect to the provincial municipalités, and the latter to a grande municipalité, which should have no legislative powers, but should concern itself entirely with the administration of taxation. With this was to be combined a whole system of education, relief of the poor, and other activities. Louis XVI recoiled from this as being too great a leap in the dark, and such a fundamental difference of opinion between king and minister was bound to lead to a breach sooner or later. Turgot's only choice, however, was between "tinkering" at the existing system in detail and a complete revolution, and his attack on privilege, which might have been carried through by a popular minister and a strong king, was bound to form part of any effective scheme of reform.
2873:. Turgot, however, emphasized what he believed were American inadequacies. He complained that the new American state constitutions failed to adopt the physiocratic principle of distinguishing for purposes of taxation between those who owned land and those who did not, the principle of direct taxation of property holders had not been followed, and a complicated legal and administrative structure had been created to regulate commerce. On the social level, Turgot and his progressive contemporaries suffered further disappointment: a religious oath was required of elected officials and slavery was not abolished. Turgot died in 1781 before the conclusion of the war. Although disappointed, Turgot never doubted revolutionary victory.
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fingers, he would be of the number – a great thinker, writer, administrator, philanthropist, statesman, and above all, a great character and a great man. And yet, judged by ordinary standards, a failure. For he was thrown out of his culminating position, as
Comptroller-General of France, after serving but twenty months, and then lived only long enough to see every leading measure to which he had devoted his life deliberately and malignantly undone; the flagrant abuses which he had abolished restored, apparently forever; the highways to national prosperity, peace, and influence, which he had opened, destroyed; and his country put under full headway toward the greatest catastrophe the modern world has seen.
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way useful not only in those times but in these. ...As regards currency inflation ... It still remains one of the best presentations of this subject ever made; and what adds to our wonder is that it was not the result of a study of authorities, but was worked out wholly from his own observation and thought. Up to this time there were no authorities and no received doctrine on the subject; there were simply records of financial practice more or less vicious; it was reserved for this young student, in a letter not intended for publication, to lay down for the first time the great law in which the modern world, after all its puzzling and costly experiences, has found safety.
3618:"Representative Government," such as was established by the English after their revolution, and was advocated in the writings of the contemporary philosophers, also began to be spoken of. With this end in view, Turgot had even prepared a scheme of provincial assemblies, to be followed later on by representative government for all France in which the propertied classes would have been called upon to constitute a parliament. Louis XVI shrank from this proposal, and dismissed Turgot; but from that moment all educated France began to talk of a Constitution and national representation.
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2722:. Turgot showed great firmness and decision in repressing the riots, but also some caution in using soldiers, as he had said that "every levy of soldiers led to a riot." In this, he even had conflict with the royalty, as Louis XVI wanted to go out onto the balcony and meet the crowds, to say that there would be a reduction in the price of bread, but Turgot admonished him against this, and the bread remained at high prices. His position was strengthened by the entry of
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king, though asked to treat it as confidential, is said to have shown to
Maurepas, whose dislike for Turgot it still further embittered. With all these enemies, Turgot's fall was certain, but he wished to stay in office long enough to finish his project for the reform of the royal household before resigning. To his dismay, he was not allowed to do that. On 12 May 1776 he was ordered to send in his resignation. He at once retired to
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2834:, and looked to the king to carry through all reforms. As to the parlements, he opposed all interference on their part in legislation, considering that they had no competency outside the sphere of justice. He recognized the danger of the recap of the old parlement, but was unable effectively to oppose it since he had been associated with the dismissal of
2869:. He believed in the virtue and inevitable success of the revolution but warned that France could neither financially nor socially afford to overtly aid it. French intellectuals saw America as the hope of mankind and magnified American virtues to demonstrate the validity of their ideals along with seeing a chance to avenge their defeat in the
2983:, and certainly the terms "natural rights," "natural law," frequently occur in his writings. His friends speak of his charm and gaiety in intimate intercourse, but among strangers he was silent and awkward, and produced the impression of being reserved and disdainful. On one point both friends and enemies agree, and that is his
2611:(the name given to a class of pensions), a reform which Terray had shirked on finding how many persons in high places were interested in them, and annulling certain leases, such as those of the manufacture of gunpowder and the administration of the royal mails, the former of which was handed over to a company with the scientist
2506:, was written early in the period of his intendancy, ostensibly for the benefit of two young Chinese scholars who had studied in Paris, Louis Ko (Gao Leisi, 1732–1790) and Étienne Yang (Yang Dewang, 1733–98), on the occasion of their return to China. Written in 1766, it appeared in 1769–1770 in Dupont's journal, the
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points out with some reason the schoolmasterish tone of his letters, even to the king. As a statesman he has been very variously estimated, but it is generally agreed that a large number of the reforms and ideas of the
Revolution were due to him; the ideas did not as a rule originate with him, but it
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and the ridicule of the wits; this Turgot rewrote three times, it is said, in order to make it "so clear that any village judge could explain it to the peasants." The opposition to the edict was strong. Turgot was hated by those who had been interested in the speculations in grain under the regime of
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His first act was to submit to the king a statement of his guiding principles: "No bankruptcy, no increase of taxation, no borrowing." Turgot's policy, in face of the desperate financial position, was to enforce the most rigid economy in all departments. All departmental expenses were to be submitted
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He now, in 1749, at the age of twenty two, wrote... a letter which has been an object of wonder among political thinkers ever since. Its subject was paper money. Discussing the ideas of John Law, and especially the essay of
Terrasson which had supported them, he dissected them mercilessly, but in a
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TURGOT...I present today one of the three greatest statesmen who fought unreason in France between the close of the Middle Ages and the outbreak of the French
Revolution – Louis XI and Richelieu being the two other. And not only this: were you to count the greatest men of the modern world upon your
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for bread, he uttered those famous words that would later be recalled during the French
Revolution: "The grass has sprouted, go to the fields and browse on it." Houses of the wealthy were seized and occupied, flour-mills were destroyed, and furniture was smashed. Those extraordinary bread-riots are
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described these edicts as "very modest proposals" and summarized these as "abolition of statute labor, abolition of trade-wardens and a timid attempt to make the two privileged classes – the nobility and clergy – pay some of the taxes." Of the six edicts four were of minor importance, but the two
2565:
Turgot was summoned to the ministry of Louis XVI two months after his accession, and was appointed a month later as
Controller-General of Finance. The king even defended the middle-class economist against the reaction of the aristocracy. Turgot owed his appointment as minister of the navy in July
2954:
Turgot, on hearing of this, wrote an indignant letter to the king, in which he reproached him for refusing to see him, pointed out in strong terms the dangers of a weak ministry and a weak king, and complained bitterly of
Maurepas's irresolution and subjection to court intrigues; this letter the
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All might yet have gone well if Turgot could have retained the confidence of the king, but the king could not fail to see that Turgot had not the support of the other ministers. Even his friend
Malesherbes thought he was too rash, and was, moreover, himself discouraged and wished to resign. The
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which Turgot had acquired over the king, or through the natural incompatibility of their characters, he was already inclined to take sides against Turgot, and the reconciliation between him and the queen, which took place about this time, meant that he was henceforth the tool of the
Polignac
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is that of Turgot, in his "A Philosophical Review of the Successive Advances of the Human Mind" (1750). For Turgot progress covers not simply the arts and sciences but, on their base, the whole of culture – manner, mores, institutions, legal codes, economy, and society.
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of a tax in money levied on the whole province, the construction of roads being handed over to contractors, by which means Turgot was able to leave his province with a good system of highways, while distributing more justly the expense of their construction.
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was for the first time treated scientifically, and not merely from the ecclesiastical point of view. Turgot's opinion was that a compromise had to be reached between both methods. Among other works written during Turgot's intendancy were the
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Turgot also prepared a regular budget. His measures succeeded in considerably reducing the deficit, and raised the national credit to such an extent that in 1776, just before his fall, he was able to negotiate a loan with some
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Louis XVI, wanted to go out on the balcony of the palace to speak to them, to tell them that he would reduce the price of bread; but Turgot, like a true economist, opposed this. The reduction in the price of bread was not
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by Turgot at a later date and never recovered, but those remaining argue that free trade in grain is in the interest of landowner, farmer and consumer alike, and in forcible terms demand the removal of all restrictions.
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The immediate cause of Turgot's fall is uncertain. Some speak of a plot, of forged letters containing attacks on the queen shown to the king as Turgot's, of a series of notes on Turgot's budget prepared, it is said, by
2451:, in which he protested against state regulation and interference and advocated free competition. At the same time he did much to encourage agriculture and local industries, among others establishing the manufacture of
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Turgot's biggest challenge was the poor harvest of 1774, which led to a noticeable rise in the price of bread in the winter and early spring of 1774–1775. In April and early May, when peasants begged the governor of
2510:, and was published separately in 1776. Dupont, however, made various alterations in the text, in order to bring it more into accordance with Quesnay's doctrines, which led to a coolness between him and Turgot.
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was he who first gave them prominence. As to his position as an economist, opinion is also divided. Oncken, to take the extreme of condemnation, looks upon him as a bad physiocrat and a confused thinker, while
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2517:, after tracing the origin of commerce, Turgot develops Quesnay's theory that land is the only source of wealth, and divides society into three classes, the productive or agricultural, the salaried (the
2607:, but contented himself, as a beginning, with imposing certain conditions on the leases as they were renewed – such as a more efficient personnel, and the abolition for the future of the abuse of the
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2320:, who became one of his chief friends and supporters. All this time he was studying various branches of science, and languages both ancient and modern. In 1753 he translated the
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2959:, the château of the Duchesse d'Enville, returning shortly to Paris, where he spent the rest of his life in scientific and literary studies, being made vice-president of the
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The literary device adopted by Turgot allows for the presentation of the subject from the ground up, without appearing to undervalue the reader's intelligence. Compare the
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bankers at 4%; but the deficit was still so large as to prevent him from attempting at once to realize his favourite scheme of substituting for indirect taxation a
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advocated by Malesherbes (6 May 1775), possibly on the ground that the two privileged orders would have too much power in them. His own plan is to be found in his
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was attacked, while Turgot appealed personally to the king against the lavish giving of places and pensions. He also contemplated a thorough-going reform of the
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maintained their privileges. In the preamble to the former Turgot boldly announced as his object the abolition of privilege, and the subjection of all three
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Turgot at once set to work to establish free trade in grain, but his edict, which was signed on 13 September 1774, met with strong opposition even in the
2574:, to whom he was warmly recommended by the abbé Very, a mutual friend. His appointment met with general approval, and was hailed with enthusiasm by the
2943:, whose cause she had ardently espoused at the prompting of the Choiseul clique. Others attribute it to an intrigue of Maurepas. On the resignation of
2196:'s system. He was fond of verse-making, and tried to introduce into French verse the rules of Latin prosody, his translation of the fourth book of the
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The first sign of Turgot's interest in economics is a letter (1749) on paper money, written to his fellow-student the abbé de Cicé, refuting the abbé
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of commerce, during Gournay's tours of inspection in the provinces. (Gournay's bye-word on the government's proper involvement in the economy –
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William Doyle uses physiocracy to explain the freeing of the grain trade and treats Turgot as a physiocrat. Jessica Riskin does the same
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In character Turgot was simple, honourable and upright, with a passion for justice and truth. He was an idealist, his enemies would say a
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of 12 March, but by that time he had nearly everybody against him. His attacks on privilege had won him the hatred of the nobles and the
2529:. After discussing the evolution of the different systems of cultivation, the nature of exchange and barter, money, and the functions of
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considers that he was the founder of modern political economy, and that "though he failed in the 18th century he triumphed in the 19th."
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Turgot laid down as a principle the right of every man to work without restriction. He obtained the registration of the edicts by the
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2477:. Turgot always made the curés the agents of his charities and reforms when possible. It was in 1770 that he wrote his famous
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2665:. A striking feature was the preamble, setting forth the doctrines on which the edict was based, which won the praise of the
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2316:– would pass into the vocabulary of economics.) In 1760, while travelling in the east of France and Switzerland, he visited
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Turgot was opposed to all labour associations of employers or employed, in accordance with his belief in free competition.
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2185:. In 1750 he decided not to take holy orders, giving as his reason that "he could not bear to wear a mask all his life."
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for providing work for the able-bodied and relief for the infirm, while at the same time he condemned indiscriminate
2455:. During the famine of 1770–1771 he enforced on landowners "the obligation of relieving the poor" and especially the
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2947:(April 1776), whom Turgot wished to replace by the abbé Very, Maurepas proposed to the king as his successor a
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3495:, with their solemn explication of European customs to an outsider, in Montesquieu a vehicle for satire.
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2541:) of the land should be taxed. In addition he demanded the complete freedom of commerce and industry.
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The Turgot Collection: Writings, Speeches, and Letters of Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune
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of the merchants" of Paris, and Madeleine Francoise Martineau de Brétignolles, and came from an old
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3811:"Language as the Key to the Epistemological Labyrinth: Turgot's Changing View of Human Perception"
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2125:. He is thought to have been the first political economist to have postulated something like the
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and Terray, and seems to have underestimated its power. He was opposed to the summoning of the
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as one of its advisers, and the latter superseded by a quicker and more comfortable service of
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family. As one of four children, he had a younger sister and two older brothers, one of whom,
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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
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is the result of the application of a tax where the result cannot be calculated in advance.
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the abbé Terray, among whom were included some of the princes of the blood. Moreover, the
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Face aux Colbert : les Le Tellier, Vauban, Turgot ... et l'avènement du libéralisme
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and the Duchesse d'Enville. It was during this period that he met the leaders of the "
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461:
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2865:
As minister of the navy from 1774 to 1776, Turgot opposed financial support for the
2815:
6157:
6085:
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5920:
5866:
5727:
5710:
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5374:
5356:
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1975:
1308:
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1213:
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880:
683:
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5698:
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2438:, the particular interest of which is that in it the question of lending money at
2435:
2000:
32:
3730:
3708:
Eighteenth-Century Economics: Turgot, Beccaria and Smith and their Contemporaries
3508:
Eighteenth-century Economics: Turgot, Beccaria and Smith and Their Contemporaries
3117:
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6109:
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4019:
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to taxation; the clergy were afterwards excepted, at the request of Maurepas.
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1931:
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1892:
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were suppressed, the holders of them being compensated, and the abuse of the
4030:
3791:
3644:
3332:. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 415–17.
3240:
2882:
alienation of Maurepas was also increasing. Whether through jealousy of the
2784:
2612:
2305:
2203:
1798:
1000:
520:
279:
259:
3810:
2749:
2747:
which met with violent opposition were, firstly, the edict suppressing the
2554:
2422:
2362:
6186:
3855:
Palmer, R. R. (1976), "Turgot, Paragon of the Continental Enlightenment",
3829:
4060:
3000:
2594:
2457:
2439:
2405:
2383:
2317:
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2150:
1936:
1909:
1813:
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855:
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267:
3091:(in French). Moulins: Société d'émulation du Bourbonnais. 1920. p.
2822:
in a similar manner. The queen played a key role in his disgrace later.
3665:
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2379:
1045:
651:
585:
354:
4262:
2940:
2888:
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2400:
offered prizes for essays on the principles of taxation. Quesnay and
2388:
2198:
2179:
On the Benefits which the Christian Religion has conferred on Mankind
715:
4056:
3657:
3053:
For an account of Turgot's financial administration, see Ch. Gomel,
3870:
3611:
3582:
3561:
3544:
3766:
3725:
Hart, David (2008). "Turgot, Anne-Robert-Jacques (1727–1781)". In
3642:
Brewer, Anthony (1987), "Turgot: Founder of Classical Economics",
2909:
2762:
2708:
2553:
2361:
2174:
2158:
2138:
2055:
234:
3965:
Wendel, Jacques M. (1979), "Turgot and the American Revolution",
2113:; 10 May 1727 – 18 March 1781), commonly known as
2806:, that of the rich bourgeoisie of Paris and others, such as the
4231:
4138:
4046:
Turgot & 18th and 19th century Dutch economics and politics
2485:. Three of these letters have disappeared, having been sent to
2117:, was a French economist and statesman. Sometimes considered a
4134:
3990:
Seven Great Statesmen in the Warfare of Humanity with Unreason
3786:
Bread, Politics and Political Economy in the Reign of Louis XV
3616:. Translated by N. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings.
3566:. Translated by N. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings.
3013:
Seven Great Statesmen in the Warfare of Humanity with Unreason
2165:. Anne Robert Jacques was educated for the Church, and at the
2157:(1721–1789), was a naturalist, and served as administrator of
2079:
3587:. Translated by N. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings.
3549:. Translated by N. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings.
2686:, had a large following. The opposition was now continued by
2088:
6301:
Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
4039:
3442:"Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth"
2085:
3164:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 9–10.
2593:
for the approval of the controller-general, a number of
3940:
Turgot (baron de l'Aulne), Anne-Robert-Jacques (2011),
3891:"Chapter 3. A.R.J. Turgot: Brief, Lucid, and Brilliant"
3122:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2.
2503:
Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth
2465:) dependent upon them, and organized in every province
2386:), in order to arrive at a more just assessment of the
2121:, he is today best remembered as an early advocate for
3933:, Presses de l'Université du Québec, 1987, 816 pages.
3104:
d'hermine, treillissé de gueules de dix pièces turgot.
2814:
disliked him for opposing the grant of favours to her
2643:
and minor duties, and opposed, on grounds of economy,
2434:, on the occasion of a scandalous financial crisis at
2169:, to which he was admitted in 1749 (being then styled
6175:
3393:
Kafker, Frank A.; Chouillet, Jacques (26 July 1990).
2269:– whose niece, Mlle de Ligniville ("Minette"), later
2097:
2935:
in demanding the recall of the comte de Guînes, the
2076:
5972:
5831:
5792:
5753:
5726:
5225:
5156:
5069:
4964:
4889:
4868:
4847:
4826:
4769:
4374:
4289:
2734:All this time Turgot had been preparing his famous
2214:translation in which he had found any enthusiasm."
2082:
1344:
Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party
346:
336:
324:
314:
309:
289:
255:
241:
221:
216:
200:
188:
178:
160:
148:
136:
126:
108:
96:
84:
74:
56:
23:
3783:
3161:The Physiocrats and the World of the Enlightenment
3119:The Physiocrats and the World of the Enlightenment
2895:party. About this time, too, appeared a pamphlet,
2696:Essai sur la législation et le commerce des grains
2394:Avis sur l'assiette et la repartition de la taille
3088:Bulletin de la Société d'émulation du Bourbonnais
2350:of the abbé Morellet. In 1759 appeared his work
2987:and his lack of tact in the management of men;
2977:
2899:, generally ascribed to the comte de Provence (
2802:oath, that of the clergy; and his edict on the
2521:) or artisan class, and the land-owning class (
2420:). Another reform was the substitution for the
2846:, which was submitted informally to the king.
2304:In 1743 and 1756, he accompanied Gournay, the
4243:
4150:
4094:20 July 1774 – 24 August 1774
2580:. A month later (24 August) he was appointed
2479:Lettres sur la liberté du commerce des grains
2037:
1369:International Alliance of Libertarian Parties
1339:Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe
8:
6316:Secretaries of State of Ancien Régime France
6276:Contributors to the Encyclopédie (1751–1772)
4121:24 August 1774 – 12 May 1776
3467:Me Nguyen; Benoît Malbranque (25 May 2014).
3399:Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie
2183:On the Historical Progress of the Human Mind
2068:Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de l'Aulne
2062:Ermine fretty of ten pieces gules, nailed or
2961:Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
2481:, addressed to the controller-general, the
4250:
4236:
4228:
4157:
4143:
4135:
4071:
2637:. Turgot suppressed, however, a number of
2342:, and between 1757 and 1760 an article on
2044:
2030:
373:
31:
20:
16:French economist and statesman (1727–1781)
6321:Secretaries of State of the Navy (France)
3301:
3299:
3297:
3295:
3293:
2826:Proposals for a representative government
1374:International Federation of Liberal Youth
4020:Turgot on progress and political economy
3840:, New York: Cambridge University Press,
3291:
3289:
3287:
3285:
3283:
3281:
3279:
3277:
3275:
3273:
3198:"Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot (1727–1781)"
2973:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition
2830:With the physiocrats, he believed in an
6182:
4187:Jacques Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay
3078:
3044:Also spelled "de Laune" or "de Launes".
3037:
2718:, which ominously predicted the coming
2297:, and with them Dupont de Nemours, the
1354:Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats
385:
3678:Turgot and the Ancien Régime in France
3613:The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793
3597:
3584:The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793
3563:The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793
3546:The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793
3409:from the original on 24 September 2015
2738:, which were finally presented to the
174:20 July 1774 – 24 August 1774
3838:Social Science and the Ignoble Savage
3610:Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter 5".
3581:Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter 6".
3560:Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter 5".
3543:Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter 5".
3203:The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics
2753:, and secondly, that suppressing the
2730:On feudal obligations and protections
2396:(1762–1770), and as president of the
2370:In August 1761, Turgot was appointed
2108:
122:24 August 1774 – 12 May 1776
70:24 August 1774 – 12 May 1776
7:
4127:Jean Étienne Bernard Clugny de Nuits
3383:"Fairs and markets" and "Fondations"
3249:Norman family names of Viking origin
3218:from the original on 2 December 2019
2772:In the preamble to the edict on the
2222:The first complete statement of the
4057:Works by Anne Robert Jacques Turgot
2678:for some years past, and the witty
2127:law of diminishing marginal returns
1394:Liberal South East European Network
4083:Pierre Étienne Bourgeois de Boynes
3732:The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism
3448:from the original on 8 August 2017
2674:had been a favourite topic of the
2537:, i.e. that only the net product (
2533:, he sets forth the theory of the
2445:Mémoire sur les mines et carrières
14:
5239:(September 1870–19 February 1871)
4921:(December 29, 1818–November 1819)
4090:Secretaries of State for the Navy
3511:, Psychology Press, p. 265,
2810:, whose interests were involved.
2257:which sat during an exile of the
2253:. In 1754 he was a member of the
2141:, Turgot was the youngest son of
1384:Liberal Network for Latin America
817:(contributions to liberal theory)
162:Secretaries of State for the Navy
6271:18th-century French male writers
6233:
6221:
6209:
6197:
6185:
4207:Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours
4064:
3525:from the original on 2 July 2014
3353:from the original on 2 July 2014
3306:
3208:Library of Economics and Liberty
3178:from the original on 3 June 2021
3136:from the original on 3 June 2021
2832:enlightened political absolutism
2702:Suppression of Dijon bread riots
2398:Société d'agriculture de Limoges
2173:). He delivered two remarkable
2072:
2011:
1999:
393:
293:
6286:French male non-fiction writers
5875:(5 September–11 September 1948)
4117:Controllers-General of Finances
4031:12 mai 1776: "Renvoi de Turgot"
3372:History of the Idea of Progress
2726:into the ministry (July 1775).
2432:Mémoire sur les prêts à intérêt
2358:Intendant of Limoges, 1761–1774
6266:18th-century French economists
5785:(November 1943–September 1944)
5245:(19 February–25 February 1871)
5002:(10 November–18 November 1834)
4909:(September 1815–December 1818)
4280:Controller-General of Finances
3706:Groenewegen, Peter D. (2002),
3259:Surname localization in France
2582:Controller-General of Finances
2525:). He also proposes a notable
2449:Mémoire sur la marque des fers
2330:Lettre sur la tolérance civile
758:Separation of church and state
110:Controller-General of Finances
1:
5935:(1 February–14 February 1956)
5929:(February 1955–February 1956)
5881:(September 1948–January 1949)
5335:(16 April 1885–December 1886)
4915:(7 December–29 December 1818)
4762:(10 August–21 September 1792)
4550:de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson
3902:The Great Austrian Economists
3688:Marie Antoinette: the journey
3505:Peter D. Groenewegen (2002),
2849:In Turgot's proposed system,
2844:Mémoire sur les municipalités
2312:laisser faire, laisser passer
2261:. In Paris he frequented the
42:
5851:(December 1946–January 1947)
5812:(November 1944–January 1946)
5659:(4 February–9 February 1934)
5641:(December 1932–January 1933)
5623:(December 1930–January 1931)
5149:(December 1851–January 1852)
5113:(December 1848–October 1849)
3858:Journal of Law and Economics
3239:surname, former first name (
2694:, who in 1775 published his
6296:Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni
6291:Finance ministers of France
5647:(January 1933–January 1934)
5119:(October 1849–January 1851)
4063:(public domain audiobooks)
3818:Historiographia Linguistica
3324:Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques
2914:Turgot after a portrait by
2527:theory of the interest rate
2328:, and in 1754 he wrote his
6342:
6326:University of Paris alumni
5713:(November 1938–March 1940)
5575:(December 1925–March 1926)
5479:(December 1913–March 1914)
5353:(December 1887–April 1888)
5323:(August 1882–6 April 1885)
4274:Superintendent of Finances
4177:Anne Robert Jacques Turgot
3948:Ludwig von Mises Institute
3910:Ludwig von Mises Institute
3782:Kaplan, Steven L. (1976),
3749:10.4135/9781412965811.n315
3417:– via www.persee.fr.
3343:H. Packwood Adams (1914),
2651:, though without success.
2649:American Revolutionary War
2500:Turgot's best known work,
25:Anne Robert Jacques Turgot
5941:(February 1956–June 1957)
5905:(March 1952–January 1953)
5863:(November 1947–July 1948)
5806:(September–November 1944)
5665:(February 1934–June 1935)
5044:(March 1840–October 1840)
4269:
4172:
4123:
4114:
4106:
4096:
4087:
4079:
4074:
2645:the involvement of France
2412:), but Turgot proposed a
2322:Questions sur le commerce
1981:Sexually liberal feminism
1888:Bias in American academia
1359:European Democratic Party
815:List of liberal theorists
368:
364:
360:
305:
301:
212:
167:
115:
63:
52:
30:
5953:(November 1957–May 1958)
5569:(November–December 1925)
5545:(June 1924–3 April 1925)
5383:(December 1893–May 1894)
5341:(December 1886–May 1887)
5293:(November–December 1877)
5287:(May 1877–November 1877)
5143:(November–December 1851)
5014:(January–September 1836)
4783:(21 September 1792–1793)
4756:(29 July–10 August 1792)
4051:The Brilliance of Turgot
3836:Meek, Ronald L. (1976),
3686:Fraser, Antonia (2006).
3254:19 February 2020 at the
2558:Statue of Turgot at the
2348:Dictionnaire du commerce
2206:verses being greeted by
640:Labor theory of property
5923:(January–February 1955)
5857:(January–November 1947)
5845:(October–December 1946)
5653:(January–February 1934)
5563:(October–November 1925)
5551:(3 April–17 April 1925)
5395:(January–November 1895)
5389:(May 1894–January 1895)
5329:(6 April–16 April 1885)
5218:(August–September 1870)
5194:(January–November 1867)
5137:(October–November 1851)
5107:(October–December 1848)
5008:(18 November 1834–1836)
4996:(1832–10 November 1834)
4003:4 February 2017 at the
3809:Lifschitz, Avi (2004),
3469:"Les Chinois de Turgot"
3349:, McClurg, p. 31,
3329:Encyclopædia Britannica
2903:), containing a bitter
2897:Le Songe de M. Maurepas
2853:alone were to form the
2374:(tax collector) of the
2155:Étienne-François Turgot
1349:Arab Liberal Federation
539:Consent of the governed
91:René Nicolas de Maupeou
58:First Minister of State
39:François-Hubert Drouais
6311:Politicians from Paris
5794:Provisional Government
5593:(19 July–23 July 1926)
5509:(March–September 1917)
5467:(June 1911–March 1913)
4978:(August–November 1830)
4750:(18 June–29 July 1792)
4744:(13 June–18 June 1792)
4053:by Murray N. Rothbard.
3986:Andrew Dickson White's
3158:Vardi, Lianne (2012).
3116:Vardi, Lianne (2012).
3029:
3023:
3005:
2918:
2916:Charles-Nicolas Cochin
2818:, and he had offended
2682:, the opponent of the
2588:On government spending
2562:
2545:As minister, 1774–1776
2508:Ephémérides du citoyen
2430:In 1769, he wrote his
2367:
2301:and other economists.
2265:, especially those of
2064:
2060:Arms of Baron Turgot:
1364:European Liberal Youth
1334:Africa Liberal Network
559:Economic globalization
6118:(March–November 2004)
6016:(July 1968–June 1969)
5869:(July–September 1948)
5707:(April–November 1938)
5617:(March–December 1930)
5611:(February–March 1930)
5491:(9 June–13 June 1914)
5473:(March–December 1913)
5377:(April–December 1893)
5317:(January–August 1882)
5257:(April–December 1872)
5083:(February–March 1848)
5038:(May 1839–March 1840)
4903:(July–September 1815)
4015:Catholic Encyclopedia
3830:10.1075/hl.31.2.07lif
3735:. Thousand Oaks, CA:
3710:, London: Routledge,
3346:The French revolution
3024:
3018:
2913:
2877:Place in the Ministry
2761:, by which the craft
2619:which were nicknamed
2560:Hôtel de Ville, Paris
2557:
2365:
2143:Michel-Étienne Turgot
2059:
2006:Liberalism portal
1878:Anti-authoritarianism
1379:Liberal International
103:The Count of Maurepas
6124:(November 2004–2005)
5947:(June–November 1957)
5899:(January–March 1952)
5779:(June–November 1943)
5695:(January–March 1938)
5671:(1 June–7 June 1935)
5635:(June–December 1932)
5605:(1928–February 1930)
5557:(April–October 1925)
5437:(March–October 1906)
5401:(November 1895–1896)
5263:(December 1872–1873)
5206:(January–April 1870)
5131:(April–October 1851)
5125:(January–April 1851)
5062:(1847–February 1848)
4813:(July–November 1799)
4738:(March–13 June 1792)
4570:(December 1720–1722)
3927:Tellier, Luc-Normand
3898:Holcombe, Randall G.
3794:: Martinus Nijhoff,
3008:Andrew Dickson White
2967:Commentary on Turgot
2767:Estates of the realm
2453:porcelain at Limoges
2418:impôt de repartition
2344:Valeurs des monnaies
2324:from the English of
810:Age of Enlightenment
763:Separation of powers
5986:(October 1958–1960)
5965:(June–October 1958)
5911:(January–June 1953)
5893:(1951–January 1952)
5824:(June–October 1946)
5818:(January–June 1946)
5689:(1937–January 1938)
5629:(January 1931–1932)
5443:(October 1906–1909)
5347:(May–December 1887)
5212:(April–August 1870)
5200:(1867–January 1870)
5170:(January 1852–1855)
5101:(June–October 1848)
5050:(October 1840–1842)
4564:(May–December 1720)
4552:(1718–January 1720)
4546:(1718–January 1720)
4110:Joseph Marie Terray
4040:The Institut Turgot
4025:Notice Biographique
3887:Rothbard, Murray N.
3743:. pp. 515–16.
3690:. : Anchor Canada.
3264:17 May 2019 at the
2867:American Revolution
2861:American Revolution
2599:acquits au comptant
2366:Turgot (by Tardieu)
2346:, probably for the
2250:maître des requêtes
2235:In 1752, he became
2123:economic liberalism
2018:Politics portal
721:Civil and political
694:Popular sovereignty
554:Economic liberalism
319:Political economics
143:Joseph Marie Terray
6088:(August 1995–1997)
5701:(March–April 1938)
5503:(August 1914–1917)
5497:(June–August 1914)
5158:House of Bonaparte
4957:(July–August 1830)
4870:House of Bonaparte
4828:House of Bonaparte
4558:(January–May 1720)
4100:Antoine de Sartine
4075:Political offices
4027:by Paulette Taïeb.
3055:Causes financiéres
2919:
2851:landed proprietors
2715:guerre des farines
2635:single tax on land
2570:, the "Mentor" of
2563:
2471:bureaux de charité
2368:
2332:, and a pamphlet,
2295:Vincent de Gournay
2283:Mlle de Lespinasse
2245:parlement of Paris
2231:Early appointments
2065:
689:Permissive society
669:Limited government
207:Antoine de Sartine
6281:French economists
6173:
6172:
6082:(May–August 1995)
6020:Giscard d'Estaing
6008:Couve de Murville
5996:Giscard d'Estaing
5777:Couve de Murville
5719:(March–June 1940)
5581:(March–June 1926)
5539:(March–June 1924)
5485:(March–June 1914)
5461:(March–June 1911)
5455:(1910–March 1911)
5431:(1905–March 1906)
5371:(1892–April 1893)
5359:(April 1888–1889)
5026:(1837–March 1839)
4882:(March–July 1815)
4754:Delaville-Leroulx
4732:(1791–March 1792)
4259:Finance ministers
4225:
4224:
4217:Victor de Riqueti
4212:Richard Cantillon
4133:
4132:
4124:Succeeded by
4097:Succeeded by
3680:, London: Methuen
2971:According to the
2742:(January 1776).
2720:French Revolution
2672:commerce des blés
2523:classe disponible
2519:classe stipendiée
2054:
2053:
1893:Bias in the media
1409:Regional variants
726:Natural and legal
372:
371:
195:Marquis de Boynes
6333:
6238:
6237:
6226:
6225:
6224:
6214:
6213:
6202:
6201:
6200:
6190:
6189:
6181:
6142:(June 2007–2011)
5909:Bourgès-Maunoury
5773:(1942–June 1943)
5677:(June 1935–1936)
5599:(July 1926–1928)
5587:(June–July 1926)
5089:(March–May 1848)
5032:(March–May 1839)
4966:House of Orléans
4891:House of Bourbon
4849:House of Bourbon
4807:(1796–July 1799)
4376:House of Bourbon
4343:de Cossé-Brissac
4252:
4245:
4238:
4229:
4202:Pierre le Pesant
4182:François Quesnay
4159:
4152:
4145:
4136:
4107:Preceded by
4080:Preceded by
4072:
4068:
4067:
3974:
3960:
3923:
3895:
3881:
3850:
3832:
3815:
3804:
3789:
3778:
3720:
3701:
3681:
3668:
3630:
3627:
3621:
3620:
3607:
3601:
3595:
3589:
3588:
3578:
3572:
3571:
3557:
3551:
3550:
3540:
3534:
3533:
3532:
3530:
3502:
3496:
3483:
3477:
3476:
3473:Institute Coppet
3464:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3453:
3438:
3432:
3429:impôt de quotité
3425:
3419:
3418:
3416:
3414:
3390:
3384:
3381:
3375:
3368:
3362:
3361:
3360:
3358:
3340:
3334:
3333:
3312:
3310:
3309:
3303:
3268:
3233:
3227:
3226:
3225:
3223:
3210:(2nd ed.),
3194:
3188:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3155:
3149:
3148:
3143:
3141:
3113:
3107:
3106:
3101:
3099:
3083:
3067:
3064:
3058:
3051:
3045:
3042:
2997:
2871:Seven Years' War
2820:Mme. de Polignac
2414:distributive tax
2410:impôt de quotité
2406:proportional tax
2404:had advocated a
2352:Eloge de Gournay
2267:Mme de Graffigny
2224:Idea of Progress
2218:Idea of progress
2171:abbé de Brucourt
2161:and governor of
2129:in agriculture.
2112:
2107:
2101:
2095:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2087:
2084:
2081:
2078:
2046:
2039:
2032:
2016:
2015:
2004:
2003:
1922:Economic freedom
1915:Radical centrism
753:Secular humanism
679:Natural monopoly
630:Internationalism
447:Internationalist
397:
374:
297:
248:
231:
229:
217:Personal details
203:
191:
172:
151:
139:
120:
99:
87:
68:
47:
44:
35:
21:
6341:
6340:
6336:
6335:
6334:
6332:
6331:
6330:
6246:
6245:
6244:
6232:
6222:
6220:
6208:
6198:
6196:
6184:
6176:
6174:
6169:
6136:(May–June 2007)
6130:(2005–May 2007)
6076:(1993–May 1995)
6010:(May–July 1968)
6004:(1966–May 1968)
5976:
5968:
5959:(May–June 1958)
5835:
5833:Fourth Republic
5827:
5796:
5788:
5757:
5749:
5730:
5722:
5537:François-Marsal
5519:François-Marsal
5281:(1875–May 1877)
5249:Pouyer-Quertier
5229:
5221:
5160:
5152:
5095:(May–June 1848)
5073:
5071:Second Republic
5065:
5054:Lacave-Laplagne
5024:Lacave-Laplagne
4968:
4960:
4951:(May–July 1830)
4945:(1829–May 1830)
4893:
4885:
4872:
4864:
4851:
4843:
4830:
4822:
4773:
4765:
4486:de La Vieuville
4410:de La Vieuville
4378:
4370:
4293:
4291:House of Valois
4285:
4265:
4256:
4226:
4221:
4197:Nicolas Baudeau
4168:
4163:
4129:
4120:
4112:
4102:
4093:
4085:
4065:
4005:Wayback Machine
3982:
3964:
3958:
3950:, p. 560,
3939:
3920:
3906:Auburn, Alabama
3893:
3885:
3854:
3848:
3835:
3824:(2/3): 345–65,
3813:
3808:
3802:
3781:
3759:
3724:
3718:
3705:
3698:
3685:
3672:
3658:10.2307/2554177
3652:(216): 417–28,
3641:
3638:
3636:Further reading
3633:
3628:
3624:
3609:
3608:
3604:
3596:
3592:
3580:
3579:
3575:
3559:
3558:
3554:
3542:
3541:
3537:
3528:
3526:
3519:
3504:
3503:
3499:
3488:Persian Letters
3484:
3480:
3466:
3465:
3461:
3451:
3449:
3440:
3439:
3435:
3426:
3422:
3412:
3410:
3392:
3391:
3387:
3382:
3378:
3370:Robert Nisbet,
3369:
3365:
3356:
3354:
3342:
3341:
3337:
3322:, ed. (1911). "
3318:
3307:
3305:
3304:
3271:
3266:Wayback Machine
3256:Wayback Machine
3234:
3230:
3221:
3219:
3196:
3195:
3191:
3181:
3179:
3172:
3157:
3156:
3152:
3139:
3137:
3130:
3115:
3114:
3110:
3097:
3095:
3085:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3071:
3070:
3065:
3061:
3052:
3048:
3043:
3039:
3034:
2991:
2969:
2924:
2879:
2863:
2828:
2808:prince de Conti
2744:Peter Kropotkin
2732:
2704:
2657:
2590:
2552:
2547:
2498:
2360:
2334:Le Conciliateur
2233:
2220:
2202:into classical
2177:dissertations,
2135:
2110:[tyʁgo]
2105:
2099:
2075:
2071:
2050:
2010:
1998:
1991:
1990:
1873:
1865:
1864:
1667:North Macedonia
1411:
1401:
1400:
1399:
1398:
1389:Liberal parties
1327:
1319:
1318:
1109:
1101:
1100:
831:
821:
820:
805:
795:
794:
790:State of nature
778:Social services
768:Social contract
731:To own property
534:
526:
525:
405:
337:Alma mater
326:
310:Academic career
250:
246:
233:
227:
225:
201:
189:
173:
168:
149:
137:
121:
116:
97:
85:
69:
64:
48:
45:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6339:
6337:
6329:
6328:
6323:
6318:
6313:
6308:
6303:
6298:
6293:
6288:
6283:
6278:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6248:
6247:
6243:
6242:
6230:
6228:Libertarianism
6218:
6206:
6194:
6171:
6170:
6168:
6167:
6166:(2017–present)
6161:
6155:
6149:
6143:
6137:
6131:
6125:
6119:
6113:
6107:
6101:
6095:
6089:
6083:
6077:
6071:
6065:
6059:
6053:
6047:
6041:
6035:
6029:
6023:
6017:
6011:
6005:
5999:
5993:
5987:
5980:
5978:
5977:(1958–present)
5974:Fifth Republic
5970:
5969:
5967:
5966:
5960:
5954:
5948:
5942:
5936:
5930:
5924:
5918:
5912:
5906:
5900:
5894:
5888:
5882:
5876:
5870:
5864:
5858:
5852:
5846:
5839:
5837:
5829:
5828:
5826:
5825:
5819:
5813:
5807:
5800:
5798:
5790:
5789:
5787:
5786:
5780:
5774:
5768:
5761:
5759:
5751:
5750:
5748:
5747:
5741:
5734:
5732:
5724:
5723:
5721:
5720:
5714:
5708:
5702:
5696:
5690:
5684:
5678:
5672:
5666:
5663:Germain-Martin
5660:
5654:
5648:
5642:
5636:
5633:Germain-Martin
5630:
5624:
5621:Germain-Martin
5618:
5612:
5606:
5600:
5594:
5588:
5582:
5576:
5570:
5564:
5558:
5552:
5546:
5540:
5534:
5528:
5522:
5516:
5510:
5504:
5498:
5492:
5486:
5480:
5474:
5468:
5462:
5456:
5450:
5444:
5438:
5432:
5426:
5420:
5414:
5408:
5402:
5396:
5390:
5384:
5378:
5372:
5366:
5360:
5354:
5348:
5342:
5336:
5330:
5324:
5318:
5312:
5306:
5300:
5294:
5288:
5282:
5276:
5270:
5264:
5258:
5252:
5246:
5240:
5233:
5231:
5227:Third Republic
5223:
5222:
5220:
5219:
5213:
5207:
5201:
5195:
5189:
5183:
5177:
5171:
5164:
5162:
5154:
5153:
5151:
5150:
5144:
5138:
5132:
5126:
5120:
5114:
5108:
5105:Trouvé-Chauvel
5102:
5096:
5090:
5084:
5077:
5075:
5067:
5066:
5064:
5063:
5057:
5051:
5045:
5039:
5033:
5027:
5021:
5015:
5009:
5003:
4997:
4991:
4985:
4979:
4972:
4970:
4962:
4961:
4959:
4958:
4952:
4946:
4940:
4934:
4928:
4922:
4916:
4910:
4904:
4897:
4895:
4887:
4886:
4884:
4883:
4876:
4874:
4866:
4865:
4863:
4862:
4855:
4853:
4845:
4844:
4842:
4841:
4834:
4832:
4824:
4823:
4821:
4820:
4814:
4808:
4802:
4796:
4790:
4784:
4777:
4775:
4771:First Republic
4767:
4766:
4764:
4763:
4757:
4751:
4745:
4739:
4733:
4727:
4721:
4715:
4709:
4703:
4697:
4691:
4685:
4679:
4673:
4667:
4661:
4655:
4649:
4643:
4637:
4631:
4625:
4619:
4613:
4607:
4601:
4595:
4589:
4583:
4577:
4571:
4568:de La Houssaye
4565:
4559:
4553:
4547:
4541:
4535:
4529:
4523:
4517:
4511:
4505:
4499:
4489:
4483:
4477:
4467:
4461:
4455:
4445:
4439:
4429:
4423:
4413:
4407:
4401:
4395:
4389:
4382:
4380:
4372:
4371:
4369:
4368:
4362:
4356:
4350:
4340:
4334:
4328:
4322:
4316:
4310:
4304:
4297:
4295:
4287:
4286:
4284:
4283:
4277:
4270:
4267:
4266:
4257:
4255:
4254:
4247:
4240:
4232:
4223:
4222:
4220:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4173:
4170:
4169:
4164:
4162:
4161:
4154:
4147:
4139:
4131:
4130:
4125:
4122:
4113:
4108:
4104:
4103:
4098:
4095:
4086:
4081:
4077:
4076:
4070:
4069:
4054:
4048:
4043:
4037:
4028:
4022:
4017:
4011:Jacques Turgot
4008:
3995:
3981:
3980:External links
3978:
3977:
3976:
3962:
3956:
3937:
3924:
3918:
3883:
3871:10.1086/466889
3852:
3846:
3833:
3806:
3800:
3779:
3758:978-1412965804
3757:
3741:Cato Institute
3727:Hamowy, Ronald
3722:
3716:
3703:
3696:
3683:
3674:Dakin, Douglas
3670:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3631:
3629:Wendell (1979)
3622:
3602:
3590:
3573:
3552:
3535:
3517:
3497:
3478:
3459:
3433:
3420:
3405:(1): 101–121.
3385:
3376:
3363:
3335:
3320:Chisholm, Hugh
3269:
3228:
3189:
3170:
3150:
3128:
3108:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3069:
3068:
3059:
3046:
3036:
3035:
3033:
3030:
2968:
2965:
2957:La Roche-Guyon
2951:named Amelot.
2923:
2920:
2878:
2875:
2862:
2859:
2840:states-general
2827:
2824:
2798:in the king's
2779:lit de justice
2740:conseil du roi
2731:
2728:
2703:
2700:
2662:conseil du roi
2656:
2653:
2604:Ferme Générale
2589:
2586:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2497:
2492:
2359:
2356:
2279:Mme du Deffand
2255:chambre royale
2247:, and in 1753
2232:
2229:
2219:
2216:
2192:'s defence of
2190:Jean Terrasson
2134:
2131:
2052:
2051:
2049:
2048:
2041:
2034:
2026:
2023:
2022:
2021:
2020:
2008:
1993:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1986:Utilitarianism
1983:
1978:
1973:
1972:
1971:
1966:
1959:Libertarianism
1956:
1954:Land value tax
1951:
1950:
1949:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1927:Egalitarianism
1924:
1919:
1918:
1917:
1907:
1906:
1905:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1883:Anti-communism
1880:
1874:
1872:Related topics
1871:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1863:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1846:
1845:
1840:
1839:
1838:
1828:
1826:Arizona School
1818:
1817:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1794:United Kingdom
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1705:
1704:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1597:
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1582:
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1572:
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1566:
1565:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1484:
1483:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1412:
1407:
1406:
1403:
1402:
1397:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1330:
1329:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1321:
1320:
1317:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1186:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1151:
1146:
1141:
1136:
1131:
1126:
1121:
1116:
1110:
1107:
1106:
1103:
1102:
1099:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1033:
1028:
1023:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1003:
998:
993:
988:
983:
978:
973:
968:
963:
958:
953:
948:
943:
938:
933:
928:
923:
921:Wollstonecraft
918:
913:
908:
903:
898:
893:
888:
883:
878:
873:
868:
863:
858:
853:
848:
843:
838:
832:
827:
826:
823:
822:
819:
818:
812:
806:
801:
800:
797:
796:
793:
792:
787:
786:
785:
780:
773:Social justice
770:
765:
760:
755:
750:
745:
740:
739:
738:
733:
728:
723:
713:
712:
711:
706:
696:
691:
686:
681:
676:
674:Market economy
671:
666:
665:
664:
659:
649:
642:
637:
635:Invisible hand
632:
627:
625:Harm principle
622:
621:
620:
615:
610:
605:
604:
603:
598:
583:
578:
577:
576:
571:
561:
556:
551:
546:
541:
535:
532:
531:
528:
527:
524:
523:
518:
513:
508:
503:
502:
501:
496:
491:
490:
489:
474:
469:
464:
459:
454:
449:
444:
439:
438:
437:
427:
422:
417:
412:
406:
403:
402:
399:
398:
390:
389:
383:
382:
370:
369:
366:
365:
362:
361:
358:
357:
348:
344:
343:
338:
334:
333:
328:
325:School or
322:
321:
316:
312:
311:
307:
306:
303:
302:
299:
298:
291:
287:
286:
257:
253:
252:
249:(aged 53)
243:
239:
238:
223:
219:
218:
214:
213:
210:
209:
204:
198:
197:
192:
186:
185:
180:
176:
175:
165:
164:
158:
157:
155:Baron de Nuits
152:
146:
145:
140:
134:
133:
128:
124:
123:
113:
112:
106:
105:
100:
94:
93:
88:
82:
81:
76:
72:
71:
61:
60:
54:
53:
50:
49:
36:
28:
27:
24:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6338:
6327:
6324:
6322:
6319:
6317:
6314:
6312:
6309:
6307:
6304:
6302:
6299:
6297:
6294:
6292:
6289:
6287:
6284:
6282:
6279:
6277:
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6253:
6251:
6241:
6236:
6231:
6229:
6219:
6217:
6212:
6207:
6205:
6195:
6193:
6188:
6183:
6179:
6165:
6162:
6159:
6156:
6153:
6150:
6147:
6144:
6141:
6138:
6135:
6132:
6129:
6126:
6123:
6120:
6117:
6114:
6111:
6108:
6105:
6102:
6099:
6096:
6093:
6090:
6087:
6084:
6081:
6078:
6075:
6072:
6069:
6066:
6063:
6060:
6057:
6054:
6051:
6048:
6045:
6042:
6039:
6036:
6033:
6030:
6027:
6024:
6021:
6018:
6015:
6012:
6009:
6006:
6003:
6000:
5997:
5994:
5991:
5988:
5985:
5982:
5981:
5979:
5975:
5971:
5964:
5961:
5958:
5955:
5952:
5949:
5946:
5943:
5940:
5937:
5934:
5931:
5928:
5925:
5922:
5919:
5916:
5913:
5910:
5907:
5904:
5901:
5898:
5895:
5892:
5889:
5886:
5883:
5880:
5877:
5874:
5871:
5868:
5865:
5862:
5859:
5856:
5853:
5850:
5847:
5844:
5841:
5840:
5838:
5834:
5830:
5823:
5820:
5817:
5814:
5811:
5808:
5805:
5802:
5801:
5799:
5795:
5791:
5784:
5781:
5778:
5775:
5772:
5769:
5766:
5763:
5762:
5760:
5756:
5752:
5745:
5742:
5739:
5736:
5735:
5733:
5729:
5725:
5718:
5715:
5712:
5709:
5706:
5703:
5700:
5697:
5694:
5691:
5688:
5685:
5682:
5679:
5676:
5673:
5670:
5667:
5664:
5661:
5658:
5655:
5652:
5649:
5646:
5643:
5640:
5637:
5634:
5631:
5628:
5625:
5622:
5619:
5616:
5613:
5610:
5607:
5604:
5601:
5598:
5595:
5592:
5589:
5586:
5583:
5580:
5577:
5574:
5571:
5568:
5565:
5562:
5559:
5556:
5553:
5550:
5547:
5544:
5541:
5538:
5535:
5532:
5529:
5526:
5523:
5520:
5517:
5514:
5511:
5508:
5505:
5502:
5499:
5496:
5493:
5490:
5487:
5484:
5481:
5478:
5475:
5472:
5469:
5466:
5463:
5460:
5457:
5454:
5451:
5448:
5445:
5442:
5439:
5436:
5433:
5430:
5427:
5424:
5421:
5418:
5415:
5412:
5409:
5406:
5403:
5400:
5397:
5394:
5391:
5388:
5385:
5382:
5379:
5376:
5373:
5370:
5367:
5364:
5361:
5358:
5355:
5352:
5349:
5346:
5343:
5340:
5337:
5334:
5331:
5328:
5325:
5322:
5319:
5316:
5313:
5310:
5307:
5304:
5301:
5298:
5295:
5292:
5289:
5286:
5283:
5280:
5277:
5274:
5273:Mathieu-Bodet
5271:
5268:
5265:
5262:
5259:
5256:
5253:
5250:
5247:
5244:
5241:
5238:
5235:
5234:
5232:
5228:
5224:
5217:
5214:
5211:
5208:
5205:
5202:
5199:
5196:
5193:
5190:
5187:
5184:
5181:
5178:
5175:
5172:
5169:
5166:
5165:
5163:
5159:
5155:
5148:
5145:
5142:
5141:de Casabianca
5139:
5136:
5133:
5130:
5127:
5124:
5121:
5118:
5115:
5112:
5109:
5106:
5103:
5100:
5097:
5094:
5091:
5088:
5087:Garnier-Pagès
5085:
5082:
5079:
5078:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5061:
5058:
5055:
5052:
5049:
5046:
5043:
5040:
5037:
5034:
5031:
5028:
5025:
5022:
5019:
5016:
5013:
5010:
5007:
5004:
5001:
4998:
4995:
4992:
4989:
4986:
4983:
4980:
4977:
4974:
4973:
4971:
4967:
4963:
4956:
4953:
4950:
4947:
4944:
4941:
4938:
4935:
4932:
4929:
4926:
4923:
4920:
4917:
4914:
4911:
4908:
4905:
4902:
4899:
4898:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4881:
4878:
4877:
4875:
4871:
4867:
4860:
4857:
4856:
4854:
4850:
4846:
4839:
4836:
4835:
4833:
4829:
4825:
4818:
4815:
4812:
4809:
4806:
4805:Ramel-Nogaret
4803:
4800:
4797:
4794:
4791:
4788:
4787:Destournelles
4785:
4782:
4779:
4778:
4776:
4772:
4768:
4761:
4758:
4755:
4752:
4749:
4746:
4743:
4740:
4737:
4734:
4731:
4728:
4725:
4722:
4719:
4716:
4713:
4710:
4707:
4704:
4701:
4698:
4695:
4692:
4689:
4686:
4683:
4680:
4677:
4674:
4671:
4668:
4665:
4662:
4659:
4656:
4653:
4650:
4647:
4644:
4641:
4638:
4635:
4632:
4629:
4626:
4623:
4620:
4617:
4616:de Silhouette
4614:
4611:
4610:de Boullonges
4608:
4605:
4602:
4599:
4596:
4593:
4590:
4587:
4584:
4581:
4578:
4575:
4572:
4569:
4566:
4563:
4560:
4557:
4554:
4551:
4548:
4545:
4542:
4539:
4536:
4533:
4530:
4527:
4524:
4521:
4518:
4515:
4512:
4509:
4506:
4503:
4500:
4497:
4493:
4490:
4487:
4484:
4481:
4478:
4475:
4471:
4468:
4465:
4462:
4459:
4456:
4453:
4449:
4446:
4443:
4440:
4437:
4433:
4430:
4427:
4424:
4421:
4417:
4414:
4411:
4408:
4405:
4402:
4399:
4396:
4393:
4390:
4387:
4384:
4383:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4366:
4363:
4360:
4357:
4354:
4351:
4348:
4344:
4341:
4338:
4335:
4332:
4329:
4326:
4323:
4320:
4317:
4314:
4311:
4308:
4305:
4302:
4299:
4298:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4281:
4278:
4275:
4272:
4271:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4253:
4248:
4246:
4241:
4239:
4234:
4233:
4230:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4174:
4171:
4167:
4160:
4155:
4153:
4148:
4146:
4141:
4140:
4137:
4128:
4119:
4118:
4111:
4105:
4101:
4092:
4091:
4084:
4078:
4073:
4062:
4058:
4055:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4032:
4029:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4012:
4009:
4006:
4002:
3999:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3987:
3984:
3983:
3979:
3972:
3968:
3963:
3959:
3957:9781933550947
3953:
3949:
3945:
3944:
3938:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3925:
3921:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3865:(3): 607–19,
3864:
3860:
3859:
3853:
3849:
3843:
3839:
3834:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3812:
3807:
3803:
3797:
3793:
3788:
3787:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3754:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3719:
3713:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3697:9780385662871
3693:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3646:
3640:
3639:
3635:
3626:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3614:
3606:
3603:
3600:, p. 250
3599:
3594:
3591:
3586:
3585:
3577:
3574:
3570:
3565:
3564:
3556:
3553:
3548:
3547:
3539:
3536:
3524:
3520:
3518:9780203458785
3514:
3510:
3509:
3501:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3489:
3482:
3479:
3474:
3470:
3463:
3460:
3447:
3443:
3437:
3434:
3430:
3424:
3421:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3389:
3386:
3380:
3377:
3373:
3367:
3364:
3352:
3348:
3347:
3339:
3336:
3331:
3330:
3325:
3321:
3316:
3315:public domain
3302:
3300:
3298:
3296:
3294:
3292:
3290:
3288:
3286:
3284:
3282:
3280:
3278:
3276:
3274:
3270:
3267:
3263:
3260:
3257:
3253:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3232:
3229:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3204:
3199:
3193:
3190:
3177:
3173:
3171:9781107021198
3167:
3163:
3162:
3154:
3151:
3147:
3135:
3131:
3129:9781107021198
3125:
3121:
3120:
3112:
3109:
3105:
3094:
3090:
3089:
3082:
3079:
3073:
3063:
3060:
3056:
3050:
3047:
3041:
3038:
3031:
3028:
3022:
3017:
3015:
3014:
3009:
3004:
3002:
2995:
2990:
2989:August Oncken
2986:
2982:
2976:
2974:
2966:
2964:
2962:
2958:
2952:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2921:
2917:
2912:
2908:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2885:
2876:
2874:
2872:
2868:
2860:
2858:
2856:
2852:
2847:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2825:
2823:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2792:
2787:
2786:
2781:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2751:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2729:
2727:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2716:
2712:known as the
2710:
2701:
2699:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2668:
2664:
2663:
2655:On free trade
2654:
2652:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2641:
2636:
2632:
2626:
2624:
2623:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2605:
2600:
2596:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2578:
2573:
2569:
2561:
2556:
2549:
2544:
2542:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2511:
2509:
2505:
2504:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2463:sharecroppers
2460:
2459:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2428:
2425:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2390:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2364:
2357:
2355:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2340:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2326:Josias Tucker
2323:
2319:
2315:
2313:
2307:
2302:
2300:
2299:abbé Morellet
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2271:Mme Helvétius
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2251:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2217:
2215:
2213:
2210:as "the only
2209:
2205:
2201:
2200:
2195:
2191:
2186:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2163:French Guiana
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2132:
2130:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2111:
2103:
2102:
2093:
2069:
2063:
2058:
2047:
2042:
2040:
2035:
2033:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1994:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1948:
1945:
1944:
1943:
1942:Individualism
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1916:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1908:
1904:
1901:
1900:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1848:
1844:
1841:
1837:
1834:
1833:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1823:
1822:
1821:United States
1819:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1796:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1760:
1757:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1703:
1700:
1699:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1606:
1603:
1602:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1564:
1561:
1560:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1482:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1421:Latin America
1419:
1417:
1414:
1413:
1410:
1405:
1404:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1331:
1326:Organizations
1323:
1322:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1185:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1130:
1127:
1125:
1122:
1120:
1117:
1115:
1112:
1111:
1105:
1104:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1004:
1002:
999:
997:
994:
992:
989:
987:
984:
982:
979:
977:
974:
972:
969:
967:
964:
962:
959:
957:
954:
952:
949:
947:
944:
942:
939:
937:
934:
932:
929:
927:
924:
922:
919:
917:
914:
912:
909:
907:
904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
892:
889:
887:
884:
882:
879:
877:
874:
872:
869:
867:
864:
862:
859:
857:
854:
852:
849:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
833:
830:
825:
824:
816:
813:
811:
808:
807:
804:
799:
798:
791:
788:
784:
783:Welfare state
781:
779:
776:
775:
774:
771:
769:
766:
764:
761:
759:
756:
754:
751:
749:
746:
744:
741:
737:
734:
732:
729:
727:
724:
722:
719:
718:
717:
714:
710:
707:
705:
702:
701:
700:
697:
695:
692:
690:
687:
685:
682:
680:
677:
675:
672:
670:
667:
663:
660:
658:
655:
654:
653:
650:
648:
647:
646:Laissez-faire
643:
641:
638:
636:
633:
631:
628:
626:
623:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
602:
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594:
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592:
589:
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587:
584:
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579:
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566:
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251:Paris, France
245:18 March 1781
244:
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67:
62:
59:
55:
51:
40:
34:
29:
22:
19:
6092:Strauss-Kahn
5728:Vichy France
5531:de Lasteyrie
5309:Allain-Targé
5042:de la Lozère
4792:
4688:de Fourqueux
4645:
4598:de Séchelles
4592:d'Arnouville
4514:Le Pelletier
4416:de Champigny
4404:de Schomberg
4359:de Bellièvre
4176:
4115:
4088:
4034:
4014:
3994:at Wikiquote
3989:
3970:
3966:
3942:
3930:
3901:
3862:
3856:
3837:
3821:
3817:
3785:
3731:
3707:
3687:
3677:
3649:
3643:
3625:
3617:
3612:
3605:
3593:
3583:
3576:
3567:
3562:
3555:
3545:
3538:
3527:, retrieved
3507:
3500:
3486:
3481:
3472:
3462:
3450:. Retrieved
3436:
3428:
3423:
3411:. Retrieved
3402:
3398:
3388:
3379:
3371:
3366:
3355:, retrieved
3345:
3338:
3327:
3244:
3235:Turgot is a
3231:
3220:, retrieved
3212:Liberty Fund
3201:
3192:
3180:. Retrieved
3160:
3153:
3145:
3138:. Retrieved
3118:
3111:
3103:
3098:16 September
3096:. Retrieved
3087:
3081:
3062:
3054:
3049:
3040:
3025:
3019:
3012:
3006:
2978:
2970:
2953:
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2896:
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2803:
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2758:
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2748:
2739:
2735:
2733:
2713:
2705:
2695:
2671:
2666:
2660:
2658:
2638:
2627:
2622:"turgotines"
2621:
2616:
2608:
2602:
2598:
2591:
2575:
2564:
2538:
2535:impôt unique
2534:
2522:
2518:
2514:
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2507:
2501:
2499:
2494:
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2421:
2417:
2409:
2397:
2393:
2387:
2375:
2371:
2369:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:Encyclopédie
2337:
2333:
2329:
2321:
2309:
2303:
2287:physiocratic
2275:Mme Geoffrin
2258:
2254:
2248:
2240:
2239:, and later
2236:
2234:
2221:
2211:
2197:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2170:
2136:
2114:
2067:
2066:
2061:
1976:Pirate Party
1836:Jeffersonian
1744:South Africa
1234:Lloyd George
875:
829:Philosophers
736:To bear arms
684:Open society
644:
415:Conservative
247:(1781-03-18)
202:Succeeded by
169:
150:Succeeded by
117:
98:Succeeded by
65:
37:Portrait by
18:
6306:Physiocrats
6261:1781 deaths
6256:1727 births
6160:(2014–2017)
6154:(2012–2014)
6148:(2011–2012)
6112:(2002–2004)
6106:(2000–2002)
6100:(1999–2000)
6094:(1997–1999)
6070:(1992–1993)
6064:(1988–1992)
6058:(1986–1988)
6052:(1984–1986)
6046:(1981–1984)
6040:(1978–1981)
6034:(1976–1978)
6028:(1974–1976)
6022:(1969–1974)
5998:(1962–1966)
5992:(1960–1962)
5990:Baumgartner
5917:(1953–1955)
5887:(1949–1951)
5836:(1946–1958)
5797:(1944–1946)
5767:(1941–1942)
5758:(1941–1944)
5755:Free France
5746:(1942–1944)
5740:(1940–1942)
5738:Bouthillier
5731:(1940–1944)
5705:Marchandeau
5693:Marchandeau
5683:(1936–1937)
5657:Marchandeau
5533:(1922–1924)
5527:(1921–1922)
5521:(1920–1921)
5515:(1917–1920)
5449:(1909–1910)
5425:(1902–1905)
5419:(1899–1902)
5413:(1898–1899)
5407:(1896–1898)
5365:(1889–1892)
5311:(1881–1882)
5305:(1879–1881)
5299:(1877–1879)
5275:(1874–1875)
5269:(1873–1874)
5251:(1871–1872)
5230:(1870–1940)
5188:(1861–1867)
5182:(1860–1861)
5180:La Roquette
5176:(1855–1860)
5161:(1852–1870)
5074:(1848–1852)
5056:(1842–1847)
5020:(1836–1837)
4990:(1831–1832)
4984:(1830–1831)
4969:(1830–1848)
4939:(1828–1829)
4933:(1821–1828)
4927:(1819–1821)
4894:(1815–1830)
4861:(1814–1815)
4852:(1814–1815)
4840:(1804–1814)
4831:(1804–1814)
4819:(1799–1804)
4801:(1795–1796)
4795:(1794–1795)
4789:(1793–1794)
4774:(1792–1804)
4748:de Beaulieu
4726:(1790–1791)
4714:(1789–1790)
4706:de Breteuil
4702:(1788–1789)
4696:(1787–1788)
4684:(1783–1787)
4672:(1781–1783)
4666:(1777–1781)
4660:(1776–1777)
4648:(1774–1776)
4642:(1769–1774)
4636:(1768–1769)
4630:(1763–1768)
4624:(1759–1763)
4612:(1757–1759)
4606:(1756–1757)
4600:(1754–1756)
4594:(1745–1754)
4588:(1730–1745)
4582:(1726–1730)
4576:(1722–1726)
4540:(1715–1718)
4538:de Noailles
4534:(1708–1715)
4528:(1699–1708)
4522:(1689–1699)
4516:(1683–1689)
4510:(1661–1683)
4504:(1659–1661)
4498:(1653–1659)
4488:(1651–1653)
4482:(1650–1651)
4480:de Longueil
4476:(1649–1650)
4466:(1648–1649)
4464:de La Porte
4460:(1647–1648)
4454:(1643–1647)
4448:de Bailleul
4444:(1640–1643)
4442:Bouthillier
4438:(1632–1640)
4436:Bouthillier
4428:(1626–1632)
4422:(1624–1626)
4420:de Marillac
4412:(1623–1624)
4406:(1619–1622)
4400:(1614–1619)
4394:(1598–1611)
4388:(1589–1594)
4379:(1589–1792)
4367:(1588–1589)
4361:(1574–1588)
4355:(1568–1570)
4349:(1561–1567)
4339:(1559–1560)
4337:de Lorraine
4333:(1556–1559)
4327:(1552–1556)
4321:(1546–1552)
4319:d'Annebault
4315:(1544–1546)
4309:(1524–1544)
4303:(1518–1524)
4294:(1518–1589)
4282:(1661–1791)
4276:(1561–1661)
4166:Physiocrats
4007:at McMaster
3998:Turgot Page
3973:(3): 282–89
3598:Fraser 2006
3493:Montesquieu
3374:(1980) ch 5
2992: [
2981:doctrinaire
2945:Malesherbes
2907:of Turgot.
2901:Louis XVIII
2796:Protestants
2724:Malesherbes
2684:physiocrats
2667:philosophes
2577:philosophes
2550:Appointment
2539:produit net
2483:abbé Terray
1804:Gladstonian
1764:Switzerland
1749:South Korea
1692:Philippines
1652:New Zealand
1647:Netherlands
1304:Verhofstadt
1299:Balcerowicz
1108:Politicians
1036:Collingwood
976:Tocqueville
851:Montesquieu
743:Rule of law
544:Due process
351:Montesquieu
331:Physiocrats
232:10 May 1727
190:Preceded by
138:Preceded by
86:Preceded by
46: 1775
6250:Categories
6216:Liberalism
6074:Alphandéry
5327:Clamageran
5255:de Goulard
5123:de Germiny
4949:de Montbel
4943:de Crouzol
4931:de Villèle
4724:de Lessart
4694:de Brienne
4682:de Calonne
4676:d'Ormesson
4628:de Laverdy
4544:de Caumont
4526:Chamillart
4520:Phélypeaux
4432:de Bullion
4392:de Béthune
4353:de Birague
3967:Modern Age
3919:0945466048
3847:0521209692
3801:9024718732
3767:2008009151
3717:0415279402
3182:15 October
3074:References
2985:brusquerie
2937:ambassador
2905:caricature
2884:ascendancy
2855:electorate
2800:coronation
2791:financiers
2785:parlements
2736:Six Edicts
2617:diligences
2515:Réflexions
2495:Réflexions
2447:, and the
2376:genéralité
2289:" school,
2241:conseiller
2119:physiocrat
1932:Empiricism
1903:Democratic
1898:Capitalism
1809:Manchester
1642:Montenegro
1627:Luxembourg
1563:Venizelism
1493:Costa Rica
748:Secularism
581:Federalism
533:Principles
425:Democratic
387:Liberalism
347:Influences
272:Schumpeter
256:influenced
228:1727-05-10
6192:Economics
6152:Moscovici
6062:Bérégovoy
6050:Bérégovoy
5717:Lamoureux
5591:de Monzie
5549:de Monzie
5543:Clementel
5489:Clémentel
5291:Dutilleul
5099:Goudchaux
5081:Goudchaux
4988:Dominique
4976:Dominique
4955:Dominique
4919:Dominique
4901:Dominique
4859:Dominique
4742:Duranthon
4670:de Fleury
4658:des Réaux
4652:de Clugny
4634:d'Invault
4580:des Forts
4562:des Forts
4532:Desmarets
4474:de Mesmes
4452:de Mesmes
4347:d'Ongnyes
4331:d'Avançon
4313:du Thiers
4301:de Beaune
3879:154818247
3792:The Hague
3775:750831024
3645:Economica
3241:Old Norse
3057:, vol. 1.
3010:wrote in
2963:in 1777.
2949:nonentity
2933:Vergennes
2812:The queen
2759:maîtrises
2613:Lavoisier
2595:sinecures
2572:Louis XVI
2487:Louis XVI
2436:Angoulême
2372:intendant
2306:intendant
2259:parlement
2237:substitut
2204:hexameter
2133:Education
1947:Anarchist
1855:Venezuela
1831:Classical
1799:Cobdenism
1702:Cracovian
1657:Nicaragua
1622:Lithuania
1481:Hong Kong
1436:Australia
1274:Roosevelt
1244:Ståhlberg
1239:Venizelos
1194:Sarmiento
1184:Gladstone
1144:Lamartine
1114:Jefferson
966:Martineau
916:De Gouges
901:Condorcet
886:Priestley
549:Democracy
521:Third Way
482:Christian
477:Religious
410:Classical
327:tradition
290:Signature
260:Condorcet
183:Louis XVI
170:In office
131:Louis XVI
118:In office
79:Louis XVI
66:In office
6240:Politics
6164:Le Maire
6056:Balladur
6026:Fourcade
5951:Pflimlin
5945:Gaillard
5939:Ramadier
5927:Pflimlin
5879:Queuille
5771:Diethelm
5669:Caillaux
5597:Poincaré
5585:Caillaux
5567:Loucheur
5561:Painlevé
5555:Caillaux
5495:Noullens
5477:Caillaux
5459:Caillaux
5441:Caillaux
5435:Poincaré
5417:Caillaux
5387:Poincaré
5285:Caillaux
5018:Duchâtel
5012:d'Argout
4982:Laffitte
4907:Corvetto
4799:Faipoult
4781:Clavière
4760:Clavière
4736:Clavière
4604:de Moras
4325:Guillart
4192:John Law
4061:LibriVox
4042:in Paris
4035:Hérodote
4001:Archived
3889:(1999).
3676:(1939),
3529:13 March
3523:archived
3446:Archived
3407:Archived
3357:13 March
3351:archived
3262:Archived
3252:Archived
3245:Thorgaut
3216:archived
3214:, 2008,
3176:Archived
3134:Archived
3016:(1915):
3001:Leon Say
2893:Choiseul
2891:and the
2816:protégés
2804:jurandes
2774:jurandes
2755:jurandes
2568:Maurepas
2566:1774 to
2467:ateliers
2458:métayers
2440:interest
2402:Mirabeau
2384:cadastre
2318:Voltaire
2208:Voltaire
2194:John Law
2167:Sorbonne
2137:Born in
1937:Humanism
1910:Centrism
1860:Zimbabwe
1814:Whiggism
1774:Thailand
1739:Slovenia
1734:Slovakia
1709:Portugal
1682:Paraguay
1605:Liberism
1570:Honduras
1488:Colombia
1461:Bulgaria
1254:Rathenau
1229:Milyukov
1149:Macaulay
1119:Kołłątaj
1091:Kymlicka
1071:Friedman
1016:Cassirer
1006:Hobhouse
941:Constant
936:Humboldt
896:Beccaria
861:Rousseau
856:Voltaire
699:Property
662:Positive
657:Negative
613:Religion
591:Economic
564:Equality
487:Catholic
457:National
452:Muscular
430:Feminist
420:Cultural
379:a series
377:Part of
341:Sorbonne
268:Rothbard
237:, France
6178:Portals
6140:Lagarde
6122:Gaymard
6116:Sarkozy
6098:Sautter
6086:Arthuis
6080:Madelin
5933:Lacoste
5885:Petsche
5867:Reynaud
5855:Schuman
5843:Schuman
5822:Schuman
5804:Lepercq
5744:Cathala
5711:Reynaud
5675:Régnier
5627:Flandin
5615:Reynaud
5507:Thierry
5483:Renoult
5447:Cochery
5423:Rouvier
5411:Peytral
5405:Cochery
5381:Burdeau
5375:Peytral
5363:Rouvier
5357:Peytral
5345:Rouvier
5339:Dauphin
5135:Blondel
5093:Duclerc
5030:Gautier
4718:Lambert
4508:Colbert
4502:Fouquet
4496:Fouquet
4492:Servien
4470:d'Emery
4458:d'Emery
4426:de Ruzé
4398:Jeannin
3900:(ed.).
3729:(ed.).
3666:2554177
3413:26 July
3317::
3222:16 July
3140:5 March
2836:Maupeou
2750:corvées
2690:and by
2688:Linguet
2680:Galiani
2647:in the
2640:octrois
2609:croupes
2531:capital
2513:In the
2475:charity
2380:Limoges
2291:Quesnay
2243:in the
2147:provost
2106:French:
1850:Uruguay
1789:Ukraine
1779:Tunisia
1724:Senegal
1714:Romania
1662:Nigeria
1637:Moldova
1580:Iceland
1575:Hungary
1553:Germany
1548:Georgia
1538:Finland
1533:Estonia
1523:Ecuador
1518:Denmark
1513:Czechia
1498:Croatia
1451:Bolivia
1446:Belgium
1441:Austria
1431:Armenia
1426:Albania
1294:Jenkins
1289:Kennedy
1279:Pearson
1264:Einaudi
1249:Gokhale
1209:Itagaki
1204:Naoroji
1199:Mommsen
1179:Lincoln
1169:Mazzini
1154:Kossuth
1139:Broglie
1134:Bolívar
1129:Artigas
1124:Madison
986:Spencer
971:Emerson
961:Bastiat
946:Ricardo
906:Bentham
846:Spinoza
803:History
704:Private
652:Liberty
586:Freedom
506:Secular
494:Islamic
472:Radical
404:Schools
355:Quesnay
264:Maistre
179:Monarch
127:Monarch
75:Monarch
6204:France
6146:Baroin
6134:Borloo
6128:Breton
6104:Fabius
6044:Delors
6038:Monory
6014:Ortoli
5873:Pineau
5849:Philip
5816:Philip
5810:Pleven
5783:France
5765:Pleven
5687:Bonnet
5681:Auriol
5651:Piétri
5645:Bonnet
5639:Chéron
5609:Dumont
5603:Chéron
5573:Doumer
5525:Doumer
5471:Dumont
5429:Merlou
5399:Doumer
5369:Tirard
5351:Tirard
5333:Carnot
5321:Tirard
5303:Magnin
5243:Buffet
5237:Picard
5210:Segris
5204:Buffet
5192:Rouher
5168:Bineau
5048:Humann
5006:Humann
4994:Humann
4880:Gaudin
4873:(1815)
4838:Gaudin
4817:Gaudin
4811:Lindet
4793:Vacant
4720:(1790)
4712:Necker
4708:(1789)
4700:Necker
4690:(1787)
4678:(1783)
4664:Necker
4654:(1776)
4646:Turgot
4640:Terray
4622:Bertin
4618:(1759)
4263:France
3992:(1915)
3954:
3916:
3877:
3844:
3798:
3773:
3765:
3755:
3714:
3694:
3664:
3515:
3452:17 May
3311:
3237:Norman
3168:
3126:
2941:London
2929:Necker
2889:clique
2763:guilds
2692:Necker
2676:salons
2423:corvée
2389:taille
2263:salons
2199:Aeneid
2181:, and
2151:Norman
2115:Turgot
1843:Modern
1784:Turkey
1769:Taiwan
1759:Sweden
1729:Serbia
1719:Russia
1697:Poland
1677:Panama
1672:Norway
1632:Mexico
1617:Latvia
1595:Israel
1558:Greece
1543:France
1508:Cyprus
1466:Canada
1456:Brazil
1416:Europe
1314:Macron
1259:Madero
1224:Deakin
1214:Levski
1189:Cavour
1174:Juárez
1164:Cobden
1096:Badawi
1086:Nozick
1066:Berlin
1056:Popper
1031:Keynes
1026:Ortega
991:Arnold
951:Guizot
911:Korais
876:Turgot
836:Milton
716:Rights
709:Public
618:Speech
596:Market
569:Gender
516:Techno
511:Social
499:Jewish
435:Equity
284:Keynes
6158:Sapin
6068:Sapin
6032:Barre
6002:Debré
5984:Pinay
5963:Pinay
5957:Faure
5921:Buron
5915:Faure
5903:Pinay
5897:Faure
5891:Mayer
5861:Mayer
5579:Péret
5513:Klotz
5501:Ribot
5465:Klotz
5453:Klotz
5393:Ribot
5267:Magne
5216:Magne
5198:Magne
5186:Fould
5174:Magne
5147:Fould
5129:Fould
5117:Fould
5111:Passy
5060:Dumon
5036:Passy
5000:Passy
4730:Tarbé
4574:Dodun
4307:Babou
3935:Etext
3896:. In
3894:(PDF)
3875:S2CID
3814:(PDF)
3662:JSTOR
3569:made.
3427:"The
3032:Notes
2996:]
2709:Dijon
2631:Dutch
2212:prose
2175:Latin
2159:Malta
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