126:
pro-inflammatory responses (which helped individuals to avoid and survive infections) were undoubtedly selected for in these environments. However, in terms of cardiovascular risk, these same inflammatory responses have turned out to be harmful as the material conditions of human existence improved – in affluent countries, where life expectancy is much longer than in the ancestral environment, strong inflammatory responses carry greater risks of cardiovascular disease as individuals age. The study looks at mortality, over a period of 3 to 5 years, in a group of 311, 85-year old Dutch women. Information on their reproductive history as well the results of blood tests, genetic tests and physical examinations was recorded. The study found that individuals with a higher pro-inflammatory ratio TNFα/IL-10 had a significantly higher incidence of death due to cardiovascular disease in old age. It also linked specific
109:. The study documents a trade-off between days-to-flower and reproductive capacity. This genetic balancing act determines how many individuals survive to flower in a short growing season (viability) while also influencing the seed set of survivors (fecundity). The authors find that tradeoffs between plant viability and fecundity can engender a stable polymorphism under surprisingly general conditions. Thus, for this annual flower, they reveal a tradeoff between mortality and fecundity and, according to the authors, this tradeoff is also relevant for other annual, flowering plants.
74:
ubiquitous in the natural world?" The antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis provides a partial answer to this question. As an evolutionary explanation for ageing, the hypothesis relies on the fact that reproductive capacity declines with age in many species and, therefore, the strength of natural selection also declines with age (because there can be no natural selection without reproduction). Since the strength of selection declines over the life cycles of human and most other organisms, natural selection in these species tends to favor "
89:), are found to be relatively prevalent in populations. Seen through the lens of simple evolutionary processes, these genetic disorders should be observed at very low frequencies due to the force of natural selection. Genetic models of populations show that antagonistic pleiotropy allows genetic disorders to be maintained at reasonably high frequencies "even if the fitness benefits are subtle". In this sense, antagonistic pleiotropy forms the basis of a "genetic trade-off between different fitness components."
22:
250:, for example) or they compete with other individuals of the same sex for access to mating opportunities with individuals of the opposite sex (intrasexual selection, as when males of certain mammalian species fight for the right to mate). It is generally accepted that the evolution of secondary sexual characteristics persists until the relative costs of survival outweigh the benefits of reproductive success.
102:, revealed 34 genes whose expression coincided with the genetic trade-off between larval survival and adult size. The joint expression of these candidate 'trade-off' genes explained 86.3% of the trade-off. These tradeoffs can result from selection at the level of the organism or, more subtly, via mechanisms for the allocation of scarce resources in cellular metabolism.
270:, which couples the sexually-selected traits with the overall condition of the organism. They posit that the genes for secondary sexual characteristics must be pleiotropically linked to condition, a measure of the organism's fitness. In other words, the genetic variation in secondary sexual characteristics is maintained due to variation in the organism's condition.
257:, this means a trade-off between variation and expression of selected traits. Strong, persistent sexual selection should result in decreased genetic variation for these traits. However, higher levels of variation have been reported in sexually-selected traits compared to non-sexually selected traits. This phenomenon is especially clear in
195:(R43X), while the rest are heterozygous for the two mutations. Laron syndrome patients experienced a lower incidence of cancer mortality and diabetes compared to their non-dwarf kin. This suggests a role for antagonistic pleiotropy, whereby a deleterious mutation is preserved in a population because it still confers some survival benefit.
295:
competitors, predators, and parasites – though it has the disadvantage of introducing idiosyncratic factors that are specific to given locations. In order to be able to assert with confidence that a given pleiotropy is, indeed, an antagonistic pleiotropy and not due to some other competing cause (e.g. the
175:
have fewer physiological effects and a partial resistance to malaria. Thus, the gene that is responsible for sickle cell disease has fixed itself with relatively high frequencies in populations threatened by malaria by engendering a viable tradeoff between death from this non-communicable disease and
299:
hypothesis), one must have knowledge of the precise gene that is pleiotropic. This is now increasingly possible with organisms that have detailed genomic mappings (e.g. mice, fruit flies and humans). A 2018 review of this research finds that "antagonistic pleiotropy is somewhere between very common
118:
on fitness in an organism's prime than in their old age. Williams's 1957 article has motivated many follow-up studies on the evolutionary causes of ageing. These studies show clear trade-offs involving early increases in fecundity and later increases in mortality. For example, two experiments with
117:
Senescence refers to the process of physiological change in individual members of a species as they age. An antagonistically pleiotropic gene can be selected for if it has beneficial effects in early life while manifesting its negative effects in later life because genes tend to have larger impacts
97:
In the theory of evolution, the concept of fitness has two components: mortality and reproduction. Antagonistic pleiotropy gets fixed in genomes by creating viable trade-offs between or within these two components. The existence of these trade-offs has been clearly demonstrated in human, botanical
130:
to a combination of higher fertility, stronger inflammatory response and greater cardiovascular problems in old age. This finding supports the hypothesis that this gene was prevalent because it helped women in the ancestral environment to more effectively combat infection during their reproductive
125:
One such study tests the hypothesis that death due to cardiovascular disease in women is linked to an antagonistic pleiotropy operating through inflammation and linked to fertility. Because the human immune system evolved in an ancestral environment characterized by abundant pathogens, protective,
73:
This line of genetic research began as an attempt to answer the following question: if survival and reproduction should always be favoured by natural selection, why should ageing – which in evolutionary terms can be described as the age-related decline in survival rate and reproduction – be nearly
261:
species, where males' courtship behavior confers no immediate advantage to the female. Female choice presumably depends on correlating male displays (secondary sexual characteristics) with overall genetic quality. If such directional sexual selection depletes variation in males, why would female
171:. Thus, in regions where malaria exerts or has in the past exerted a strong selective pressure, sickle cell anaemia has been selected for its conferred partial resistance to the disease. While homozygotes will have either no protection from malaria or a dramatic propensity to sickle cell anemia,
285:
brain cells, but is present at a reduced level in post-mitotic brain cells throughout adulthood. In humans DNA repair capability declines in older individuals. These findings suggest that DNA repair activity is regulated at a level that facilitates vigorous function during youth, but at an
294:
Advances in genome mappings have greatly facilitated research into antagonistic pleiotropy. Such research is now often carried out in laboratories, but also in wild populations. The latter context for testing has the advantage of introducing the full complexity of the selection experience –
147:
should eliminate carriers of this allele over evolutionary time, thereby lowering the frequency of mutations. Yet, research shows that the incidence of such alleles in studied populations is often stable and relatively high. In a 2011 review article, Carter and Nguyen discuss several genetic
148:
disorders, arguing that, far from being a rare phenomenon, antagonistic pleiotropy might be a fundamental mechanism by which "alleles with severe deleterious health effects can be maintained at medically relevant frequencies with only minor beneficial pleiotropic effects."
286:
insufficient level during maturity that results in aging. Thus proteins that regulate the level of DNA repair activity appear to have the antagonistic pleiotrophic effect of being beneficial during youthful development, but insufficient to prevent aging during maturity.
210:
gene. The onset of
Huntington's is usually observed post-reproductive age and generally involves involuntary muscle spasms, cognitive difficulties and psychiatric problems. The high number of CAG repeats is associated with increased activity of
37:
that suggests certain genes may confer beneficial effects early in an organism's life, enhancing reproductive success, while also causing detrimental effects later in life, contributing to the aging process.
61:
influences more than one phenotypic trait in an organism. It is one of the most commonly observed attributes of genes. A gene is considered to exhibit antagonistic pleiotropy if it controls more than one
1054:
Aidoo M, Terlouw DJ, Kolczak MS, McElroy PD, ter Kuile FO, Kariuki S, et al. (April 2002). "Protective effects of the sickle cell gene against malaria morbidity and mortality".
1608:
246:
in which individuals of one sex choose to mate with individuals of the other sex based on certain observable characteristics (intersexual selection, the exaggerated tail in
183:(a rare form of dwarfism) were monitored alongside their non-dwarf kin for a period of ten years. Patients with Laron syndrome possess one of three genotypes for the
131:
years. However, the pleiotropic costs of the gene in terms of cardiovascular risks are now clear because people live long enough to die of cardiovascular disease.
1572:
122:
have shown that increased fertility is associated with reduced longevity. Likewise, for humans, infertile women live longer on average than fertile women.
219:. It has been hypothesized that this explains the lower rates of cancer among Huntington's patients. Huntington's disease is also correlated with high
1486:
1603:
1303:
Gensler HL (1981). "Low level of U.V.-induced unscheduled DNA synthesis in postmitotic brain cells of hamsters: possible relevance to aging".
912:
672:
1405:
139:
The survival of many serious genetic disorders in human evolutionary history has led researchers to explore the role of antagonistic
1552:
1091:"Growth hormone receptor deficiency is associated with a major reduction in pro-aging signaling, cancer, and diabetes in humans"
888:
Wood JW, O'Connor KA, Holman DJ, Brindle E, Barsom SH, Grimes MA (2001). The evolution of menopause by antagonistic pleiotropy.
46:
1451:
314:
296:
1598:
1441:
1496:
1340:"Impaired DNA double-strand break repair contributes to the age-associated rise of genomic instability in humans"
1089:
Guevara-Aguirre J, Balasubramanian P, Guevara-Aguirre M, Wei M, Madia F, Cheng CW, et al. (February 2011).
1398:
1139:
931:
Van Den
Biggelaar AH, De Craen AJ, Gussekloo J, Huizinga TW, Heijmans BT, Frölich M, et al. (June 2004).
755:
Brown KE, Kelly JK (January 2018). "Antagonistic pleiotropy can maintain fitness variation in annual plants".
1260:
Rowe L, Houle D (1996). "The Lek
Paradox and the Capture of Genetic Variance by Condition Dependent Traits".
1471:
199:
184:
1562:
1522:
432:
1481:
1466:
703:"Antagonistic pleiotropy as a widespread mechanism for the maintenance of polymorphic disease alleles"
1567:
1269:
1181:
267:
188:
34:
933:"Inflammation underlying cardiovascular mortality is a late consequence of evolutionary programming"
437:
1542:
1446:
1391:
309:
152:
86:
1285:
1242:
1170:"The effect of purging on sexually selected traits through antagonistic pleiotropy with survival"
962:
633:
583:
351:
1593:
1557:
1512:
1369:
1320:
1207:
1120:
1071:
1011:
954:
908:
870:
821:
772:
734:
668:
625:
575:
540:
491:
405:
243:
203:
192:
144:
143:
in disease. If genetic disorders are caused by mutations to a single deleterious allele, then
67:
1491:
1476:
1461:
1359:
1351:
1312:
1277:
1234:
1197:
1189:
1110:
1102:
1063:
1001:
993:
944:
860:
852:
811:
803:
764:
724:
714:
660:
617:
567:
530:
522:
481:
473:
442:
395:
387:
343:
234:(increased fertility); and osteoporosis in old age (reduced risk of osteoporosis in youth).
227:
82:
63:
982:"Evidence for the role of selection for reproductively advantageous alleles in human aging"
231:
98:
and insect species. For example, an analysis of global gene expression in the fruit fly,
1273:
1185:
1006:
981:
21:
1547:
1456:
1364:
1339:
1202:
1169:
1115:
1090:
1029:
865:
840:
816:
791:
729:
702:
535:
510:
486:
461:
400:
375:
180:
160:
1067:
602:
334:
Williams GC (1957). "Pleiotropy, natural selection, and the evolution of senescence".
1587:
1316:
664:
637:
42:
1289:
1246:
587:
1527:
966:
106:
167:
rarely reaching 50 years of age. However, this allele also enhances resistance to
1383:
1168:
Bolstad GH, Pélabon C, Larsen LK, Fleming IA, Viken A, Rosenqvist G (June 2012).
1106:
621:
477:
423:
Cheverud J (1996). "Developmental integration and the evolution of pleiotropy".
300:
or ubiquitous in the animal world .... and potentially all living domains... ".
263:
156:
511:"Two steps forward, one step back: the pleiotropic effects of favoured alleles"
163:. Possessors of the deleterious allele have much lower life expectancies, with
41:
APT was first proposed in a 1952 paper on the evolutionary theory of ageing by
1537:
1436:
1423:
1414:
792:"Antagonistic pleiotropy for life-history traits at the gene expression level"
278:
258:
207:
140:
54:
50:
719:
81:
Antagonistic pleiotropy also provides a framework for understanding why many
1338:
Li Z, Zhang W, Chen Y, Guo W, Zhang J, Tang H, et al. (November 2016).
571:
220:
216:
1373:
1281:
1238:
1211:
1124:
1075:
1015:
997:
958:
874:
856:
825:
807:
776:
738:
629:
579:
544:
526:
495:
409:
1324:
949:
932:
446:
391:
558:
Elena SF, Sanjuán R (December 2003). "Evolution. Climb every mountain?".
172:
164:
1355:
355:
282:
247:
168:
768:
281:
capability in hamsters is relatively high during development in early
1517:
1225:
Pomiankowski A, Moller AP (1995). "A Resolution of the Lek
Paradox".
1193:
127:
78:
that have early beneficial effects, but later deleterious effects".
75:
66:, where at least one of these traits is beneficial to the organism's
347:
105:
Another example is found in a study of the yellow monkey flower, an
262:
choice continue to exist? Rowe and Houle answer this question (the
1532:
254:
206:
disorder characterized by a high number of CAG repeats within the
20:
155:, which results in an abnormality in the oxygen-carrying protein
651:
Rose MR, Rauser CL (2007). "Evolution and
Comparative Biology".
58:
1387:
841:"Protein networks, pleiotropy and the evolution of senescence"
212:
198:
Another instance of antagonistic pleiotropy is manifested in
230:(also protects against malaria in the heterozygous state);
85:, even those causing life threatening health impacts (e.g.
179:
In another study of genetic diseases, 99 individuals with
926:
924:
376:"Is antagonistic pleiotropy ubiquitous in aging biology?"
25:
Strength of natural selection plot as a function of age
1144:
Nature
Education Knowledge: Learn Science at Scitable
1034:
The
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)
1505:
1422:
215:, a tumor suppressing protein that participates in
191:in position 180 in exon 6. Some others possess a
1036:. U.S. National Institutes of Health. 2023-08-30
905:Evolutionary genetics: concepts and case studies
890:Center for Demography and Ecology, Working Paper
462:"Toward a molecular understanding of pleiotropy"
16:Proposed evolutionary explanation for senescence
1573:Strategies for engineered negligible senescence
603:"Survival costs of reproduction in Drosophila"
1399:
750:
748:
696:
694:
692:
690:
688:
686:
684:
369:
367:
365:
70:and at least one is detrimental to fitness.
8:
790:Bochdanovits Z, de Jong G (February 2004).
1609:Evolutionary theories of biological ageing
1406:
1392:
1384:
1262:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
1227:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
187:gene (GHR). Most patients have an A->G
1487:Reliability theory of aging and longevity
1363:
1201:
1114:
1005:
948:
864:
815:
728:
718:
534:
485:
436:
399:
326:
701:Carter AJ, Nguyen AQ (December 2011).
380:Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health
7:
903:Fox CW, Wolf JB, eds. (April 2006).
226:Other pleiotropic diseases include:
45:and developed further in a paper by
1432:Antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis
31:antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis
14:
980:Long E, Zhang J (December 2023).
242:Sexual selection is a process of
57:is the phenomenon where a single
1553:List of longest-living organisms
845:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
796:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
515:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
113:Role in fecundity and senescence
757:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
290:Ubiquity in population genetics
1095:Science Translational Medicine
1030:"What Is Sickle Cell Disease?"
665:10.1016/B0-12-370870-2/00068-8
374:Austad SN, Hoffman JM (2018).
49:in 1957 as an explanation for
1:
1604:Theories of biological ageing
1068:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08273-9
460:He X, Zhang J (August 2006).
1452:Free-radical theory of aging
1317:10.1016/0531-5565(81)90046-2
1107:10.1126/scitranslmed.3001845
315:Mutation accumulation theory
907:. Oxford University Press.
653:Encyclopedia of Gerontology
622:10.1016/j.exger.2010.10.008
478:10.1534/genetics.106.060269
1625:
1442:DNA damage theory of aging
839:Promislow DE (June 2004).
1497:Stem cell theory of aging
720:10.1186/1471-2350-12-160
610:Experimental Gerontology
238:Role in sexual selection
1472:Network theory of aging
572:10.1126/science.1093165
185:growth hormone receptor
120:Drosophila melanogaster
100:Drosophila melanogaster
1563:Regeneration (biology)
1523:Biological immortality
1282:10.1098/rspb.1996.0207
1239:10.1098/rspb.1995.0054
998:10.1126/sciadv.adh4990
857:10.1098/rspb.2004.2732
808:10.1098/rsbl.2003.0091
527:10.1098/rspb.2003.2635
509:Otto SP (April 2004).
266:) using the notion of
151:An example of this is
26:
1482:Programmed cell death
1467:Negligible senescence
1174:Ecology and Evolution
950:10.1096/fj.03-1162fje
297:mutation accumulation
33:(APT) is a theory in
24:
1568:Rejuvenation (aging)
1150:(10). Nature.com: 79
802:(Suppl 3): S75–S78.
707:BMC Medical Genetics
601:Flatt T (May 2011).
200:Huntington's disease
189:splice site mutation
176:death from malaria.
35:evolutionary biology
1543:Indefinite lifespan
1447:Evolution of ageing
1417:(biology of ageing)
1356:10.1038/cdd.2016.65
1274:1996RSPSB.263.1415R
1268:(1375): 1415–1421.
1186:2012EcoEv...2.1181B
1062:(9314): 1311–1312.
851:(1545): 1225–1234.
566:(5653): 2074–2075.
447:10.1093/icb/36.1.44
392:10.1093/emph/eoy033
310:Evolution of ageing
153:sickle cell anaemia
87:sickle cell anaemia
1599:Theories of ageing
1140:"Sexual Selection"
1138:Brennan P (2010).
274:Role in DNA repair
47:George C. Williams
27:
1581:
1580:
1558:Maximum life span
1513:Adaptive mutation
1350:(11): 1765–1777.
1344:Cell Death Differ
914:978-0-19-516817-4
769:10.1111/jeb.13192
674:978-0-12-370870-0
521:(1540): 705–714.
244:natural selection
204:neurodegenerative
193:nonsense mutation
145:natural selection
83:genetic disorders
1616:
1492:Selection shadow
1477:Plant senescence
1462:Immunosenescence
1408:
1401:
1394:
1385:
1378:
1377:
1367:
1335:
1329:
1328:
1300:
1294:
1293:
1257:
1251:
1250:
1222:
1216:
1215:
1205:
1194:10.1002/ece3.246
1180:(6): 1181–1194.
1165:
1159:
1158:
1156:
1155:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1118:
1086:
1080:
1079:
1051:
1045:
1044:
1042:
1041:
1026:
1020:
1019:
1009:
992:(49): eadh4990.
986:Science Advances
977:
971:
970:
952:
943:(9): 1022–1024.
928:
919:
918:
900:
894:
893:
885:
879:
878:
868:
836:
830:
829:
819:
787:
781:
780:
752:
743:
742:
732:
722:
698:
679:
678:
648:
642:
641:
607:
598:
592:
591:
555:
549:
548:
538:
506:
500:
499:
489:
472:(4): 1885–1891.
457:
451:
450:
440:
425:American Zoology
420:
414:
413:
403:
371:
360:
359:
331:
253:At the level of
228:beta-thalassemia
64:phenotypic trait
1624:
1623:
1619:
1618:
1617:
1615:
1614:
1613:
1584:
1583:
1582:
1577:
1501:
1418:
1412:
1382:
1381:
1337:
1336:
1332:
1302:
1301:
1297:
1259:
1258:
1254:
1233:(1357): 21–29.
1224:
1223:
1219:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1153:
1151:
1137:
1136:
1132:
1088:
1087:
1083:
1053:
1052:
1048:
1039:
1037:
1028:
1027:
1023:
979:
978:
974:
930:
929:
922:
915:
902:
901:
897:
887:
886:
882:
838:
837:
833:
789:
788:
784:
754:
753:
746:
700:
699:
682:
675:
650:
649:
645:
605:
600:
599:
595:
557:
556:
552:
508:
507:
503:
459:
458:
454:
438:10.1.1.526.8366
422:
421:
417:
373:
372:
363:
348:10.2307/2406060
333:
332:
328:
323:
306:
292:
276:
268:genetic capture
240:
232:cystic fibrosis
161:red blood cells
137:
135:Role in disease
115:
95:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1622:
1620:
1612:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1586:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1576:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1548:Life extension
1545:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1509:
1507:
1506:Related topics
1503:
1502:
1500:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1457:Hayflick limit
1454:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1428:
1426:
1420:
1419:
1413:
1411:
1410:
1403:
1396:
1388:
1380:
1379:
1330:
1311:(2): 199–207.
1295:
1252:
1217:
1160:
1130:
1101:(70): 70ra13.
1081:
1046:
1021:
972:
920:
913:
895:
880:
831:
782:
744:
680:
673:
643:
616:(5): 369–375.
593:
550:
501:
452:
415:
386:(1): 287–294.
361:
342:(4): 398–411.
325:
324:
322:
319:
318:
317:
312:
305:
302:
291:
288:
275:
272:
239:
236:
181:Laron syndrome
136:
133:
114:
111:
94:
91:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1621:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1591:
1589:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1429:
1427:
1425:
1421:
1416:
1409:
1404:
1402:
1397:
1395:
1390:
1389:
1386:
1375:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1334:
1331:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1299:
1296:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1256:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1221:
1218:
1213:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1164:
1161:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1134:
1131:
1126:
1122:
1117:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1085:
1082:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1050:
1047:
1035:
1031:
1025:
1022:
1017:
1013:
1008:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
976:
973:
968:
964:
960:
956:
951:
946:
942:
938:
937:FASEB Journal
934:
927:
925:
921:
916:
910:
906:
899:
896:
891:
884:
881:
876:
872:
867:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
835:
832:
827:
823:
818:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
786:
783:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
751:
749:
745:
740:
736:
731:
726:
721:
716:
712:
708:
704:
697:
695:
693:
691:
689:
687:
685:
681:
676:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
647:
644:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
604:
597:
594:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
554:
551:
546:
542:
537:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
505:
502:
497:
493:
488:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
456:
453:
448:
444:
439:
434:
430:
426:
419:
416:
411:
407:
402:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
370:
368:
366:
362:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
330:
327:
320:
316:
313:
311:
308:
307:
303:
301:
298:
289:
287:
284:
280:
273:
271:
269:
265:
260:
256:
251:
249:
245:
237:
235:
233:
229:
224:
222:
218:
214:
209:
205:
201:
196:
194:
190:
186:
182:
177:
174:
173:heterozygotes
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
149:
146:
142:
134:
132:
129:
123:
121:
112:
110:
108:
103:
101:
92:
90:
88:
84:
79:
77:
71:
69:
65:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
43:Peter Medawar
39:
36:
32:
23:
19:
1528:CGK733 fraud
1431:
1347:
1343:
1333:
1308:
1305:Exp Gerontol
1304:
1298:
1265:
1261:
1255:
1230:
1226:
1220:
1177:
1173:
1163:
1152:. Retrieved
1147:
1143:
1133:
1098:
1094:
1084:
1059:
1055:
1049:
1038:. Retrieved
1033:
1024:
989:
985:
975:
940:
936:
904:
898:
889:
883:
848:
844:
834:
799:
795:
785:
763:(1): 46–56.
760:
756:
710:
706:
656:
652:
646:
613:
609:
596:
563:
559:
553:
518:
514:
504:
469:
465:
455:
428:
424:
418:
383:
379:
339:
335:
329:
293:
277:
252:
241:
225:
197:
178:
150:
138:
124:
119:
116:
107:annual plant
104:
99:
96:
80:
72:
40:
30:
28:
18:
659:: 538–547.
264:lek paradox
165:homozygotes
157:haemoglobin
1588:Categories
1538:DNA repair
1437:Catabiosis
1424:Senescence
1415:Senescence
1154:2024-08-31
1040:2024-04-16
321:References
279:DNA repair
208:Huntingtin
141:pleiotropy
93:Trade-offs
55:Pleiotropy
51:senescence
892:(Report).
638:107465469
433:CiteSeerX
431:: 44–50.
336:Evolution
221:fecundity
217:apoptosis
202:, a rare
159:found in
1594:Genetics
1374:27391797
1290:85631446
1247:43984154
1212:22833793
1125:21325617
1076:11965279
1016:38064565
1007:10708185
959:15084512
875:15306346
826:15101424
777:29030895
739:22151998
630:20970491
588:83853360
580:14684807
545:15209104
496:16702416
466:Genetics
410:30524730
304:See also
248:peacocks
1365:5071568
1325:7286098
1270:Bibcode
1203:3402193
1182:Bibcode
1116:3357623
967:1379140
866:1691725
817:1809996
730:3254080
713:: 160.
560:Science
536:1691650
487:1569710
401:6276058
356:2406060
283:mitotic
169:malaria
128:alleles
76:alleles
68:fitness
1518:Ageing
1372:
1362:
1323:
1288:
1245:
1210:
1200:
1123:
1113:
1074:
1056:Lancet
1014:
1004:
965:
957:
911:
873:
863:
824:
814:
775:
737:
727:
671:
636:
628:
586:
578:
543:
533:
494:
484:
435:
408:
398:
354:
1533:Death
1286:S2CID
1243:S2CID
963:S2CID
634:S2CID
606:(PDF)
584:S2CID
352:JSTOR
255:genes
1370:PMID
1321:PMID
1208:PMID
1121:PMID
1072:PMID
1012:PMID
955:PMID
909:ISBN
871:PMID
822:PMID
773:PMID
735:PMID
669:ISBN
626:PMID
576:PMID
541:PMID
492:PMID
406:PMID
384:2018
59:gene
29:The
1360:PMC
1352:doi
1313:doi
1278:doi
1266:263
1235:doi
1231:260
1198:PMC
1190:doi
1111:PMC
1103:doi
1064:doi
1060:359
1002:PMC
994:doi
945:doi
861:PMC
853:doi
849:271
812:PMC
804:doi
800:271
765:doi
725:PMC
715:doi
661:doi
618:doi
568:doi
564:302
531:PMC
523:doi
519:271
482:PMC
474:doi
470:173
443:doi
396:PMC
388:doi
344:doi
259:lek
213:p53
1590::
1368:.
1358:.
1348:23
1346:.
1342:.
1319:.
1309:16
1307:.
1284:.
1276:.
1264:.
1241:.
1229:.
1206:.
1196:.
1188:.
1176:.
1172:.
1146:.
1142:.
1119:.
1109:.
1097:.
1093:.
1070:.
1058:.
1032:.
1010:.
1000:.
988:.
984:.
961:.
953:.
941:18
939:.
935:.
923:^
869:.
859:.
847:.
843:.
820:.
810:.
798:.
794:.
771:.
761:31
759:.
747:^
733:.
723:.
711:12
709:.
705:.
683:^
667:.
655:.
632:.
624:.
614:46
612:.
608:.
582:.
574:.
562:.
539:.
529:.
517:.
513:.
490:.
480:.
468:.
464:.
441:.
429:36
427:.
404:.
394:.
382:.
378:.
364:^
350:.
340:11
338:.
223:.
53:.
1407:e
1400:t
1393:v
1376:.
1354::
1327:.
1315::
1292:.
1280::
1272::
1249:.
1237::
1214:.
1192::
1184::
1178:2
1157:.
1148:3
1127:.
1105::
1099:3
1078:.
1066::
1043:.
1018:.
996::
990:9
969:.
947::
917:.
877:.
855::
828:.
806::
779:.
767::
741:.
717::
677:.
663::
657:2
640:.
620::
590:.
570::
547:.
525::
498:.
476::
449:.
445::
412:.
390::
358:.
346::
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
