Anthrax - Knowledge (XXG)

1254:, can have devastating effects on animals. It primarily affects herbivores such as cattle, sheep, and goats, but a wide range of mammals, birds, and even humans can also be susceptible. Infection typically occurs through the ingestion of spores in contaminated soil or plants. Once inside the host, the spores transform into active bacteria, producing lethal toxins that lead to severe symptoms. Infected animals often exhibit high fever, rapid breathing, and convulsions, and they may succumb to the disease within hours to days. The presence of anthrax can pose significant challenges to livestock management and wildlife conservation efforts, making it a critical concern for both animal health and public health, as it can occasionally be transmitted to humans through contact with infected animals or contaminated products. Infected animals may stagger, have difficulty breathing, tremble, and finally collapse and die within a few hours. 1924:

the KGB. In addition to the medical problems the outbreak caused, it also prompted Western countries to be more suspicious of a covert Soviet bioweapons program and to increase their surveillance of suspected sites. In 1986, the US government was allowed to investigate the incident, and concluded the exposure was from aerosol anthrax from a military weapons facility. In 1992, President Yeltsin admitted he was "absolutely certain" that "rumors" about the Soviet Union violating the 1972 Bioweapons Treaty were true. The Soviet Union, like the US and UK, had agreed to submit information to the UN about their bioweapons programs, but omitted known facilities and never acknowledged their weapons program.

1728:

enough to prevent resurfacing of spores requires much manpower and expensive tools. Carcasses have been soaked in formaldehyde to kill spores, though this has environmental contamination issues. Block burning of vegetation in large areas enclosing an anthrax outbreak has been tried; this, while environmentally destructive, causes healthy animals to move away from an area with carcasses in search of fresh grass. Some wildlife workers have experimented with covering fresh anthrax carcasses with shadecloth and heavy objects. This prevents some scavengers from opening the carcasses, thus allowing the putrefactive bacteria within the carcass to kill the vegetative

673: 1434: 458: 1051:) and serious adverse reactions occur in about 1% of recipients. The American product, BioThrax, is licensed by the FDA and was formerly administered in a six-dose primary series at 0, 2, 4 weeks and 6, 12, 18 months, with annual boosters to maintain immunity. In 2008, the FDA approved omitting the week-2 dose, resulting in the currently recommended five-dose series. This five-dose series is available to military personnel, scientists who work with anthrax and members of the public who do jobs which cause them to be at-risk. New second-generation vaccines currently being researched include 705: 652:, edema factor, and protective antigen. The three are not toxic by themselves, but their combination is incredibly lethal to humans. Protective antigen combines with these other two factors to form lethal toxin and edema toxin, respectively. These toxins are the primary agents of tissue destruction, bleeding, and death of the host. If antibiotics are administered too late, even if the antibiotics eradicate the bacteria, some hosts still die of toxemia because the toxins produced by the bacilli remain in their systems at lethal dose levels. 972:, rubber apron, and rubber boots with no perforations are used when handling the body. No skin, especially if it has any wounds or scratches, should be exposed. Disposable personal protective equipment is preferable, but if not available, decontamination can be achieved by autoclaving. Used disposable equipment is burned and/or buried after use. All contaminated bedding or clothing is isolated in double plastic bags and treated as biohazard waste. Respiratory equipment capable of filtering small particles, such the US 965:

to ascertain if anthrax is the cause of death. The body should be sealed in an airtight body bag and incinerated to prevent the transmission of anthrax spores. Microscopic visualization of the encapsulated bacilli, usually in very large numbers, in a blood smear stained with polychrome methylene blue (McFadyean stain) is fully diagnostic, though the culture of the organism is still the gold standard for diagnosis. Full isolation of the body is important to prevent possible contamination of others.

749:

gastrointestinal anthrax due to the thawing of reindeer corpses from 75 years before contact. Anthrax spores traveled though groundwater used for drinking and caused tens of people to be hospitalized, largely children. Occupational exposure to infected animals or their products (such as skin, wool, and meat) is the usual pathway of exposure for humans. Workers exposed to dead animals and animal products are at the highest risk, especially in countries where anthrax is more common. Anthrax in

886: 466: 620:

vegetation; the vegetation has been hypothesized to cause wounds within the gastrointestinal tract, permitting entry of the bacterial spores into the tissues. Once ingested or placed in an open wound, the bacteria begin multiplying inside the animal or human and typically kill the host within a few days or weeks. The spores germinate at the site of entry into the tissues and then spread by the circulation to the lymphatics, where the bacteria multiply.

1287:. The woman apparently inhaled anthrax, in spore form, from the hide of the drum. She became critically ill, but with gastrointestinal anthrax rather than inhaled anthrax, which made her unique in American medical history. The building where the infection took place was cleaned and reopened to the public and the woman recovered. The New Hampshire state epidemiologist, Jodie Dionne-Odom, stated "It is a mystery. We really don't know why it happened." 1668:), peracetic acid, ozone gas, hypochlorous acid, sodium persulfate, and liquid bleach products containing sodium hypochlorite. Nonoxidizing agents shown to be effective for anthrax decontamination include methyl bromide, formaldehyde, and metam sodium. These agents destroy bacterial spores. All of the aforementioned anthrax decontamination technologies have been demonstrated to be effective in laboratory tests conducted by the US EPA or others. 1097: 450: 32: 584: 659: 554:, causing bloody fluid to accumulate in the chest cavity, thereby causing shortness of breath. The second (pneumonia) stage occurs when the infection spreads from the lymph nodes to the lungs. Symptoms of the second stage develop suddenly within hours or days after the first stage. Symptoms include high fever, extreme shortness of breath, shock, and rapid death within 48 hours in fatal cases. 648:). Damage caused by the anthrax spores and bacilli to the central chest cavity can cause chest pain and difficulty breathing. Once in the lymph nodes, the spores germinate into active bacilli that multiply and eventually burst the macrophages, releasing many more bacilli into the bloodstream to be transferred to the entire body. Once in the bloodstream, these bacilli release three proteins: 104: 1524: 737: 1480:. The animals of one group were twice injected with an anthrax vaccine prepared by Pasteur, at an interval of 15 days; the control group was left unvaccinated. Thirty days after the first injection, both groups were injected with a culture of live anthrax bacteria. All the animals in the unvaccinated group died, while all of the animals in the vaccinated group survived. 628:, but anthrax vegetative bacteria that escape the body via oozing blood or opening the carcass may form hardy spores. These vegetative bacteria are not contagious. One spore forms per vegetative bacterium. The triggers for spore formation are not known, but oxygen tension and lack of nutrients may play roles. Once formed, these spores are very hard to eradicate. 307:, which often appear in infectious animal products. Contact is by breathing or eating or through an area of broken skin. It does not typically spread directly between people. Risk factors include people who work with animals or animal products, and military personnel. Diagnosis can be confirmed by finding antibodies or the toxin in the blood or by 1754: 349:

respiratory anthrax has a mortality of 50 to 80%, even with treatment. Until the 20th century anthrax infections killed hundreds of thousands of people and animals each year. In herbivorous animals infection occurs when they eat or breathe in the spores while grazing. Animals may become infected by killing and/or eating infected animals.

729:

body, its mass of anthrax bacilli becomes a potential source of infection to others and special precautions should be used to prevent further contamination. Pulmonary anthrax, if left untreated, is almost always fatal. Historically, pulmonary anthrax was called woolsorters' disease because it was an occupational hazard for

1083:(USPS) installed biodetection systems (BDSs) in their large-scale mail processing facilities. BDS response plans were formulated by the USPS in conjunction with local responders including fire, police, hospitals, and public health. Employees of these facilities have been educated about anthrax, response actions, and 1103: 1102: 1099: 1098: 1104: 1294:. The case involved a maker of traditional African-style drums who was working with a goat hide purchased from a dealer in New York City which had been previously cleared by Customs. While the hide was being scraped, a spider bite led to the spores entering the bloodstream. His son also became infected. 1923:

story, Soviet medical and legal journals published articles about an outbreak in livestock that caused gastrointestinal anthrax in people having consumed infected meat, and cutaneous anthrax in people having come into contact with the animals. All medical and public health records were confiscated by

1723:

showed decontamination to be possible, but time-consuming and costly. Clearing the Senate Office Building of anthrax spores cost $ 27 million, according to the Government Accountability Office. Cleaning the Brentwood postal facility in Washington cost $ 130 million and took 26 months. Since

964:

Precautions are taken to avoid contact with the skin and any fluids exuded through natural body openings of a deceased body that is suspected of harboring anthrax. The body should be put in strict quarantine. A blood sample is collected and sealed in a container and analyzed in an approved laboratory

756:

Many workers who deal with wool and animal hides are routinely exposed to low levels of anthrax spores, but most exposure levels are not sufficient to produce infection. A lethal infection is reported to result from inhalation of about 10,000–20,000 spores, though this dose varies among host species.

728:

Anthrax can enter the human body through the intestines (gastrointestinal), lungs (pulmonary), or skin (cutaneous), and causes distinct clinical symptoms based on its site of entry. Anthrax does not usually spread from an infected human to an uninfected human. If the disease is fatal to the person's

619:

in 1876 when he took a blood sample from an infected cow, isolated the bacteria, and put them into a mouse. The bacterium normally rests in spore form in the soil, and can survive for decades in this state. Herbivores are often infected while grazing, especially when eating rough, irritant, or spiky

1105: 1882:

Despite signing the 1972 agreement to end bioweapon production, the government of the Soviet Union had an active bioweapons program that included the production of hundreds of tons of anthrax after this period. On 2 April 1979, some of the over one million people living in Sverdlovsk (now called

813:

fragments forming a heptameric ring-shaped structure named a prepore. Once in this shape, the complex can competitively bind up to three EFs or LFs, forming a resistant complex. Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs next, providing the newly formed toxic complex access to the interior of the host

546:

Over the next day or so, shortness of breath, cough, and chest pain become more common, and complaints not involving the chest such as nausea, vomiting, altered mental status, sweats, and headache develop in one-third or more of people. Upper respiratory tract symptoms occur in only a quarter of

534:

Inhalation anthrax usually develops within a week after exposure, but may take up to 2 months. During the first few days of illness, most people have fever, chills, and fatigue. These symptoms may be accompanied by cough, shortness of breath, chest pain, and nausea or vomiting, making inhalation

1727:

Cleanup of anthrax-contaminated areas on ranches and in the wild is much more problematic. Carcasses may be burned, though often 3 days are needed to burn a large carcass and this is not feasible in areas with little wood. Carcasses may also be buried, though the burying of large animals deeply

1278:

Gastrointestinal anthrax is exceedingly rare in the United States, with only two cases on record. The first case was reported in 1942, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. During December 2009, the New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services confirmed a case of

623:

The production of two powerful exotoxins and lethal toxin by the bacteria causes death. Veterinarians can often tell a possible anthrax-induced death by its sudden occurrence and the dark, nonclotting blood that oozes from the body orifices. Most anthrax bacteria inside the body after death are

499:

or most other lesions, cutaneous anthrax infections normally do not cause pain. Nearby lymph nodes may become infected, reddened, swollen, and painful. A scab forms over the lesion soon, and falls off in a few weeks. Complete recovery may take longer. Cutaneous anthrax is typically caused when

1101: 494:

ulcer (beginning as an irritating and itchy skin lesion or blister that is dark and usually concentrated as a black dot, somewhat resembling bread mold) at the site of infection. In general, cutaneous infections form within the site of spore penetration two to five days after exposure. Unlike

748:

The spores of anthrax are able to survive in harsh conditions for decades or even centuries. Such spores can be found on all continents, including Antarctica. Disturbed grave sites of infected animals have been known to cause infection after 70 years. In one such event, a young boy died from

348:

and North America. Globally, at least 2,000 cases occur a year, with about two cases a year in the United States. Skin infections represent more than 95% of cases. Without treatment the risk of death from skin anthrax is 23.7%. For intestinal infection the risk of death is 25 to 75%, while

1891:

from a biological weapons complex located near there. At least 94 people were infected, of whom at least 68 died. One victim died four days after the release, 10 over an eight-day period at the peak of the deaths, and the last six weeks later. Extensive cleanup, vaccinations, and medical

1360:. In a groundbreaking series of experiments, he uncovered the lifecycle and means of transmission of anthrax. His experiments not only helped create an understanding of anthrax but also helped elucidate the role of microbes in causing illness at a time when debates still took place over 1118:

soap and water. Wastewater is treated with bleach or another antimicrobial agent. Effective decontamination of articles can be accomplished by boiling them in water for 30 minutes or longer. Chlorine bleach is ineffective in destroying spores and vegetative cells on surfaces, though

672: 1113:

Anthrax cannot be spread from person to person, except in the rare case of skin exudates from cutaneous anthrax. However, a person's clothing and body may be contaminated with anthrax spores. Effective decontamination of people can be accomplished by a thorough wash-down with

1483:

After this apparent triumph, which was widely reported in the local, national, and international press, Pasteur made strenuous efforts to export the vaccine beyond France. He used his celebrity status to establish Pasteur Institutes across Europe and Asia, and his nephew,

733:. Today, this form of infection is extremely rare in industrialized nations. Cutaneous anthrax is the most common form of transmission but also the least dangerous of the three transmissions. Gastrointestinal anthrax is likely fatal if left untreated, but very rare. 704: 1270:

The last fatal case of natural inhalational anthrax in the United States occurred in California in 1976, when a home weaver died after working with infected wool imported from Pakistan. To minimize the chance of spreading the disease, the body was transported to

360:

prohibited the "development, production and stockpiling" of biological weapons. It has since been used in bioterrorism. Likely delivery methods of weaponized anthrax include aerial dispersal or dispersal through livestock; notable bioterrorism uses include the

1911:

governments suspected the Soviet Union had developed a sex-specific weapon. The government blamed the outbreak on the consumption of anthrax-tainted meat, and ordered the confiscation of all uninspected meat that entered the city. They also ordered all

473:

Cutaneous anthrax, also known as hide-porter's disease, is when anthrax occurs on the skin. It is the most common (>90% of cases) and least dangerous form (low mortality with treatment, 23.7% mortality without). Cutaneous anthrax presents as a

1375:

Although Koch arguably made the greatest theoretical contribution to understanding anthrax, other researchers were more concerned with the practical questions of how to prevent the disease. In Britain, where anthrax affected workers in the wool,

631:

The infection of herbivores (and occasionally humans) by inhalation normally begins with inhaled spores being transported through the air passages into the tiny air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs. The spores are then picked up by scavenger cells

1123:

is effective. Burning clothing is very effective in destroying spores. After decontamination, there is no need to immunize, treat, or isolate contacts of persons ill with anthrax unless they were also exposed to the same source of infection.

6282: 6267: 6252: 273:, inhalation, or intestinal absorption. Symptom onset occurs between one day and more than two months after the infection is contracted. The skin form presents with a small blister with surrounding swelling that often turns into a painless 1625:

bioweapons trials. A variation of Vollum, known as "Vollum 1B", was used during the 1960s in the US and UK bioweapon programs. Vollum 1B is widely believed to have been isolated from William A. Boyles, a 46-year-old scientist at the

525:

in Afghanistan. Injected anthrax may have symptoms similar to cutaneous anthrax, with the exception of black areas, and may also cause infection deep into the muscle and spread faster. This can make it harder to recognise and treat.

1132:

Early antibiotic treatment of anthrax is essential; delay significantly lessens chances for survival. Treatment for anthrax infection and other bacterial infections includes large doses of intravenous and oral antibiotics, such as

4639: 569:

can occur. Lesions have been found in the intestines and in the mouth and throat. After the bacterium invades the gastrointestinal system, it spreads to the bloodstream and throughout the body, while continuing to make toxins.

1675:

spores are affected by the material with which the spores are associated, environmental factors such as temperature and humidity, and microbiological factors such as the spore species, anthracis strain, and test methods used.

565:(GI) infection is most often caused by consuming anthrax-infected meat and is characterized by diarrhea, potentially with blood, abdominal pains, acute inflammation of the intestinal tract, and loss of appetite. Occasional 4578: 4552: 1819:. The pellets would be eaten by cattle, which would in turn be eaten by the human population and as such severally disrupt the German war effort. In the same year, bioweapons tests were carried out on the uninhabited 520:

areas of Scotland, resulting in 14 deaths. It was the first documented non-occupational human anthrax outbreak in the UK since 1960. The source of the anthrax is believed to have been dilution of the heroin with

1761: 6559: 1181:(brand name ABthrax) intended for emergency treatment of inhaled anthrax. On 14 December 2012, the US Food and Drug Administration approved raxibacumab injection to treat inhalational anthrax. Raxibacumab is a 1788:

during the 1930s; some of this testing involved intentional infection of prisoners of war, thousands of whom died. Anthrax, designated at the time as Agent N, was also investigated by the Allies in the 1940s.

6157: 1100: 1087:

medication. Because of the time delay inherent in getting final verification that anthrax has been used, prophylactic antibiotic treatment of possibly exposed personnel must be started as soon as possible.

948:" appearance, and are not hemolytic on 5% sheep blood agar. The bacteria are not motile, susceptible to penicillin, and produce a wide zone of lecithinase on egg yolk agar. Confirmatory testing to identify 1715:

Using the catalyst method, complete destruction of all anthrax spores can be achieved in under 30 minutes. A standard catalyst-free spray destroys fewer than half the spores in the same amount of time.

1683:

has emerged as the preferred biocide against anthrax-contaminated sites, having been employed in the treatment of numerous government buildings over the past decade. Its chief drawback is the need for

4460: 2005:

Anthrax is especially rare in dogs and cats, as is evidenced by a single reported case in the United States in 2001. Anthrax outbreaks occur in some wild animal populations with some regularity.

317:

is recommended for people at high risk of infection. Immunizing animals against anthrax is recommended in areas where previous infections have occurred. A two-month course of antibiotics such as

980:-approved high-efficiency respirator, is worn. By addressing Anthrax from a One Health perspective, we can reduce the risks of transmission and better protect both human and animal populations. 6889: 6504: 814:

cell. The acidified environment within the endosome triggers the heptamer to release the LF and/or EF into the cytosol. It is unknown how exactly the complex results in the death of the cell.

1955:

of Vermont. As a result, 22 were infected and five died. Only a few grams of material were used in these attacks and in August 2008, the US Department of Justice announced they believed that

1411:

Departmental Committee of Inquiry, established in 1913 to address the continuing problem of industrial anthrax. His work in this capacity, much of it collaboration with the factory inspector

1827:, with Porton Down scientists studying the effect of anthrax on the island's population of sheep. Ultimately, five million pellets were created, though plans to drop them over Germany using 1318:

In November 2008, a drum maker in the United Kingdom who worked with untreated animal skins died from anthrax. In December 2009, an outbreak of anthrax occurred among heroin addicts in the

1511:

became available in 1954. This was a cell-free vaccine instead of the live-cell Pasteur-style vaccine used for veterinary purposes. An improved cell-free vaccine became available in 1970.

1907:

Nearly all of the night-shift workers of a ceramics plant directly across the street from the biological facility (compound 19) became infected, and most died. Since most were men, some

1739:

is said to have been decontaminated with a mixture of formaldehyde and seawater by the Ministry of Defence. It is not clear whether similar treatments had been applied to US test sites.

4631: 2995: 1161:

treatment is crucial to prevent possible death. Many attempts have been made to develop new drugs against anthrax, but existing drugs are effective if treatment is started soon enough.

952:

includes gamma bacteriophage testing, indirect hemagglutination, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect antibodies. The best confirmatory precipitation test for anthrax is the

6544: 6025: 3281:

Pimental RA, Christensen KA, Krantz BA, Collier RJ (September 2004). "Anthrax toxin complexes: heptameric protective antigen can bind lethal factor and edema factor simultaneously".

3412: 1075:

Preventive antibiotics are recommended in those who have been exposed. Early detection of sources of anthrax infection can allow preventive measures to be taken. In response to the

2016:

can thaw the permafrost, releasing anthrax spores in the carcasses. In 2016, an anthrax outbreak in reindeer was linked to a 75-year-old carcass that defrosted during a heat wave.

4526: 973: 3910:

Vaccine, Institute of Medicine (US) Committee to Assess the Safety and Efficacy of the Anthrax; Joellenbeck, Lois M.; Zwanziger, Lee L.; Durch, Jane S.; Strom, Brian L. (2002),

5327: 422:

Anthrax was historically known by a wide variety of names, indicating its symptoms, location, and groups considered most vulnerable to infection. They include Siberian plague,

857:

or programmed cell death. Interleukin 1 beta is another cytokine that also regulates inflammation and apoptosis. The overproduction of TNF-alpha and IL1B ultimately leads to

1496:. Ultimately, the vaccine was unsuccessful in the challenging climate of rural Australia, and it was soon superseded by a more robust version developed by local researchers 6519: 2803: 1627: 1407:

who settled in Bradford with his family as a child, carried out important research for the local Anthrax Investigation Board. Eurich also made valuable contributions to a

841:(a type of phagocytic cell) by the process just described so they cannot phagocytose bacteria. Throughout history, lethal factor was presumed to cause macrophages to make 6499: 1719:

Cleanups at a Senate Office Building, several contaminated postal facilities, and other US government and private office buildings, a collaborative effort headed by the

1652:

Anthrax spores can survive for very long periods of time in the environment after release. Chemical methods for cleaning anthrax-contaminated sites or materials may use

1396:, first made the link between the mysterious and deadly "woolsorter's disease" and anthrax, showing in 1878 that they were one and the same. In the early 20th century, 42: 5831: 6180: 3514: 2946: 403:

surrounded by vivid red skin has long been recognised as typical of the disease. The first recorded use of the word "anthrax" in English is in a 1398 translation of

7722: 6882: 6833: 6549: 6153: 1445:

and elsewhere during the 19th century. Horses, cattle, and sheep were particularly vulnerable, and national funds were set aside to investigate the production of a

1970:

at its major distribution centers to actively scan for anthrax being transported through the mail. As of 2020, no positive alerts by these systems have occurred.

1947:

in the United States, delivered by mailing postal letters containing the spores. The letters were sent to several news media offices and two Democratic senators:

5233: 2873: 1916:

to be shot and people not have contact with sick animals. Also, a voluntary evacuation and anthrax vaccination program was established for people from 18 to 55.

1453:

was charged with the production of a vaccine, following his successful work in developing methods that helped to protect the important wine and silk industries.

6554: 5084:"Review of Decontamination Techniques for the Inactivation of Bacillus anthracis and Other Spore-Forming Bacteria Associated with Building or Outdoor Materials" 4574: 4548: 3966: 1720: 547:

people, and muscle pains are rare. Altered mental status or shortness of breath generally brings people to healthcare and marks the fulminant phase of illness.

4258:

Holty JE, Bravata DM, Liu H, Olshen RA, McDonald KM, Owens DK (February 2006). "Systematic review: a century of inhalational anthrax cases from 1900 to 2005".

3731: 1850:

government used anthrax against cattle and humans during its campaign against rebels. The Soviet Union created and stored 100 to 200 tons of anthrax spores at

4197: 7717: 7310: 1236:

phase of inhalational anthrax nearly always die, with one case study showing a death rate of 97%. Anthrax meningoencephalitis is also nearly always fatal.

4909: 781:

factor (EF), and lethal factor (LF). PA plus LF produces lethal toxin, and PA plus EF produces edema toxin. These toxins cause death and tissue swelling (

6875: 6494: 4871:

Stark J (2012). "Anthrax and Australia in a Global Context: The International Exchange of Theories and Practices with Britain and France, c. 1850–1920".

1280: 285: 5943: 4452: 2755:

Akbayram S, Doğan M, Akgün C, Peker E, Bektaş MS, Kaya A, et al. (2010). "Clinical findings in children with cutaneous anthrax in eastern Turkey".

2500: 1997:

at its hottest setting (at least 400 °F (204 °C)) used for at least 5 minutes should destroy all anthrax spores in a common postal envelope.

4221: 2012:

contains around 1.5 million anthrax-infected reindeer carcasses, and the spores may survive in the permafrost for 105 years. A risk exists that

1239:

Gastrointestinal anthrax infections can be treated, but usually result in fatality rates of 25% to 60%, depending upon how soon treatment commences.

6529: 5744:

Meselson M, Guillemin J, Hugh-Jones M, Langmuir A, Popova I, Shelokov A, Yampolskaya O (November 1994). "The Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak of 1979".

5258: 5028: 3844: 7166: 1868:

personnel are no longer routinely vaccinated against anthrax prior to active service in places where biological attacks are considered a threat.

1732:

cells and preventing sporulation. This method also has drawbacks, as scavengers such as hyenas are capable of infiltrating almost any exclosure.

5269: 5039: 6404: 5529: 2289: 125: 5658: 5003: 2972: 6772: 6539: 5896: 5725: 5689: 5626: 5508: 5443: 5167:"Systematic evaluation of the efficacy of chlorine dioxide in decontamination of building interior surfaces contaminated with anthrax spores" 4840: 4692: 4060: 3813: 3784: 3478: 2396: 1369: 1272: 977: 4977: 292:

were given by Maret in 1752 and Fournier in 1769. Before that, anthrax had been described only in historical accounts. The German scientist

7747: 7300: 6634: 5972: 2443: 905:

spp. are quite large in size (3 to 4 μm long), they may grow in long chains, and they stain Gram-positive. To confirm the organism is

3404: 1433: 924:

species grow well on 5% sheep blood agar and other routine culture media. Polymyxin-lysozyme-EDTA-thallous acetate can be used to isolate

5917: 5297: 4518: 4030: 2477: 337:. The type and number of antibiotics used depend on the type of infection. Antitoxin is recommended for those with widespread infection. 5514: 4609: 2332: 1846:

ordered the dismantling of US biowarfare programs in 1969 and the destruction of all existing stockpiles of bioweapons. In 1978–79, the

1210: 649: 6042: 5468: 3996: 5319: 4716: 4108: 423: 2903: 2703: 1005:

Vaccines against anthrax for use in livestock and humans have had a prominent place in the history of medicine. The French scientist

837:

removes calmodulin from stimulating calcium-triggered signaling, thus inhibiting the immune response. To be specific, LF inactivates

7536: 6917: 6627: 6620: 6524: 3023: 2989: 2645: 2471: 2437: 2326: 2252: 1283:

investigated the source and the possibility that it was contracted from an African drum recently used by the woman taking part in a

1242:

Injection anthrax is the rarest form of anthrax, and has only been seen to have occurred in a group of heroin injecting drug users.

504:

spores enter through cuts on the skin. This form is found most commonly when humans handle infected animals and/or animal products.

76: 3166: 5570: 2851: 6436: 4082: 3773:

World Health Organization; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; World Organisation for Animal Health (2019).

1940:

form of anthrax suitable for biological warfare requires extensive practical knowledge, training, and highly advanced equipment.

5357: 4312: 2814: 2359: 457: 7141: 7121: 7089: 7070: 6514: 2725: 1326:

areas of Scotland, resulting in 14 deaths. The source of the anthrax is believed to have been dilution of the heroin with

2157: 1232:

Before 2001, fatality rates for inhalation anthrax were 90%; since then, they have fallen to 45%. People that progress to the

1189:. In March 2016, FDA approved a second anthrax treatment using a monoclonal antibody which neutralizes the toxins produced by 7737: 6484: 2052: 6172: 5823: 5060: 4669: 3888: 3498: 2651: 1531: 861:

and death. However, recent evidence indicates anthrax also targets endothelial cells that line serious cavities such as the

5989: 5861: 5387: 3590: 3549: 1959:, a senior biodefense researcher employed by the United States government, was responsible. These events also spawned many 7752: 7044: 6828: 6441: 5407: 3756: 2981: 2940: 2087: 1861: 1839: 1590:

in the United States, has received the most news coverage of any anthrax outbreak. The Ames strain contains two virulence

357: 3939: 2578: 1708:

and converted into a spray. The spray formula is applied to an infested area and is followed by another spray containing

7679: 7353: 6962: 4216: 2124: 2013: 1978:

In response to the postal anthrax attacks and hoaxes, the United States Postal Service sterilized some mail using gamma

1753: 1617:, is much more dangerous. The Vollum (also incorrectly referred to as Vellum) strain was isolated in 1935 from a cow in 1174: 1157:. FDA-approved agents include ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, and penicillin. In possible cases of pulmonary anthrax, early 1080: 679: 562: 540: 4430: 4371: 3368:

Metcalfe N (October 2004). "The history of woolsorters' disease: a Yorkshire beginning with an international future?".

3148:"Untersuchungen über Bakterien: V. Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des 2595: 340:

A rare disease, human anthrax is most common in Africa and central and southern Asia. It also occurs more regularly in

7061: 6534: 5225: 3790: 3617: 2865: 2619: 1967: 1665: 1457: 1056: 1017:

in the late 1930s and in the US and UK in the 1950s. The current FDA-approved US vaccine was formulated in the 1960s.

6867: 3962: 58: 3723: 7339: 6489: 6397: 4185: 2590: 2198:"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention expert panel meetings on prevention and treatment of anthrax in adults" 928:

from contaminated specimens, and bicarbonate agar is used as an identification method to induce capsule formation.

7732: 7094: 6597: 4955: 1461: 1397: 1339: 910: 4906: 1209:

Cutaneous anthrax is rarely fatal if treated, because the infection area is limited to the skin, preventing the

550:

It infects the lymph nodes in the chest first, rather than the lungs themselves, a condition called hemorrhagic

7727: 7574: 7568: 7275: 7182: 7135: 6981: 6461: 6297: 6205: 3948: 3817: 1709: 1508: 1052: 984: 944:

colonies are medium-large, gray, flat, and irregular with swirling projections, often referred to as having a "

769:, which protects the bacterium from phagocytosis by host neutrophils; and the tripartite protein toxin, called 281:. The intestinal form presents with diarrhea (which may contain blood), abdominal pains, nausea, and vomiting. 20: 6666: 4022: 1356:(now Wolsztyn, Poland). His pioneering work in the late 19th century was one of the first demonstrations that 1352:, a German physician and scientist, first identified the bacterium that caused the anthrax disease in 1875 in 6851: 5939: 5378:

Bisher, Jamie, "During World War I, Terrorists Schemed to Use Anthrax in the Cause of Finnish Independence",

3724:"Safety and Health Topics | Anthrax – Control and Prevention | Occupational Safety and Health Administration" 2508: 1892:

interventions managed to save about 30 of the victims. Extensive cover-ups and destruction of records by the

983:

The prevention of anthrax from the environmental sources like air, water, & soil is disinfection used by

658: 7525: 7236: 7031: 6856: 6726: 5143: 4929: 3776:

Taking a multisectoral, one health approach: a tripartite guide to addressing zoonotic diseases in countries

1888: 1877: 1804: 1497: 1416: 932:

spp. usually grow within 24 hours of incubation at 35 °C, in ambient air (room temperature) or in 5% CO

753:

grazing on open range where they mix with wild animals still occasionally occurs in the U.S. and elsewhere.

4244: 4211: 1412: 7631: 7424: 7083: 7038: 6987: 6602: 1361: 1357: 988: 404: 7652: 7645: 7484: 7294: 7230: 7005: 6787: 6782: 6752: 6451: 6390: 4916:", National Immunization Program, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, January 2006. (PPT format) 3859: 1835:

and the subsequent Allied liberation of France. All pellets were destroyed using incinerators in 1945.

1777: 1748: 1170: 353: 5887:

The Anthrax Letters: A Bioterrorism Expert Investigates the Attacks That Shocked America – Case Closed?

5254:"The Anthrax Cleanup of Capitol Hill." Documentary by Xin Wang produced by the EPA Alumni Association. 5024:"The Anthrax Cleanup of Capitol Hill." Documentary by Xin Wang produced by the EPA Alumni Association. 1932:

In theory, anthrax spores can be cultivated with minimal special equipment and a first-year collegiate

1021: 885: 7658: 7637: 7305: 7244: 7024: 7017: 6446: 5753: 5565: 5266: 5178: 5095: 5036: 1944: 1884: 1855: 1797: 1773: 1587: 1465: 1291: 1076: 362: 5650: 5537: 2281: 765:

The lethality of the anthrax disease is due to the bacterium's two principal virulence factors: the

7200: 7160: 7010: 6913: 6691: 6286: 6223: 4999: 4952:

The Pentagon's Brain: An Uncensored History of DARPA, America's Top Secret Military Research Agency

2196:

Hendricks KA, Wright ME, Shadomy SV, Bradley JS, Morrow MG, Pavia AT, et al. (February 2014).

1956: 1904:

reported in 1999 that a combined Russian and United States team investigated the accident in 1992.

1501: 1182: 711: 278: 146: 5681: 4052: 3821: 3003:

For the attacks of 2001, CFR was only 45%, while before this time CFRs for IA were >85% (p. 37)

2388: 785:), respectively. To enter the cells, the edema and lethal factors use another protein produced by 7498: 7381: 6456: 6413: 6214: 5965: 4969: 4888: 4422: 4363: 4283: 2813:. A report on behalf of the National Anthrax Outbreak Control Team. December 2011. Archived from 2780: 2561: 2424: 1838:

Weaponized anthrax was part of the US stockpile prior to 1972, when the United States signed the

1832: 1824: 1801: 1769: 1064: 914: 862: 603: 265: 178: 132: 5610: 5597: 2682:

The Making of Modern Anthrax, 1875–1920: Uniting Local, National and Global Histories of Disease

1560: 873:, lymph vessels, and blood vessels, causing vascular leakage of fluid and cells, and ultimately 615:, facultative anaerobe bacterium about 1 by 9 μm in size. It was shown to cause disease by 2507:. National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases. 26 August 2009. Archived from 7742: 7670: 7401: 7225: 7195: 6767: 6641: 6607: 6348: 6308: 6261: 6135: 6086: 6065:"A review of anthrax in Canada and implications for research on the disease in northern bison" 5913: 5892: 5804: 5769: 5721: 5632: 5622: 5504: 5439: 5204: 5121: 4934: 4836: 4688: 4499: 4482:

Suffin SC, Carnes WH, Kaufmann AF (September 1978). "Inhalation anthrax in a home craftsman".

4414: 4355: 4275: 4167: 3780: 3670: 3582: 3506: 3474: 3385: 3347: 3298: 3256: 3207: 3125: 3076: 2985: 2772: 2641: 2553: 2467: 2461: 2433: 2322: 2227: 1610: 1599: 1575: 1385: 1310:

river, died of anthrax and 6 people have been hospitalized with light, skin-related symptoms.

874: 870: 822: 766: 465: 392: 308: 289: 270: 206: 196: 120: 5498: 5286: 5255: 5025: 4832: 4826: 4601: 2316: 7712: 7622: 6777: 6569: 6125: 6117: 6076: 6039: 5940:"Cepheid, Northrop Grumman Enter into Agreement for the Purchase of Anthrax Test Cartridges" 5796: 5761: 5614: 5460: 5194: 5186: 5111: 5103: 4880: 4790: 4758: 4750: 4491: 4406: 4351: 4347: 4271: 4267: 4193: 4157: 4147: 4112: 3988: 3660: 3652: 3447: 3377: 3337: 3329: 3290: 3246: 3238: 3197: 3115: 3107: 3066: 3058: 2764: 2543: 2217: 2209: 1901: 1701: 1680: 1614: 1428: 1031:(Russia) varieties. All currently used anthrax vaccines show considerable local and general 1010: 1000: 936:. If bicarbonate agar is used for identification, then the medium must be incubated in 5% CO 715: 637: 4708: 3045:

Frankel AE, Kuo SR, Dostal D, Watson L, Duesbery NS, Cheng CP, et al. (January 2009).

7395: 7109: 6936: 6846: 6823: 6587: 6582: 6479: 6046: 5273: 5262: 5043: 5032: 4913: 3943: 3760: 3225:

Liu H, Bergman NH, Thomason B, Shallom S, Hazen A, Crossno J, et al. (January 2004).

3015: 2895: 2695: 2600: 2248: 1828: 1820: 1736: 1653: 1622: 1493: 1389: 1134: 1024: 587: 449: 345: 341: 314: 216: 5500:

Weapons of mass destruction: an encyclopedia of worldwide policy, technology, and history

4907:

Anthrax and Anthrax Vaccine – Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases

805:

dissociates into the extracellular medium, playing no further role in the toxic cycle. PA

789:

called protective antigen, which binds to two surface receptors on the host cell. A cell

5757: 5560: 5182: 5099: 4162: 4135: 3147: 2843: 714:: If present, a Gram-negative bacterial species would appear pink. (The other cells are 583: 7553: 6762: 6747: 6742: 6711: 6681: 6130: 6105: 5885: 5715: 5199: 5166: 5116: 5083: 4947: 4795: 4778: 4763: 4738: 3665: 3640: 3452: 3436:"Acidophilic and thermophilic Bacillus strains from geothermally heated antarctic soil" 3435: 3342: 3317: 3202: 3185: 3120: 3095: 3071: 3046: 2222: 2197: 1960: 1661: 1404: 1201:

drugs, and for prevention when alternative therapies are not available or appropriate.

1032: 953: 866: 736: 695: 388: 6382: 5800: 4495: 4304: 4086: 3468: 3251: 3226: 2351: 853:

whose primary role is to regulate immune cells, as well as to induce inflammation and

512:

In December 2009, an outbreak of anthrax occurred among injecting heroin users in the

7706: 7190: 7099: 6952: 6701: 6696: 6676: 6671: 6081: 6064: 5349: 4925: 4892: 2804:"An Outbreak of Anthrax Among Drug Users in Scotland, December 2009 to December 2010" 2768: 2733: 2586: 2548: 2531: 1952: 1897: 1843: 1812: 1606: 1595: 1564: 1450: 1303: 1198: 1194: 1138: 1115: 1006: 830: 770: 730: 612: 551: 366: 318: 6291: 5383: 5000:"Sandia decon formulation, best known as an anthrax killer, takes on household mold" 4426: 2784: 2149: 7531: 7216: 6417: 4367: 4287: 2565: 2044: 1989:

A scientific experiment performed by a high school student, later published in the

1933: 1865: 1816: 1757: 1631: 1146: 1120: 1028: 1014: 969: 858: 322: 54: 6359: 6154:"40 now hospitalised after anthrax outbreak in Yamal, more than half are children" 6106:"Thawing of permafrost may disturb historic cattle burial grounds in East Siberia" 3242: 329:

after exposure can also prevent infection. If infection occurs, treatment is with

6302: 6228: 5433: 5056: 4884: 4661: 3884: 2635: 1573:, created by the Soviet bioweapons program in the 1980s, was later called by the 7685: 7460: 7430: 6661: 6592: 6343: 5993: 5853: 5618: 4152: 3911: 3541: 2079: 1979: 1948: 1793: 1772:

weapon. Its first modern incidence occurred when Nordic rebels, supplied by the

1705: 1618: 1583: 1485: 1408: 1381: 1365: 1349: 1284: 1222: 1178: 1158: 1142: 1084: 741: 645: 641: 616: 566: 479: 326: 293: 220: 186: 103: 5400: 4334:

Holty JE, Bravata DM, Liu H, Olshen RA, McDonald KM, Owens DK (February 2006).

3936: 3753: 3656: 3574: 3333: 3294: 7613: 7598: 7587: 7450: 7331: 7259: 7104: 7078: 6904: 6656: 6365: 6313: 4336:"Systematic review: a century of inhalational anthrax cases from 1900 to 2005" 3111: 2116: 2009: 1780:

in Finland in 1916. Anthrax was first tested as a biological warfare agent by

1570: 1226: 1154: 1150: 1040: 898: 838: 834: 826: 818: 633: 591: 330: 277:

with a black center. The inhalation form presents with fever, chest pain, and

274: 202: 6173:"Siberian Child Dies After Climate Change Thaws an Anthrax-Infected Reindeer" 3510: 3499:"Siberian Child Dies After Climate Change Thaws an Anthrax-Infected Reindeer" 1225:. Without treatment, up to 20% of cutaneous skin infection cases progress to 7558: 7465: 7322: 7285: 7130: 6908: 6900: 6807: 6792: 6716: 6354: 6319: 6276: 5765: 5107: 4394: 4335: 3381: 1913: 1785: 1657: 1638:, who died in 1951 after being accidentally infected with the Vollum strain. 1489: 1327: 1233: 854: 842: 750: 536: 522: 334: 304: 261: 238: 231: 6139: 6090: 5808: 5636: 5208: 5125: 4754: 4418: 4359: 4279: 4171: 3843:

Mikesell P, Ivins BE, Ristroph JD, Vodkin MH, Dreier TM, Leppla SH (1983).

3774: 3674: 3641:"Lethal factor of anthrax toxin binds monomeric form of protective antigen" 3613: 3586: 3389: 3351: 3302: 3260: 3211: 3129: 3080: 2776: 2614: 2557: 2231: 2213: 1887:), about 1,370 kilometres (850 mi) east of Moscow, were exposed to an 1679:

A bleach solution for treating hard surfaces has been approved by the EPA.

1567:

virulence plasmid and not the polyglutamic acid capsule expressing plasmid.

356:. It has been used in biowarfare and bioterrorism since 1914. In 1975, the 6121: 6015: 5773: 1368:. Koch went on to study the mechanisms of other diseases and won the 1905 1275:

in a sealed plastic body bag within a sealed metal container for autopsy.

1197:

is approved to treat inhalational anthrax in conjunction with appropriate

7490: 7414: 7371: 7264: 6971: 6941: 6757: 6706: 6651: 6431: 6020: 5190: 5165:

Rastogi VK, Ryan SP, Wallace L, Smith LS, Shah SS, Martin GB (May 2010).

4503: 4410: 2968: 1920: 1851: 1847: 1781: 1693: 1635: 1591: 1393: 1353: 1323: 1060: 1044: 1036: 850: 790: 517: 491: 430: 1468:

to demonstrate his concept of vaccination. He prepared two groups of 25

624:

outcompeted and destroyed by anaerobic bacteria within minutes to hours

7504: 6927: 3763:. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 30 April 2009. 1994: 1937: 1685: 1556: 1446: 1401: 1377: 1319: 1218: 774: 691: 513: 159: 6370: 6244: 6721: 6646: 6271: 6256: 6209: 5435:

Clouds of Secrecy: The Army's Germ Warfare Tests Over Populated Areas

1983: 1697: 1563:, is an attenuated strain used as a vaccine, which contains only the 1442: 945: 687: 683: 496: 487: 400: 399:

people with a cutaneous anthrax infection develop. The central black

396: 112: 6560:

United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases

3473:. Internet Archive. Berkeley : University of California Press. 2432:(4th ed.). Geneva: World Health Organization. pp. 20, 36. 991:

mixed with effective microorganisms for the contaminated waterways.

426:, charbon, splenic fever, malignant edema, woolsorter's disease and 5686:

Infectious Diseases: Causes, Types, Prevention, Treatment and Facts

191:

Working with animals; travelers, postal workers, military personnel

6802: 6797: 6686: 6612: 6509: 6324: 5530:"Traditional Medical Practitioners Seek International Recognition" 3434:

Hudson, J. Andrew; Daniel, Roy M.; Morgan, Hugh W. (August 1989).

2732:. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2003. Archived from 1752: 1469: 1214: 1095: 1048: 884: 782: 778: 735: 582: 483: 464: 456: 448: 4085:. Occupational Safety & Health Administration. Archived from 3316:

Sweeney DA, Hicks CW, Cui X, Li Y, Eichacker PQ (December 2011).

3186:"The role of the lymphatic system in the pathogenesis of anthrax" 3062: 2844:"Anthrax: In Scotland, six heroin users die of anthrax poisoning" 5220: 5218: 1908: 1808: 1473: 1307: 893:

Various techniques may be used for the direct identification of

846: 475: 6871: 6386: 5824:"U.Va. Researchers Find Anthrax Can Grow and Reproduce in Soil" 3227:"Formation and composition of the Bacillus anthracis endospore" 2974:

USAMRIID's Medical Management of Biological Casualties Handbook

2532:"A national register of historic and contemporary anthrax foci" 1579:"the most virulent and vicious strain of anthrax known to man". 1943:

Concentrated anthrax spores were used for bioterrorism in the

1893: 1518: 1477: 25: 5139: 4299: 4297: 2654:

from the original on 27 August 2016 – via Google Books.

2579: 1492:

in 1888 to try to introduce the vaccine to combat anthrax in

382: 4602:"Anthrax Is Found in 2 Connecticut Residents, One a Drummer" 1594:, which separately encode for a three-protein toxin, called 1456:

In May 1881, Pasteur – in collaboration with his assistants

6505:

Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism

6063:

Dragon DC, Elkin BT, Nishi JS, Ellsworth TR (August 1999).

1063:) to protect American troops against the use of anthrax in 889:

Possible edema and necrosis in a case of injection anthrax.

5320:"Anthrax Expert Faces Fine for Burning Infected Carcasses" 3322:

American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine

2942:

Anthrax – Chapter 4 – 2020 Yellow Book | Travelers' Health

5461:"Saddam's germ war plot is traced back to one Oxford cow" 1724:

then, newer and less costly methods have been developed.

1372:

for his discovery of the bacterium causing tuberculosis.

825:. Adenylate cyclase catalyzes the conversion of ATP into 490:). The black eschar often shows up as a large, painless, 4212:"FDA approves raxibacumab to treat inhalational anthrax" 4134:

Doganay M, Dinc G, Kutmanova A, Baillie L (March 2023).

3405:"Crossrail work stopped after human bones found on site" 1290:

In 2007 two cases of cutaneous anthrax were reported in

6545:

National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center

1535: 968:

Protective, impermeable clothing and equipment such as

50: 5590: 5588: 4632:"Croatia: Anthrax found in dead cattle in nature park" 4136:"Human Anthrax: Update of the Diagnosis and Treatment" 1020:

Currently administered human anthrax vaccines include

1013:

in 1881. Human anthrax vaccines were developed by the

636:) in the lungs and transported through small vessels ( 5914:"U.S. officials declare researcher is anthrax killer" 4083:"How should I decontaminate during response actions?" 3470:

Anthrax : the investigation of a deadly outbreak

1966:

Due to these events, the US Postal Service installed

1858:; they were abandoned in 1992 and destroyed in 2002. 1764:, holding a model vial of supposed weaponized anthrax 974:

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

6234: 5140:"Using Bleach to Destroy Anthrax and Other Microbes" 4812:

Death in a Small Package: A Short History of Anthrax

4186:"HGSI asks for FDA approval of anthrax drug ABthrax" 395:

etymology, because of the characteristic black skin

7669: 7621: 7612: 7585: 7551: 7515: 7474: 7458: 7449: 7412: 7369: 7321: 7284: 7273: 7258: 7214: 7181: 7152: 7120: 7069: 7060: 6998: 6970: 6961: 6950: 6935: 6926: 6816: 6735: 6568: 6470: 6424: 6334: 6238: 4519:"Drummer's anthrax case spurs a public health hunt" 4245:"FDA approves new treatment for inhalation anthrax" 3752:National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory 3645:

Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications

3283:

Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications

1831:bombers in 1944 were scrapped after the success of 1762:

presentation to the United Nations Security Council

1302:In July 2022, dozens of cattle in a nature park in 1059:. In the 20th century the use of a modern product ( 690:with inhalational anthrax; featured are rod-shaped 543:. This is often described as the prodromal period. 344:than elsewhere on the continent and is uncommon in 247: 237: 226: 212: 195: 185: 173: 165: 131: 119: 96: 6520:European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control 5884: 5787:Sternbach G (May 2003). "The history of anthrax". 5596: 4016: 4014: 1692:To speed the process, trace amounts of a nontoxic 303:Anthrax is spread by contact with the bacterium's 6500:Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention 5598:"Anthrax: The Investigation of a Deadly Outbreak" 3548:(4th ed.), World Health Organization, 2008, 1279:gastrointestinal anthrax in an adult female. The 6016:"Seventeen-year-old devises anthrax deactivator" 4970:"Army harvested victims' blood to boost anthrax" 4709:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905" 3639:Chvyrkova I, Zhang XC, Terzyan S (August 2007). 3141: 3139: 1807:which called for animal feed pellets containing 1776:, used anthrax with unknown results against the 897:in clinical material. Firstly, specimens may be 710:Gram-positive anthrax bacteria (purple rods) in 6834:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540 6550:National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity 5482:"UK planned to wipe out Germany with anthrax". 4575:"PROMED: Anthrax, Human – USA: (New Hampshire)" 4549:"PROMED: Anthrax, Human – USA: (New Hampshire)" 3581:. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. 3184:Hughes R, May AJ, Widdicombe JG (August 1956). 2667:Bartholomaeus Anglicus' De Proprietatibus Rerum 1437:Louis Pasteur inoculating sheep against anthrax 16:Infection caused by Bacillus anthracis bacteria 6053:, 30 October 2001. Retrieved 17 February 2007. 3916:The Anthrax Vaccine: Is It Safe? Does It Work? 3616:. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 2418: 2416: 2414: 2383: 2381: 2379: 2377: 1555:The Sterne strain of anthrax, named after the 1464:and others – performed a public experiment at 1177:(BLA, permission to market) for its new drug, 6883: 6555:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 6540:India's Ministry of Health and Family Welfare 6398: 5057:"Remediating Indoor and Outdoor Environments" 3690:Review of Medical Microbiology and Immunology 3276: 3274: 3272: 3270: 2935: 2933: 2931: 2929: 2927: 2925: 2923: 2921: 2144: 2142: 2111: 2109: 2107: 2105: 1815:to be dropped by air over the countryside of 1664:, Sandia Foam, chlorine dioxide (used in the 1262:Globally, at least 2,000 cases occur a year. 833:. The complexation of adenylate cyclase with 39:The examples and perspective in this article 8: 5739: 5737: 4814:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 3705:Bailey & Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology 3573:Chambers J, Yarrarapu SN, Mathai JK (2023). 3096:"Bacillus anthracis Physiology and Genetics" 2321:. Gideon Informatics Inc. 2016. p. 12. 2074: 2072: 2070: 2039: 2037: 2035: 2033: 2031: 2029: 1896:continued from 1979 until Russian President 1696:composed of iron and tetroamido macrocyclic 1441:Anthrax posed a major economic challenge in 428: 153:: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain 2466:. Cambridge University Press. p. 897. 2243: 2241: 409: 7618: 7471: 7455: 7281: 7270: 7066: 6967: 6958: 6947: 6932: 6890: 6876: 6868: 6495:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 6405: 6391: 6383: 6235: 5709: 5707: 3614:"Molecular Basis for Anthrax Intoxication" 3020:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2311: 2309: 2307: 2191: 2189: 2187: 2185: 2183: 2181: 2179: 2177: 2175: 1689:processes to have the reactant on demand. 286:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 102: 93: 6510:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 6129: 6080: 5198: 5115: 4794: 4762: 4161: 4151: 4053:"How People Are Infected | Anthrax | CDC" 3664: 3451: 3341: 3250: 3201: 3190:British Journal of Experimental Pathology 3119: 3070: 2547: 2276: 2274: 2272: 2270: 2221: 140:: small blister with surrounding swelling 77:Learn how and when to remove this message 5992:. USPS. 12 February 2002. Archived from 1900:admitted this anthrax accident in 1992. 1432: 7167:Cutaneous Streptococcus iniae infection 4352:10.7326/0003-4819-144-4-200602210-00009 4272:10.7326/0003-4819-144-4-200602210-00009 2726:"Anthrax Q & A: Signs and Symptoms" 2480:from the original on 10 September 2017. 2335:from the original on 10 September 2017. 2025: 1936:education. To make large amounts of an 1628:US Army Biological Warfare Laboratories 1621:. This same strain was used during the 1250:Anthrax, a bacterial disease caused by 654: 7723:Bacterium-related cutaneous conditions 5661:from the original on 17 September 2008 5609:(16). University of California Press: 5517:from the original on 22 February 2017. 5471:from the original on 25 December 2005. 5171:Applied and Environmental Microbiology 5088:Environmental Science & Technology 4828:Deadly Diseases and Epidemics, Anthrax 4581:from the original on 27 September 2011 4555:from the original on 27 September 2011 3001:from the original on 9 February 2015. 2906:from the original on 16 September 2020 2449:from the original on 30 November 2016. 1986:formula supplied by Sipco Industries. 909:, rapid diagnostic techniques such as 793:then cleaves PA into two fragments: PA 535:anthrax difficult to distinguish from 300:as the bacterium that causes anthrax. 6773:Biological warfare in popular culture 5942:. Security Products. 16 August 2007. 5360:from the original on 26 December 2016 5330:from the original on 26 December 2016 5303:from the original on 2 February 2016. 5006:from the original on 5 September 2008 4980:from the original on 29 December 2009 4831:. Chelesa House Publishers. pp. 4612:from the original on 24 November 2020 4529:from the original on 14 December 2013 4224:from the original on 17 December 2012 4200:from the original on 18 October 2014. 4063:from the original on 26 December 2016 4033:from the original on 26 December 2016 3734:from the original on 22 December 2019 3718: 3716: 3714: 3620:from the original on 26 December 2016 3568: 3566: 3536: 3534: 3532: 3492: 3490: 3363: 3361: 3026:from the original on 11 February 2015 2837: 2835: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2637:Wool Economy in the Ancient Near East 2495: 2493: 2491: 2489: 2487: 2399:from the original on 26 December 2016 1388:industries, it was viewed with fear. 1370:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 978:Mine Safety and Health Administration 288:, the first clinical descriptions of 7: 7301:Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome 6028:from the original on 7 October 2014. 5978:from the original on 9 October 2022. 5834:from the original on 21 October 2012 5692:from the original on 24 October 2008 5413:from the original on 31 October 2023 5142:. Society for Applied Microbiology. 5063:from the original on 13 October 2013 4930:"Selling the Threat of Bioterrorism" 4858:The Private Science of Louis Pasteur 4683:Madigan M, Martinko J, eds. (2005). 4551:. Promedmail.org. 26 December 2009. 4463:from the original on 25 October 2023 3999:from the original on 25 January 2023 3793:from the original on 14 October 2023 3415:from the original on 25 October 2023 2876:from the original on 25 January 2023 2854:from the original on 2 January 2016. 2706:from the original on 21 January 2018 2346: 2344: 2342: 2080:"Basic Information What is anthrax?" 2008:Russian researchers estimate arctic 1811:infected with anthrax spores of the 1358:diseases could be caused by microbes 1185:that neutralizes toxins produced by 311:of a sample from the infected site. 7718:Biological anti-agriculture weapons 6183:from the original on 17 August 2016 5651:"Plague war: The 1979 anthrax leak" 4976:. UCLA Dept. of Epidemiology site. 4749:(2386): 735–36. 22 September 1906. 4374:from the original on 28 August 2020 3517:from the original on 17 August 2016 2896:"Injection Anthrax | Anthrax | CDC" 2730:Emergency Preparedness and Response 1768:Anthrax spores have been used as a 809:then oligomerizes with six other PA 6160:from the original on 30 July 2016. 5920:from the original on 8 August 2008 5497:Croddy EA, Wirtz JJ, eds. (2005). 5291:Vol. 57 – No. 36, 17 October 2003" 4672:from the original on 7 March 2016. 4662:"Man who breathed in anthrax dies" 4638:. Associated Press. 16 July 2022. 4109:"CDC Anthrax Q & A: Treatment" 3989:"Vaccine to Prevent Anthrax | CDC" 3963:"11 December 2008 Approval Letter" 3593:from the original on 28 April 2022 3453:10.1111/j.1574-6968.1989.tb03486.x 3403:Bloomfield, Ruth (12 April 2012). 3172:from the original on 18 July 2011. 3159:Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen 3094:Koehler, Theresa (3 August 2009). 1872:Sverdlovsk incident (2 April 1979) 598:, the cause of the anthrax disease 14: 7537:Clostridial necrotizing enteritis 6525:Global Health Security Initiative 5946:from the original on 16 July 2011 5789:The Journal of Emergency Medicine 5682:"Anthrax – From Russia with Love" 5236:from the original on 29 June 2011 5082:Wood JP, Adrion AC (April 2019). 4779:"Industrial Infection by Anthrax" 4642:from the original on 22 July 2022 4577:. Promedmail.org. 18 April 2010. 4433:from the original on 17 July 2020 3969:from the original on 29 June 2017 3814:"Life and Times of Louis Pasteur" 3552:from the original on 18 June 2022 2684:. London: Pickering & Chatto. 1982:and treatment with a proprietary 1784:of the Japanese Kwantung Army in 6437:1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack 6104:Revich BA, Podolnaya MA (2011). 6082:10.1046/j.1365-2672.1999.00872.x 5854:"Anthrax as a biological weapon" 5573:from the original on 17 May 2021 5146:from the original on 17 May 2008 4789:(2759): 1338. 15 November 1913. 4739:"John Henry Bell, M.D., M.R.C.S" 4719:from the original on 23 May 2020 4687:(11th ed.). Prentice Hall. 4315:from the original on 11 May 2016 4023:"Military to Halt Anthrax Shots" 3965:. Food and Drug Administration. 3891:from the original on 5 July 2008 3845:"Plasmids, Pasteur, and Anthrax" 2949:from the original on 6 June 2020 2842:McNeil Jr DG (12 January 2010). 2769:10.1111/j.1525-1470.2010.01214.x 2549:10.1046/j.1365-2672.1999.00868.x 2362:from the original on 11 May 2016 2255:from the original on 11 May 2016 2160:from the original on 11 May 2016 2127:from the original on 11 May 2016 2090:from the original on 17 May 2016 2055:from the original on 11 May 2016 1609:, developed but never used as a 1522: 703: 671: 657: 269:. Infection typically occurs by 30: 7142:Group B streptococcal infection 7090:Group A streptococcal infection 6515:Defense Threat Reduction Agency 6069:Journal of Applied Microbiology 5864:from the original on 5 May 2016 5830:. University of Virginia site. 5603:New England Journal of Medicine 5226:"Pesticide Disposal Goes Green" 4685:Brock Biology of Microorganisms 4517:Schweitzer S (4 January 2010). 4021:Schrader E (23 December 2003). 3918:, National Academies Press (US) 2866:"Anthrax – Symptoms and causes" 2536:Journal of Applied Microbiology 2292:from the original on 7 May 2016 1792:In 1942, British scientists at 1721:Environmental Protection Agency 1671:Decontamination techniques for 1392:, a doctor born & based in 1221:from entering and destroying a 1077:anthrax attacks of October 2001 469:Anthrax skin lesion on the face 461:Anthrax skin lesion on the neck 391:word for coal, possibly having 367:1993 by the Aum Shinrikyo group 6485:Caribbean Public Health Agency 5720:. New York: Delta Publishing. 5534:Southern African News Features 4243:News Release (21 March 2016). 2634:Breniquet C, Michel C (2014). 2530:Cherkasskiy BL (August 1999). 1009:developed the first effective 260:is an infection caused by the 169:1 day to 2 months post contact 1: 6829:Biological Weapons Convention 6442:1989 California medfly attack 6216:Anthrax in humans and animals 5801:10.1016/S0736-4679(03)00079-9 5528:Martin D (16 November 2001). 4860:. Princeton University Press. 4600:Kaplan T (6 September 2007). 4496:10.1016/S0046-8177(78)80140-3 4453:"Anthrax | FAQs | Texas DSHS" 4395:"Anthrax meningoencephalitis" 3952:; 2005 Mar–Apr; 25(2):143–49. 3779:. World Health Organization. 3546:Anthrax in Humans and Animals 3243:10.1128/JB.186.1.164-178.2004 2982:US Government Printing Office 2426:Anthrax in humans and animals 1991:Journal of Medical Toxicology 1889:accidental release of anthrax 1840:Biological Weapons Convention 915:immunofluorescence microscopy 644:in the central chest cavity ( 358:Biological Weapons Convention 354:developed anthrax as a weapon 7680:Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae 5822:Barney J (17 October 2012). 5350:"Britain's 'Anthrax Island'" 4968:Shane S (23 December 2001). 4885:10.5401/healthhist.14.2.0001 4217:Food and Drug Administration 3812:Cohn DV (11 February 1996). 3497:Luhn, Alec (8 August 2016). 3047:"Pathophysiology of anthrax" 2202:Emerging Infectious Diseases 2014:global warming in the Arctic 1175:biologic license application 1081:United States Postal Service 1057:recombinant subunit vaccines 767:poly-D-glutamic acid capsule 680:scanning electron micrograph 541:community-acquired pneumonia 377:The English name comes from 243:20–80% die without treatment 7748:Zoonotic bacterial diseases 6535:Laboratory Response Network 6231:", 23 July 1881, p. 57 5619:10.1056/NEJM200010193431615 5486:. Glasgow. 14 October 2001. 5401:"DOD Technical Information" 5384:Anthrax Sabotage in Finland 4340:Annals of Internal Medicine 4260:Annals of Internal Medicine 4153:10.3390/diagnostics13061056 2620:Online Etymology Dictionary 2463:Clinical Infectious Disease 1968:biohazard detection systems 1666:Hart Senate Office Building 1458:Jean-Joseph Henri Toussaint 773:, consisting of protective 417:On the Properties of Things 53:, discuss the issue on the 7769: 6490:Center for Health Security 5438:. Rowman and Littlefield. 5382:, August 2003, pp. 17–22. 3657:10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.06.124 3467:Guillemin, Jeanne (1999). 3334:10.1164/rccm.201102-0209CI 3295:10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.07.105 3016:"Gastrointestinal Anthrax" 2580: 1875: 1746: 1598:, and a polyglutamic acid 1426: 1337: 998: 601: 383: 296:was the first to identify 18: 7095:Streptococcal pharyngitis 6842: 6598:Burkholderia pseudomallei 5561:"Anthrax buried for good" 5318:Broad WJ (1 March 2002). 5272:30 September 2018 at the 5042:30 September 2018 at the 4956:Little, Brown and Company 4393:Lanska DJ (August 2002). 3935:Splino M, et al. (2005), 3885:"Robert Koch (1843–1910)" 3440:FEMS Microbiology Letters 3112:10.1016/j.mam.2009.07.004 2389:"How People Are Infected" 1735:The experimental site at 1632:Camp (later Fort) Detrick 1509:human vaccine for anthrax 1398:Friederich Wilhelm Eurich 1340:List of anthrax outbreaks 1053:recombinant live vaccines 911:polymerase chain reaction 724:Exposure and transmission 482:that eventually forms an 115:characteristic of anthrax 111:A skin lesion with black 110: 101: 7575:Pseudomembranous colitis 7569:Clostridioides difficile 6171:Luhn A (8 August 2016). 5912:Bohn K (6 August 2008). 5559:Pala C (22 March 2003). 5503:. ABC-CLIO. p. 21. 5276:(see p. 3). 12 May 2015. 5046:(see p. 8). 12 May 2015. 4715:. The Nobel Foundation. 4305:"Types of Anthrax | CDC" 3949:Annals of Saudi Medicine 3858:: 320–22. Archived from 3818:University of Louisville 2251:. CDC. 14 January 2016. 1710:tert-butyl hydroperoxide 1586:, which was used in the 1109:Anthrax, and antibiotics 985:effective microorganisms 453:Skin lesion from anthrax 251:>2,000 cases per year 21:Anthrax (disambiguation) 7526:Clostridium perfringens 7237:Urinary tract infection 6727:Viral hemorrhagic fever 5766:10.1126/science.7973702 5108:10.1021/acs.est.8b05274 4783:British Medical Journal 4743:British Medical Journal 3816:. School of Dentistry, 3612:Gao M (27 April 2006). 3231:Journal of Bacteriology 3051:Frontiers in Bioscience 2596:A Greek–English Lexicon 1993:, suggested a domestic 1878:Sverdlovsk anthrax leak 1805:military operation plan 1800:, an ultimately unused 1306:, a flood plain by the 1217:factor, and protective 849:(IL1B). TNF-alpha is a 411:De proprietatibus rerum 352:Several countries have 205:or toxin in the blood, 7632:Ureaplasma urealyticum 7425:Listeria monocytogenes 7129:bacitracin resistant, 6988:Pneumococcal infection 6753:Psychochemical weapons 6603:Chlamydophila psittaci 6229:Earthworms and Anthrax 5891:. SkyhorsePublishing. 4912:24 August 2012 at the 4755:10.1136/bmj.2.2386.735 3942:2 January 2016 at the 2460:Schlossberg D (2008). 2318:Anthrax: Global Status 2214:10.3201/eid2002.130687 1765: 1438: 1417:Anthrax Prevention Act 1415:, led directly to the 1362:spontaneous generation 1159:antibiotic prophylaxis 1110: 890: 745: 740:Inhalational anthrax, 731:people who sorted wool 599: 470: 462: 454: 431:la maladie de Bradford 429: 410: 405:Bartholomaeus Anglicus 284:According to the U.S. 7738:Occupational diseases 7653:Mycoplasma pneumoniae 7646:Mycoplasma genitalium 7485:Clostridium botulinum 7231:Enterococcus faecalis 7006:Viridans streptococci 6847:Wiktionary definition 6788:Entomological warfare 6667:Legionnaires' disease 6452:Wood Green ricin plot 6122:10.3402/gha.v4i0.8482 6040:Can Dogs Get Anthrax? 5990:"Latest Facts Update" 5261:12 March 2021 at the 5031:12 March 2021 at the 3382:10.1093/occmed/kqh115 3370:Occupational Medicine 2757:Pediatric Dermatology 2665:de Trevisa J (1398). 2587:Liddell, Henry George 1778:Imperial Russian Army 1756: 1749:Anthrax weaponization 1436: 1427:Further information: 1413:G. Elmhirst Duckering 1171:Human Genome Sciences 1165:Monoclonal antibodies 1108: 888: 739: 586: 486:with a black center ( 468: 460: 452: 271:contact with the skin 145:: fever, chest pain, 7753:Respiratory diseases 7659:Mycoplasma pneumonia 7638:Ureaplasma infection 7348:novobiocin resistant 7306:Toxic shock syndrome 7245:Enterococcus faecium 6617:Equine encephalitis 6447:2001 anthrax attacks 6110:Global Health Action 6045:6 April 2012 at the 6024:. 23 February 2006. 5828:U. Va. Health System 5595:Guillemin J (2000). 5566:The Washington Times 5191:10.1128/AEM.02668-09 4411:10.1212/wnl.59.3.327 4311:. 19 November 2020. 3995:. 18 November 2020. 3759:31 July 2017 at the 2395:. 1 September 2015. 2156:. 1 September 2015. 2123:. 1 September 2015. 2086:. 1 September 2015. 1974:Decontaminating mail 1951:of South Dakota and 1945:2001 anthrax attacks 1928:Anthrax bioterrorism 1885:Ekaterinburg, Russia 1856:Vozrozhdeniya Island 1798:Operation Vegetarian 1774:German General Staff 1588:2001 anthrax attacks 1536:adding missing items 1292:Danbury, Connecticut 1027:(United States) and 363:2001 anthrax attacks 59:create a new article 51:improve this article 41:may not represent a 19:For other uses, see 7591:(non-spore forming) 7201:Streptococcus bovis 7161:Streptococcus iniae 6909:Infectious diseases 6692:Salmonella enterica 6224:Scientific American 6219:– Textbook from WHO 5860:. 10 October 2001. 5758:1994Sci...266.1202M 5688:. MedicineNet.com. 5183:2010ApEnM..76.3343R 5100:2019EnST...53.4045W 4668:. 2 November 2008. 4636:The Washington Post 4089:on 26 December 2016 3912:"Executive Summary" 3688:Levinson W (2010). 3575:"Anthrax Infection" 3542:"Anthrax in humans" 3318:"Anthrax infection" 2902:. 28 January 2019. 2696:"Cutaneous Anthrax" 2511:on 26 December 2016 2423:Turnbull P (2008). 1813:Vollum-14578 strain 1643:Society and culture 1559:-born immunologist 1502:John McGarvie Smith 1449:. French scientist 1183:monoclonal antibody 1067:was controversial. 987:thru spraying, and 712:cerebrospinal fluid 365:and an incident in 315:Anthrax vaccination 279:shortness of breath 217:Anthrax vaccination 147:shortness of breath 7499:Clostridium tetani 7382:Bacillus anthracis 6999:optochin resistant 6914:Bacterial diseases 6793:Infectious disease 6530:Health Threat Unit 6462:2013 ricin letters 6457:2003 ricin letters 6414:Biological warfare 6335:External resources 5324:The New York Times 4873:Health and History 4606:The New York Times 4457:www.dshs.texas.gov 4059:. 9 January 2019. 3937:"Anthrax vaccines" 3703:Forbes BA (2002). 3150:Bacillus anthracis 3022:. 23 August 2013. 2848:The New York Times 2820:on 20 October 2013 2352:"Types of Anthrax" 1833:Operation Overlord 1825:Scottish Highlands 1796:began research on 1770:biological warfare 1766: 1743:Biological warfare 1700:are combined with 1673:Bacillus anthracis 1534:; you can help by 1515:Engineered strains 1439: 1252:Bacillus anthracis 1111: 1065:biological warfare 913:-based assays and 891: 877:and septic shock. 863:pericardial cavity 847:interleukin 1 beta 817:Edema factor is a 746: 665:Bacillus anthracis 609:Bacillus anthracis 604:Bacillus anthracis 600: 596:Bacillus anthracis 471: 463: 455: 440:Signs and symptoms 424:Cumberland disease 298:Bacillus anthracis 266:Bacillus anthracis 179:Bacillus anthracis 126:Infectious disease 7700: 7699: 7696: 7695: 7671:Anaeroplasmatales 7608: 7607: 7547: 7546: 7445: 7444: 7441: 7440: 7365: 7364: 7254: 7253: 7210: 7209: 7177: 7176: 7056: 7055: 6865: 6864: 6852:Wikimedia Commons 6817:International law 6768:Biological hazard 6642:Foodborne illness 6638: 6630: 6623: 6608:Coxiella burnetii 6570:Biological agents 6380: 6379: 5898:978-1-60239-715-6 5752:(5188): 1202–08. 5727:978-0-385-33496-9 5714:Alibek K (1999). 5628:978-0-520-22917-4 5510:978-1-85109-490-5 5445:978-0-8226-3001-2 5177:(10): 3343–3e51. 5002:. 26 April 2007. 4935:Los Angeles Times 4856:Geison G (2014). 4842:978-0-7910-7302-5 4825:Decker J (2003). 4694:978-0-13-144329-7 4027:Los Angeles Times 3786:978-92-4-151493-4 3480:978-0-520-22204-5 2613:Harper, Douglas. 1862:American military 1611:biological weapon 1605:Nonetheless, the 1576:Los Angeles Times 1552: 1551: 1423:First vaccination 1106: 875:hypovolemic shock 871:peritoneal cavity 823:adenylate cyclase 716:white blood cells 611:is a rod-shaped, 594:of the bacterium 567:vomiting of blood 290:cutaneous anthrax 255: 254: 207:microbial culture 197:Diagnostic method 143:Inhalational form 91:Medical condition 87: 86: 79: 61:, as appropriate. 7760: 7733:Health disasters 7623:Mycoplasmataceae 7619: 7599:Finegoldia magna 7472: 7456: 7354:S. saprophyticus 7282: 7271: 7067: 6968: 6959: 6948: 6933: 6892: 6885: 6878: 6869: 6778:Ethnic bioweapon 6736:Related concepts 6702:Salmonella typhi 6633: 6626: 6618: 6425:Modern incidents 6407: 6400: 6393: 6384: 6236: 6193: 6192: 6190: 6188: 6168: 6162: 6161: 6150: 6144: 6143: 6133: 6101: 6095: 6094: 6084: 6060: 6054: 6036: 6030: 6029: 6012: 6006: 6005: 6003: 6001: 5986: 5980: 5979: 5977: 5970: 5962: 5956: 5955: 5953: 5951: 5936: 5930: 5929: 5927: 5925: 5909: 5903: 5902: 5890: 5883:Cole LA (2009). 5880: 5874: 5873: 5871: 5869: 5850: 5844: 5843: 5841: 5839: 5819: 5813: 5812: 5784: 5778: 5777: 5741: 5732: 5731: 5711: 5702: 5701: 5699: 5697: 5677: 5671: 5670: 5668: 5666: 5647: 5641: 5640: 5600: 5592: 5583: 5582: 5580: 5578: 5556: 5550: 5549: 5547: 5545: 5536:. Archived from 5525: 5519: 5518: 5494: 5488: 5487: 5479: 5473: 5472: 5456: 5450: 5449: 5432:Cole LA (1990). 5429: 5423: 5422: 5420: 5418: 5412: 5405: 5397: 5391: 5390:25 October 2009. 5380:Military History 5376: 5370: 5369: 5367: 5365: 5356:. 25 July 2001. 5346: 5340: 5339: 5337: 5335: 5315: 5309: 5308: 5304: 5302: 5295: 5283: 5277: 5252: 5246: 5245: 5243: 5241: 5222: 5213: 5212: 5202: 5162: 5156: 5155: 5153: 5151: 5136: 5130: 5129: 5119: 5079: 5073: 5072: 5070: 5068: 5053: 5047: 5022: 5016: 5015: 5013: 5011: 4996: 4990: 4989: 4987: 4985: 4965: 4959: 4945: 4939: 4923: 4917: 4903: 4897: 4896: 4868: 4862: 4861: 4853: 4847: 4846: 4822: 4816: 4815: 4810:Jones S (2010). 4807: 4801: 4800: 4798: 4775: 4769: 4768: 4766: 4735: 4729: 4728: 4726: 4724: 4705: 4699: 4698: 4680: 4674: 4673: 4658: 4652: 4651: 4649: 4647: 4628: 4622: 4621: 4619: 4617: 4597: 4591: 4590: 4588: 4586: 4571: 4565: 4564: 4562: 4560: 4545: 4539: 4538: 4536: 4534: 4523:The Boston Globe 4514: 4508: 4507: 4479: 4473: 4472: 4470: 4468: 4449: 4443: 4442: 4440: 4438: 4390: 4384: 4383: 4381: 4379: 4331: 4325: 4324: 4322: 4320: 4301: 4292: 4291: 4255: 4249: 4248: 4240: 4234: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4208: 4202: 4201: 4194:Associated Press 4182: 4176: 4175: 4165: 4155: 4131: 4125: 4124: 4122: 4120: 4111:. Archived from 4105: 4099: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4079: 4073: 4072: 4070: 4068: 4049: 4043: 4042: 4040: 4038: 4018: 4009: 4008: 4006: 4004: 3985: 3979: 3978: 3976: 3974: 3959: 3953: 3933: 3927: 3926: 3925: 3923: 3907: 3901: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3881: 3875: 3874: 3872: 3870: 3865:on 8 August 2017 3864: 3849: 3840: 3834: 3833: 3831: 3829: 3820:. Archived from 3809: 3803: 3802: 3800: 3798: 3770: 3764: 3750: 3744: 3743: 3741: 3739: 3720: 3709: 3708: 3707:(11th ed.). 3700: 3694: 3693: 3692:(11th ed.). 3685: 3679: 3678: 3668: 3636: 3630: 3629: 3627: 3625: 3609: 3603: 3602: 3600: 3598: 3570: 3561: 3560: 3559: 3557: 3538: 3527: 3526: 3524: 3522: 3494: 3485: 3484: 3464: 3458: 3457: 3455: 3431: 3425: 3424: 3422: 3420: 3409:Evening Standard 3400: 3394: 3393: 3365: 3356: 3355: 3345: 3313: 3307: 3306: 3278: 3265: 3264: 3254: 3222: 3216: 3215: 3205: 3181: 3175: 3173: 3171: 3156: 3143: 3134: 3133: 3123: 3100:Mol. Aspects Med 3091: 3085: 3084: 3074: 3042: 3036: 3035: 3033: 3031: 3012: 3006: 3005: 3000: 2980:(7th ed.). 2979: 2965: 2959: 2958: 2956: 2954: 2937: 2916: 2915: 2913: 2911: 2892: 2886: 2885: 2883: 2881: 2862: 2856: 2855: 2839: 2830: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2819: 2808: 2800: 2789: 2788: 2752: 2746: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2722: 2716: 2715: 2713: 2711: 2702:. 21 July 2014. 2692: 2686: 2685: 2680:Stark J (2013). 2677: 2671: 2670: 2662: 2656: 2655: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2610: 2604: 2583: 2582: 2576: 2570: 2569: 2551: 2527: 2521: 2520: 2518: 2516: 2497: 2482: 2481: 2457: 2451: 2450: 2448: 2431: 2420: 2409: 2408: 2406: 2404: 2385: 2372: 2371: 2369: 2367: 2358:. 21 July 2024. 2348: 2337: 2336: 2313: 2302: 2301: 2299: 2297: 2288:. 17 June 2015. 2278: 2265: 2264: 2262: 2260: 2245: 2236: 2235: 2225: 2193: 2170: 2169: 2167: 2165: 2146: 2137: 2136: 2134: 2132: 2117:"Who Is at Risk" 2113: 2100: 2099: 2097: 2095: 2076: 2065: 2064: 2062: 2060: 2051:. 23 July 2014. 2041: 1902:Jeanne Guillemin 1702:sodium carbonate 1681:Chlorine dioxide 1654:oxidizing agents 1615:Second World War 1547: 1544: 1526: 1525: 1519: 1429:Anthrax vaccines 1330:in Afghanistan. 1135:fluoroquinolones 1107: 1001:Anthrax vaccines 989:bokashi mudballs 707: 694:(yellow) and an 675: 661: 563:Gastrointestinal 558:Gastrointestinal 434: 413: 386: 385: 106: 94: 82: 75: 71: 68: 62: 34: 33: 26: 7768: 7767: 7763: 7762: 7761: 7759: 7758: 7757: 7728:Bovine diseases 7703: 7702: 7701: 7692: 7665: 7604: 7581: 7543: 7511: 7437: 7408: 7396:Bacillus cereus 7361: 7317: 7262: 7250: 7206: 7173: 7148: 7116: 7110:Rheumatic fever 7052: 6994: 6939: 6937:Lactobacillales 6922: 6896: 6866: 6861: 6838: 6824:Geneva Protocol 6812: 6783:Decontamination 6731: 6588:Botulinum toxin 6583:Avian influenza 6564: 6480:Australia Group 6472: 6466: 6420: 6411: 6381: 6376: 6375: 6330: 6329: 6247: 6202: 6197: 6196: 6186: 6184: 6170: 6169: 6165: 6152: 6151: 6147: 6103: 6102: 6098: 6062: 6061: 6057: 6047:Wayback Machine 6037: 6033: 6014: 6013: 6009: 5999: 5997: 5988: 5987: 5983: 5975: 5968: 5964: 5963: 5959: 5949: 5947: 5938: 5937: 5933: 5923: 5921: 5911: 5910: 5906: 5899: 5882: 5881: 5877: 5867: 5865: 5852: 5851: 5847: 5837: 5835: 5821: 5820: 5816: 5786: 5785: 5781: 5743: 5742: 5735: 5728: 5713: 5712: 5705: 5695: 5693: 5679: 5678: 5674: 5664: 5662: 5649: 5648: 5644: 5629: 5594: 5593: 5586: 5576: 5574: 5558: 5557: 5553: 5543: 5541: 5527: 5526: 5522: 5511: 5496: 5495: 5491: 5481: 5480: 5476: 5458: 5457: 5453: 5446: 5431: 5430: 5426: 5416: 5414: 5410: 5403: 5399: 5398: 5394: 5377: 5373: 5363: 5361: 5348: 5347: 5343: 5333: 5331: 5317: 5316: 5312: 5306: 5300: 5293: 5285: 5284: 5280: 5274:Wayback Machine 5263:Wayback Machine 5253: 5249: 5239: 5237: 5224: 5223: 5216: 5164: 5163: 5159: 5149: 5147: 5138: 5137: 5133: 5081: 5080: 5076: 5066: 5064: 5055: 5054: 5050: 5044:Wayback Machine 5033:Wayback Machine 5023: 5019: 5009: 5007: 4998: 4997: 4993: 4983: 4981: 4967: 4966: 4962: 4948:Jacobsen, Annie 4946: 4942: 4924: 4920: 4914:Wayback Machine 4904: 4900: 4870: 4869: 4865: 4855: 4854: 4850: 4843: 4824: 4823: 4819: 4809: 4808: 4804: 4777: 4776: 4772: 4737: 4736: 4732: 4722: 4720: 4713:The Nobel Prize 4707: 4706: 4702: 4695: 4682: 4681: 4677: 4660: 4659: 4655: 4645: 4643: 4630: 4629: 4625: 4615: 4613: 4599: 4598: 4594: 4584: 4582: 4573: 4572: 4568: 4558: 4556: 4547: 4546: 4542: 4532: 4530: 4516: 4515: 4511: 4484:Human Pathology 4481: 4480: 4476: 4466: 4464: 4451: 4450: 4446: 4436: 4434: 4392: 4391: 4387: 4377: 4375: 4333: 4332: 4328: 4318: 4316: 4303: 4302: 4295: 4257: 4256: 4252: 4242: 4241: 4237: 4227: 4225: 4210: 4209: 4205: 4196:. 21 May 2009. 4184: 4183: 4179: 4133: 4132: 4128: 4118: 4116: 4107: 4106: 4102: 4092: 4090: 4081: 4080: 4076: 4066: 4064: 4051: 4050: 4046: 4036: 4034: 4020: 4019: 4012: 4002: 4000: 3987: 3986: 3982: 3972: 3970: 3961: 3960: 3956: 3944:Wayback Machine 3934: 3930: 3921: 3919: 3909: 3908: 3904: 3894: 3892: 3883: 3882: 3878: 3868: 3866: 3862: 3847: 3842: 3841: 3837: 3827: 3825: 3824:on 8 April 2008 3811: 3810: 3806: 3796: 3794: 3787: 3772: 3771: 3767: 3761:Wayback Machine 3751: 3747: 3737: 3735: 3722: 3721: 3712: 3702: 3701: 3697: 3687: 3686: 3682: 3638: 3637: 3633: 3623: 3621: 3611: 3610: 3606: 3596: 3594: 3572: 3571: 3564: 3555: 3553: 3540: 3539: 3530: 3520: 3518: 3496: 3495: 3488: 3481: 3466: 3465: 3461: 3433: 3432: 3428: 3418: 3416: 3402: 3401: 3397: 3367: 3366: 3359: 3328:(12): 1333–41. 3315: 3314: 3310: 3280: 3279: 3268: 3224: 3223: 3219: 3183: 3182: 3178: 3169: 3154: 3146:Koch R (1876). 3145: 3144: 3137: 3093: 3092: 3088: 3057:(12): 4516–24. 3044: 3043: 3039: 3029: 3027: 3014: 3013: 3009: 2998: 2992: 2977: 2967: 2966: 2962: 2952: 2950: 2939: 2938: 2919: 2909: 2907: 2894: 2893: 2889: 2879: 2877: 2864: 2863: 2859: 2841: 2840: 2833: 2823: 2821: 2817: 2806: 2802: 2801: 2792: 2754: 2753: 2749: 2739: 2737: 2736:on 5 April 2007 2724: 2723: 2719: 2709: 2707: 2694: 2693: 2689: 2679: 2678: 2674: 2664: 2663: 2659: 2648: 2640:. Oxbow Books. 2633: 2632: 2628: 2612: 2611: 2607: 2601:Perseus Project 2577: 2573: 2529: 2528: 2524: 2514: 2512: 2499: 2498: 2485: 2474: 2459: 2458: 2454: 2446: 2440: 2429: 2422: 2421: 2412: 2402: 2400: 2387: 2386: 2375: 2365: 2363: 2350: 2349: 2340: 2329: 2315: 2314: 2305: 2295: 2293: 2280: 2279: 2268: 2258: 2256: 2247: 2246: 2239: 2195: 2194: 2173: 2163: 2161: 2148: 2147: 2140: 2130: 2128: 2115: 2114: 2103: 2093: 2091: 2078: 2077: 2068: 2058: 2056: 2043: 2042: 2027: 2022: 2003: 1976: 1934:microbiological 1930: 1919:To support the 1880: 1874: 1829:Royal Air Force 1821:Gruinard Island 1751: 1745: 1737:Gruinard Island 1650: 1645: 1548: 1542: 1539: 1523: 1517: 1494:New South Wales 1488:, travelled to 1466:Pouilly-le-Fort 1431: 1425: 1390:John Henry Bell 1347: 1342: 1336: 1316: 1300: 1268: 1260: 1248: 1207: 1167: 1130: 1096: 1094: 1073: 1025:subunit vaccine 1003: 997: 962: 939: 935: 883: 812: 808: 804: 800: 796: 763: 726: 719: 708: 699: 678:Color-enhanced 676: 667: 662: 606: 588:Photomicrograph 581: 576: 560: 532: 510: 447: 442: 375: 346:Northern Europe 342:Southern Europe 154: 151:Intestinal form 149: 141: 92: 83: 72: 66: 63: 48: 35: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7766: 7764: 7756: 7755: 7750: 7745: 7740: 7735: 7730: 7725: 7720: 7715: 7705: 7704: 7698: 7697: 7694: 7693: 7691: 7690: 7689: 7688: 7675: 7673: 7667: 7666: 7664: 7663: 7662: 7661: 7649: 7642: 7641: 7640: 7627: 7625: 7616: 7610: 7609: 7606: 7605: 7603: 7602: 7594: 7592: 7583: 7582: 7580: 7579: 7578: 7577: 7564: 7562: 7554:Clostridioides 7549: 7548: 7545: 7544: 7542: 7541: 7540: 7539: 7534: 7521: 7519: 7513: 7512: 7510: 7509: 7508: 7507: 7495: 7494: 7493: 7480: 7478: 7469: 7453: 7447: 7446: 7443: 7442: 7439: 7438: 7436: 7435: 7434: 7433: 7420: 7418: 7410: 7409: 7407: 7406: 7405: 7404: 7402:Food poisoning 7392: 7391: 7390: 7377: 7375: 7367: 7366: 7363: 7362: 7360: 7359: 7358: 7357: 7345: 7344: 7343: 7340:S. epidermidis 7327: 7325: 7319: 7318: 7316: 7315: 7314: 7313: 7308: 7303: 7290: 7288: 7279: 7276:Staphylococcus 7268: 7256: 7255: 7252: 7251: 7249: 7248: 7241: 7240: 7239: 7222: 7220: 7212: 7211: 7208: 7207: 7205: 7204: 7193: 7187: 7185: 7179: 7178: 7175: 7174: 7172: 7171: 7170: 7169: 7156: 7154: 7150: 7149: 7147: 7146: 7145: 7144: 7126: 7124: 7118: 7117: 7115: 7114: 7113: 7112: 7107: 7102: 7097: 7092: 7075: 7073: 7064: 7058: 7057: 7054: 7053: 7051: 7050: 7042: 7035: 7028: 7021: 7014: 7002: 7000: 6996: 6995: 6993: 6992: 6991: 6990: 6977: 6975: 6965: 6956: 6945: 6930: 6924: 6923: 6921: 6920: 6911: 6897: 6895: 6894: 6887: 6880: 6872: 6863: 6862: 6860: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6843: 6840: 6839: 6837: 6836: 6831: 6826: 6820: 6818: 6814: 6813: 6811: 6810: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6765: 6763:Biocontainment 6760: 6755: 6750: 6748:Anthrax hoaxes 6745: 6743:Agro-terrorism 6739: 6737: 6733: 6732: 6730: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6712:Staphylococcus 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6654: 6649: 6644: 6639: 6631: 6624: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6574: 6572: 6566: 6565: 6563: 6562: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6476: 6474: 6468: 6467: 6465: 6464: 6459: 6454: 6449: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6428: 6426: 6422: 6421: 6412: 6410: 6409: 6402: 6395: 6387: 6378: 6377: 6374: 6373: 6362: 6351: 6339: 6338: 6336: 6332: 6331: 6328: 6327: 6316: 6305: 6294: 6279: 6264: 6248: 6243: 6242: 6240: 6239:Classification 6233: 6232: 6220: 6212: 6201: 6200:External links 6198: 6195: 6194: 6163: 6145: 6096: 6055: 6031: 6007: 5981: 5966:"USPS BDS FAQ" 5957: 5931: 5904: 5897: 5875: 5845: 5814: 5779: 5733: 5726: 5703: 5672: 5642: 5627: 5584: 5551: 5540:on 11 May 2013 5520: 5509: 5489: 5474: 5451: 5444: 5424: 5392: 5371: 5341: 5310: 5278: 5247: 5214: 5157: 5131: 5094:(8): 4045–62. 5074: 5048: 5017: 4991: 4960: 4940: 4938:, 1 July 2007. 4926:Willman, David 4918: 4898: 4863: 4848: 4841: 4817: 4802: 4770: 4730: 4700: 4693: 4675: 4653: 4623: 4592: 4566: 4540: 4509: 4474: 4444: 4385: 4326: 4293: 4250: 4235: 4203: 4177: 4126: 4100: 4074: 4044: 4010: 3980: 3954: 3928: 3902: 3876: 3835: 3804: 3785: 3765: 3745: 3710: 3695: 3680: 3631: 3604: 3562: 3528: 3486: 3479: 3459: 3426: 3395: 3357: 3308: 3266: 3217: 3176: 3165:(2): 277–310. 3135: 3086: 3037: 3007: 2990: 2960: 2917: 2887: 2857: 2831: 2790: 2747: 2717: 2687: 2672: 2657: 2646: 2626: 2605: 2571: 2522: 2483: 2472: 2452: 2438: 2410: 2373: 2338: 2327: 2303: 2266: 2237: 2171: 2138: 2101: 2066: 2024: 2023: 2021: 2018: 2002: 1999: 1975: 1972: 1961:anthrax hoaxes 1929: 1926: 1876:Main article: 1873: 1870: 1747:Main article: 1744: 1741: 1662:ethylene oxide 1649: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1640: 1639: 1603: 1580: 1568: 1550: 1549: 1529: 1527: 1516: 1513: 1476:, and several 1424: 1421: 1405:bacteriologist 1346: 1343: 1335: 1332: 1315: 1314:United Kingdom 1312: 1299: 1296: 1267: 1264: 1259: 1256: 1247: 1244: 1206: 1203: 1166: 1163: 1129: 1126: 1093: 1090: 1072: 1069: 1033:reactogenicity 999:Main article: 996: 993: 961: 958: 937: 933: 882: 879: 867:pleural cavity 810: 806: 802: 798: 794: 762: 759: 725: 722: 721: 720: 709: 702: 700: 684:splenic tissue 677: 670: 668: 663: 656: 602:Main article: 580: 577: 575: 572: 559: 556: 531: 528: 509: 506: 446: 443: 441: 438: 374: 371: 253: 252: 249: 245: 244: 241: 235: 234: 228: 224: 223: 214: 210: 209: 199: 193: 192: 189: 183: 182: 175: 171: 170: 167: 163: 162: 156:Injection form 135: 129: 128: 123: 117: 116: 108: 107: 99: 98: 90: 85: 84: 45:of the subject 43:worldwide view 38: 36: 29: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7765: 7754: 7751: 7749: 7746: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7734: 7731: 7729: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7710: 7708: 7687: 7684: 7683: 7682: 7681: 7677: 7676: 7674: 7672: 7668: 7660: 7657: 7656: 7655: 7654: 7650: 7648: 7647: 7643: 7639: 7636: 7635: 7634: 7633: 7629: 7628: 7626: 7624: 7620: 7617: 7615: 7611: 7601: 7600: 7596: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7589: 7584: 7576: 7573: 7572: 7571: 7570: 7566: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7556: 7555: 7550: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7529: 7528: 7527: 7523: 7522: 7520: 7518: 7514: 7506: 7503: 7502: 7501: 7500: 7496: 7492: 7489: 7488: 7487: 7486: 7482: 7481: 7479: 7477: 7473: 7470: 7467: 7463: 7462: 7457: 7454: 7452: 7448: 7432: 7429: 7428: 7427: 7426: 7422: 7421: 7419: 7417: 7416: 7411: 7403: 7400: 7399: 7398: 7397: 7393: 7389: 7386: 7385: 7384: 7383: 7379: 7378: 7376: 7374: 7373: 7368: 7356: 7355: 7351: 7350: 7349: 7346: 7342: 7341: 7337: 7336: 7335: 7333: 7329: 7328: 7326: 7324: 7320: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7298: 7297: 7296: 7292: 7291: 7289: 7287: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7277: 7272: 7269: 7266: 7261: 7257: 7247: 7246: 7242: 7238: 7235: 7234: 7233: 7232: 7227: 7224: 7223: 7221: 7219: 7218: 7213: 7203: 7202: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7188: 7186: 7184: 7180: 7168: 7165: 7164: 7163: 7162: 7158: 7157: 7155: 7151: 7143: 7140: 7139: 7138: 7137: 7136:S. agalactiae 7132: 7128: 7127: 7125: 7123: 7119: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7100:Scarlet fever 7098: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7088: 7087: 7086: 7085: 7081:susceptible: 7080: 7077: 7076: 7074: 7072: 7068: 7065: 7063: 7059: 7049: 7047: 7043: 7041: 7040: 7036: 7034: 7033: 7029: 7027: 7026: 7022: 7020: 7019: 7015: 7013: 7012: 7007: 7004: 7003: 7001: 6997: 6989: 6986: 6985: 6984: 6983: 6982:S. pneumoniae 6979: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6954: 6953:Streptococcus 6949: 6946: 6943: 6938: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6925: 6919: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6906: 6902: 6899: 6898: 6893: 6888: 6886: 6881: 6879: 6874: 6873: 6870: 6858: 6855: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6844: 6841: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6822: 6821: 6819: 6815: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6784: 6781: 6779: 6776: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6766: 6764: 6761: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6749: 6746: 6744: 6741: 6740: 6738: 6734: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6697:Salmonellosis 6695: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6672:Marburg virus 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6658: 6655: 6653: 6650: 6648: 6645: 6643: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6629: 6625: 6622: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6575: 6573: 6571: 6567: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6477: 6475: 6469: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6429: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6408: 6403: 6401: 6396: 6394: 6389: 6388: 6385: 6372: 6368: 6367: 6363: 6361: 6357: 6356: 6352: 6350: 6346: 6345: 6341: 6340: 6337: 6333: 6326: 6322: 6321: 6317: 6315: 6311: 6310: 6306: 6304: 6300: 6299: 6295: 6293: 6289: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6278: 6274: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6263: 6259: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6249: 6246: 6241: 6237: 6230: 6226: 6225: 6221: 6218: 6217: 6213: 6211: 6207: 6204: 6203: 6199: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6167: 6164: 6159: 6155: 6149: 6146: 6141: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6115: 6111: 6107: 6100: 6097: 6092: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6075:(2): 208–13. 6074: 6070: 6066: 6059: 6056: 6052: 6051:Canine Nation 6048: 6044: 6041: 6035: 6032: 6027: 6023: 6022: 6017: 6011: 6008: 5996:on 9 May 2009 5995: 5991: 5985: 5982: 5974: 5967: 5961: 5958: 5945: 5941: 5935: 5932: 5919: 5915: 5908: 5905: 5900: 5894: 5889: 5888: 5879: 5876: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5849: 5846: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5818: 5815: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5795:(4): 463–67. 5794: 5790: 5783: 5780: 5775: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5740: 5738: 5734: 5729: 5723: 5719: 5718: 5710: 5708: 5704: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5680:Fishbein MC. 5676: 5673: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5646: 5643: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5599: 5591: 5589: 5585: 5572: 5568: 5567: 5562: 5555: 5552: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5524: 5521: 5516: 5512: 5506: 5502: 5501: 5493: 5490: 5485: 5484:Sunday Herald 5478: 5475: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5459:Robertson D. 5455: 5452: 5447: 5441: 5437: 5436: 5428: 5425: 5409: 5402: 5396: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5375: 5372: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5345: 5342: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5314: 5311: 5307:(332 KB) 5299: 5292: 5290: 5282: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5257: 5251: 5248: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5221: 5219: 5215: 5210: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5161: 5158: 5145: 5141: 5135: 5132: 5127: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5109: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5078: 5075: 5062: 5058: 5052: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5027: 5021: 5018: 5005: 5001: 4995: 4992: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4964: 4961: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4944: 4941: 4937: 4936: 4931: 4927: 4922: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4908: 4902: 4899: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4867: 4864: 4859: 4852: 4849: 4844: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4829: 4821: 4818: 4813: 4806: 4803: 4797: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4774: 4771: 4765: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4734: 4731: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4704: 4701: 4696: 4690: 4686: 4679: 4676: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4657: 4654: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4627: 4624: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4596: 4593: 4580: 4576: 4570: 4567: 4554: 4550: 4544: 4541: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4513: 4510: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4490:(5): 594–97. 4489: 4485: 4478: 4475: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4448: 4445: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4405:(3): 327–34. 4404: 4400: 4396: 4389: 4386: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4346:(4): 270–80. 4345: 4341: 4337: 4330: 4327: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4300: 4298: 4294: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4266:(4): 270–80. 4265: 4261: 4254: 4251: 4246: 4239: 4236: 4223: 4219: 4218: 4213: 4207: 4204: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4181: 4178: 4173: 4169: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4130: 4127: 4115:on 5 May 2011 4114: 4110: 4104: 4101: 4088: 4084: 4078: 4075: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4048: 4045: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4017: 4015: 4011: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3984: 3981: 3968: 3964: 3958: 3955: 3951: 3950: 3945: 3941: 3938: 3932: 3929: 3917: 3913: 3906: 3903: 3890: 3887:. About.com. 3886: 3880: 3877: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3846: 3839: 3836: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3808: 3805: 3792: 3788: 3782: 3778: 3777: 3769: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3755: 3749: 3746: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3719: 3717: 3715: 3711: 3706: 3699: 3696: 3691: 3684: 3681: 3676: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3651:(3): 690–95. 3650: 3646: 3642: 3635: 3632: 3619: 3615: 3608: 3605: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3569: 3567: 3563: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3537: 3535: 3533: 3529: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3493: 3491: 3487: 3482: 3476: 3472: 3471: 3463: 3460: 3454: 3449: 3446:(3): 279–82. 3445: 3441: 3437: 3430: 3427: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3399: 3396: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3376:(7): 489–93. 3375: 3371: 3364: 3362: 3358: 3353: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3312: 3309: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3289:(1): 258–62. 3288: 3284: 3277: 3275: 3273: 3271: 3267: 3262: 3258: 3253: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3237:(1): 164–78. 3236: 3232: 3228: 3221: 3218: 3213: 3209: 3204: 3199: 3196:(4): 343–49. 3195: 3191: 3187: 3180: 3177: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3153: 3151: 3142: 3140: 3136: 3131: 3127: 3122: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3106:(6): 386–96. 3105: 3101: 3097: 3090: 3087: 3082: 3078: 3073: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3041: 3038: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3011: 3008: 3004: 2997: 2993: 2991:9780160900150 2987: 2983: 2976: 2975: 2970: 2964: 2961: 2948: 2944: 2943: 2936: 2934: 2932: 2930: 2928: 2926: 2924: 2922: 2918: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2891: 2888: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2861: 2858: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2838: 2836: 2832: 2816: 2812: 2805: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2791: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2763:(6): 600–06. 2762: 2758: 2751: 2748: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2721: 2718: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2691: 2688: 2683: 2676: 2673: 2668: 2661: 2658: 2653: 2649: 2647:9781782976349 2643: 2639: 2638: 2630: 2627: 2622: 2621: 2616: 2609: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2597: 2592: 2591:Scott, Robert 2588: 2584: 2575: 2572: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2550: 2545: 2542:(2): 192–95. 2541: 2537: 2533: 2526: 2523: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2496: 2494: 2492: 2490: 2488: 2484: 2479: 2475: 2473:9781139576659 2469: 2465: 2464: 2456: 2453: 2445: 2441: 2439:9789241547536 2435: 2428: 2427: 2419: 2417: 2415: 2411: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2384: 2382: 2380: 2378: 2374: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2347: 2345: 2343: 2339: 2334: 2330: 2328:9781498808613 2324: 2320: 2319: 2312: 2310: 2308: 2304: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2277: 2275: 2273: 2271: 2267: 2254: 2250: 2244: 2242: 2238: 2233: 2229: 2224: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2192: 2190: 2188: 2186: 2184: 2182: 2180: 2178: 2176: 2172: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2145: 2143: 2139: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2112: 2110: 2108: 2106: 2102: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2075: 2073: 2071: 2067: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2040: 2038: 2036: 2034: 2032: 2030: 2026: 2019: 2017: 2015: 2011: 2006: 2001:Other animals 2000: 1998: 1996: 1995:electric iron 1992: 1987: 1985: 1981: 1973: 1971: 1969: 1964: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1953:Patrick Leahy 1950: 1946: 1941: 1939: 1935: 1927: 1925: 1922: 1917: 1915: 1910: 1905: 1903: 1899: 1898:Boris Yeltsin 1895: 1890: 1886: 1879: 1871: 1869: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1790: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1750: 1742: 1740: 1738: 1733: 1731: 1725: 1722: 1717: 1713: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1690: 1688: 1687: 1682: 1677: 1674: 1669: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1647: 1642: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1607:Vollum strain 1604: 1601: 1597: 1596:anthrax toxin 1593: 1589: 1585: 1582:The virulent 1581: 1578: 1577: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1565:anthrax toxin 1562: 1558: 1554: 1553: 1546: 1537: 1533: 1530:This list is 1528: 1521: 1520: 1514: 1512: 1510: 1505: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1481: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1454: 1452: 1451:Louis Pasteur 1448: 1444: 1435: 1430: 1422: 1420: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1373: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1344: 1341: 1333: 1331: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1313: 1311: 1309: 1305: 1304:Lonjsko Polje 1297: 1295: 1293: 1288: 1286: 1282: 1276: 1274: 1266:United States 1265: 1263: 1257: 1255: 1253: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1237: 1235: 1230: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1211:lethal factor 1204: 1202: 1200: 1199:antibacterial 1196: 1195:Obiltoxaximab 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1169:In May 2009, 1164: 1162: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1139:ciprofloxacin 1136: 1127: 1125: 1122: 1117: 1116:antimicrobial 1091: 1089: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1070: 1068: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1023: 1018: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1007:Louis Pasteur 1002: 994: 992: 990: 986: 981: 979: 975: 971: 970:rubber gloves 966: 959: 957: 955: 951: 947: 943: 931: 927: 923: 918: 917:may be used. 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 896: 887: 880: 878: 876: 872: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 836: 832: 831:pyrophosphate 828: 824: 820: 815: 792: 788: 784: 780: 776: 772: 771:anthrax toxin 768: 760: 758: 754: 752: 743: 738: 734: 732: 723: 717: 713: 706: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 674: 669: 666: 660: 655: 653: 651: 650:lethal factor 647: 643: 639: 635: 629: 627: 621: 618: 614: 613:Gram-positive 610: 605: 597: 593: 589: 585: 578: 573: 571: 568: 564: 557: 555: 553: 552:mediastinitis 548: 544: 542: 538: 529: 527: 524: 519: 515: 507: 505: 503: 498: 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 467: 459: 451: 444: 439: 437: 435: 433: 432: 425: 420: 418: 414: 412: 406: 402: 398: 394: 390: 380: 372: 370: 368: 364: 359: 355: 350: 347: 343: 338: 336: 333:and possibly 332: 328: 324: 320: 319:ciprofloxacin 316: 312: 310: 306: 301: 299: 295: 291: 287: 282: 280: 276: 272: 268: 267: 263: 259: 250: 246: 242: 240: 236: 233: 230:Antibiotics, 229: 225: 222: 218: 215: 211: 208: 204: 200: 198: 194: 190: 188: 184: 181: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 161: 157: 152: 148: 144: 139: 136: 134: 130: 127: 124: 122: 118: 114: 109: 105: 100: 95: 89: 81: 78: 70: 60: 56: 52: 46: 44: 37: 28: 27: 22: 7678: 7651: 7644: 7630: 7597: 7586: 7567: 7552: 7532:Gas gangrene 7524: 7516: 7497: 7483: 7475: 7459: 7423: 7413: 7394: 7387: 7380: 7370: 7352: 7347: 7338: 7330: 7293: 7274: 7243: 7229: 7217:Enterococcus 7215: 7199: 7159: 7134: 7082: 7046:S. anginosus 7045: 7037: 7032:S. sanguinis 7030: 7023: 7016: 7009: 6980: 6951: 6577: 6473:and response 6418:bioterrorism 6364: 6353: 6342: 6318: 6307: 6296: 6281: 6266: 6251: 6222: 6215: 6185:. Retrieved 6176: 6166: 6148: 6113: 6109: 6099: 6072: 6068: 6058: 6050: 6034: 6019: 6010: 5998:. Retrieved 5994:the original 5984: 5960: 5948:. Retrieved 5934: 5922:. Retrieved 5907: 5886: 5878: 5866:. Retrieved 5857: 5848: 5836:. Retrieved 5827: 5817: 5792: 5788: 5782: 5749: 5745: 5716: 5694:. Retrieved 5685: 5675: 5663:. Retrieved 5654: 5645: 5606: 5602: 5575:. Retrieved 5564: 5554: 5542:. Retrieved 5538:the original 5533: 5523: 5499: 5492: 5483: 5477: 5464: 5454: 5434: 5427: 5415:. Retrieved 5395: 5379: 5374: 5362:. Retrieved 5353: 5344: 5332:. Retrieved 5323: 5313: 5289:The Bulletin 5288: 5281: 5250: 5238:. Retrieved 5230:Science News 5229: 5174: 5170: 5160: 5148:. Retrieved 5134: 5091: 5087: 5077: 5065:. Retrieved 5051: 5020: 5008:. Retrieved 4994: 4982:. Retrieved 4973: 4963: 4954:; New York: 4951: 4943: 4933: 4921: 4901: 4876: 4872: 4866: 4857: 4851: 4827: 4820: 4811: 4805: 4786: 4782: 4773: 4746: 4742: 4733: 4721:. Retrieved 4712: 4703: 4684: 4678: 4665: 4656: 4644:. Retrieved 4635: 4626: 4614:. Retrieved 4605: 4595: 4583:. Retrieved 4569: 4557:. Retrieved 4543: 4531:. Retrieved 4522: 4512: 4487: 4483: 4477: 4465:. Retrieved 4456: 4447: 4437:10 September 4435:. Retrieved 4402: 4398: 4388: 4378:10 September 4376:. Retrieved 4343: 4339: 4329: 4317:. Retrieved 4308: 4263: 4259: 4253: 4238: 4226:. Retrieved 4215: 4206: 4189: 4180: 4143: 4139: 4129: 4117:. Retrieved 4113:the original 4103: 4091:. Retrieved 4087:the original 4077: 4067:16 September 4065:. Retrieved 4056: 4047: 4035:. Retrieved 4026: 4001:. Retrieved 3992: 3983: 3971:. Retrieved 3957: 3947: 3931: 3920:, retrieved 3915: 3905: 3893:. Retrieved 3879: 3867:. Retrieved 3860:the original 3855: 3851: 3838: 3826:. Retrieved 3822:the original 3807: 3795:. Retrieved 3775: 3768: 3748: 3736:. Retrieved 3728:www.osha.gov 3727: 3704: 3698: 3689: 3683: 3648: 3644: 3634: 3622:. Retrieved 3607: 3595:. Retrieved 3578: 3554:, retrieved 3545: 3519:. Retrieved 3502: 3469: 3462: 3443: 3439: 3429: 3417:. Retrieved 3408: 3398: 3373: 3369: 3325: 3321: 3311: 3286: 3282: 3234: 3230: 3220: 3193: 3189: 3179: 3162: 3158: 3149: 3103: 3099: 3089: 3063:10.2741/3544 3054: 3050: 3040: 3028:. Retrieved 3019: 3010: 3002: 2973: 2963: 2951:. Retrieved 2941: 2910:16 September 2908:. Retrieved 2899: 2890: 2878:. Retrieved 2869: 2860: 2847: 2822:. Retrieved 2815:the original 2810: 2760: 2756: 2750: 2738:. Retrieved 2734:the original 2729: 2720: 2708:. Retrieved 2699: 2690: 2681: 2675: 2666: 2660: 2636: 2629: 2618: 2608: 2594: 2574: 2539: 2535: 2525: 2513:. Retrieved 2509:the original 2504: 2462: 2455: 2425: 2401:. Retrieved 2392: 2364:. Retrieved 2355: 2317: 2294:. Retrieved 2285: 2257:. Retrieved 2205: 2201: 2162:. Retrieved 2153: 2129:. Retrieved 2120: 2092:. Retrieved 2083: 2057:. Retrieved 2048: 2007: 2004: 1990: 1988: 1977: 1965: 1942: 1931: 1918: 1906: 1881: 1866:British Army 1860: 1842:. President 1837: 1817:Nazi Germany 1791: 1767: 1758:Colin Powell 1734: 1730:B. anthracis 1729: 1726: 1718: 1714: 1691: 1684: 1678: 1672: 1670: 1651: 1648:Site cleanup 1574: 1540: 1506: 1482: 1455: 1440: 1374: 1348: 1317: 1301: 1289: 1277: 1269: 1261: 1258:Epidemiology 1251: 1249: 1241: 1238: 1231: 1208: 1191:B. anthracis 1190: 1187:B. anthracis 1186: 1173:submitted a 1168: 1147:erythromycin 1131: 1121:formaldehyde 1112: 1085:prophylactic 1074: 1029:live vaccine 1019: 1015:Soviet Union 1004: 982: 967: 963: 950:B. anthracis 949: 942:B. anthracis 941: 929: 926:B. anthracis 925: 921: 919: 907:B. anthracis 906: 902: 899:Gram stained 895:B. anthracis 894: 892: 859:septic shock 816: 787:B. anthracis 786: 764: 755: 747: 727: 664: 630: 625: 622: 608: 607: 595: 561: 549: 545: 533: 511: 502:B. anthracis 501: 472: 427: 421: 416: 408: 378: 376: 351: 339: 323:levofloxacin 313: 302: 297: 283: 264: 257: 256: 187:Risk factors 177: 155: 150: 142: 137: 88: 73: 67:October 2021 64: 40: 7686:Erysipeloid 7461:Clostridium 7431:Listeriosis 7334:susceptible 7084:S. pyogenes 7039:S. sobrinus 6974:susceptible 6662:Henipavirus 6593:Brucellosis 6344:MedlinePlus 5364:26 December 5334:26 December 4879:(2): 1–25. 4309:www.cdc.gov 4228:14 December 4146:(6): 1056. 4140:Diagnostics 4093:26 December 4057:www.cdc.gov 4037:26 December 3993:www.cdc.gov 3754:Respirators 3738:22 December 3624:26 December 3030:10 February 2900:www.cdc.gov 2870:Mayo Clinic 2824:14 December 2710:16 February 2249:"Treatment" 2150:"Diagnosis" 1980:irradiation 1957:Bruce Ivins 1949:Tom Daschle 1794:Porton Down 1706:bicarbonate 1619:Oxfordshire 1613:during the 1584:Ames strain 1486:Adrien Loir 1409:Home Office 1366:cell theory 1350:Robert Koch 1285:drum circle 1229:and death. 1223:vital organ 1179:raxibacumab 1143:doxycycline 1128:Antibiotics 1071:Antibiotics 946:medusa head 839:neutrophils 829:(cAMP) and 821:-dependent 742:mediastinal 696:erythrocyte 646:mediastinum 642:lymph nodes 634:macrophages 626:post mortem 617:Robert Koch 480:skin lesion 331:antibiotics 327:doxycycline 294:Robert Koch 221:antibiotics 166:Usual onset 7707:Categories 7614:Mollicutes 7588:Finegoldia 7517:nonmotile: 7451:Clostridia 7332:novobiocin 7260:Bacillales 7105:Erysipelas 7079:bacitracin 6857:Wikisource 6657:Hantavirus 6635:Venezuelan 6471:Prevention 6366:Patient UK 6309:DiseasesDB 5544:19 October 5417:31 October 5267:Transcript 5067:10 October 5037:Transcript 4974:Boston Sun 4533:19 October 4467:19 October 4319:25 January 4003:25 January 3597:2 November 3579:StatPearls 3556:2 November 3521:2 November 3419:2 November 2880:25 January 2045:"Symptoms" 2020:References 2010:permafrost 1914:stray dogs 1802:biowarfare 1571:Strain 836 1561:Max Sterne 1543:April 2018 1532:incomplete 1462:Émile Roux 1338:See also: 1155:penicillin 1151:vancomycin 1041:induration 960:Prevention 835:calmodulin 827:cyclic AMP 819:calmodulin 638:lymphatics 592:Gram stain 213:Prevention 203:antibodies 7561:-forming) 7468:-forming) 7295:S. aureus 7153:ungrouped 7131:CAMP test 7025:S. oralis 7018:S. mutans 6901:Bacillota 6808:Terrorism 6717:Tularemia 6355:eMedicine 6325:409498004 6320:SNOMED CT 6187:19 August 6000:13 August 5838:1 October 5717:Biohazard 5696:13 August 5665:13 August 5655:Frontline 5577:26 August 5465:The Times 5150:13 August 5010:13 August 4958:, p. 293. 4893:142036883 4723:4 October 4399:Neurology 3895:13 August 3828:13 August 3797:8 October 3511:1059-1028 2615:"anthrax" 2501:"Anthrax" 2282:"Anthrax" 1848:Rhodesian 1786:Manchuria 1760:giving a 1658:peroxides 1498:John Gunn 1490:Australia 1354:Wollstein 1345:Discovery 1328:bone meal 1234:fulminant 1205:Prognosis 1092:Treatment 1022:acellular 881:Diagnosis 855:apoptosis 843:TNF-alpha 761:Mechanism 751:livestock 640:) to the 537:influenza 523:bone meal 508:Injection 419:, 1240). 373:Etymology 335:antitoxin 262:bacterium 248:Frequency 239:Prognosis 232:antitoxin 227:Treatment 201:Based on 158:: fever, 138:Skin form 121:Specialty 55:talk page 7743:Zoonoses 7491:Botulism 7415:Listeria 7372:Bacillus 7011:S. mitis 6972:optochin 6758:Bacteria 6707:Smallpox 6652:Glanders 6432:Unit 731 6181:Archived 6158:Archived 6140:22114567 6116:: 8482. 6091:10475950 6043:Archived 6026:Archived 6021:NBC News 5973:Archived 5950:26 March 5944:Archived 5924:7 August 5918:Archived 5868:16 April 5862:Archived 5858:BBC News 5832:Archived 5809:12745053 5690:Archived 5659:Archived 5637:11041763 5571:Archived 5515:Archived 5469:Archived 5408:Archived 5388:Archived 5358:Archived 5354:BBC News 5328:Archived 5298:Archived 5270:Archived 5259:Archived 5234:Archived 5209:20305025 5144:Archived 5126:30901213 5061:Archived 5040:Archived 5029:Archived 5004:Archived 4984:6 August 4978:Archived 4950:(2015), 4928:(2007), 4910:Archived 4717:Archived 4670:Archived 4666:BBC News 4640:Archived 4610:Archived 4585:17 March 4579:Archived 4559:17 March 4553:Archived 4527:Archived 4461:Archived 4431:Archived 4427:37545366 4419:12177364 4372:Archived 4360:16490913 4313:Archived 4280:16490913 4222:Archived 4198:Archived 4172:36980364 4163:10046981 4061:Archived 4031:Archived 3997:Archived 3967:Archived 3940:Archived 3889:Archived 3852:ASM News 3791:Archived 3757:Archived 3732:Archived 3675:17617379 3618:Archived 3591:Archived 3587:30571000 3550:archived 3515:Archived 3413:Archived 3390:15486181 3352:21852539 3303:15313199 3261:14679236 3212:13364144 3167:Archived 3130:19654018 3081:19273366 3024:Archived 2996:Archived 2971:(2011). 2969:USAMRIID 2953:14 March 2947:Archived 2904:Archived 2874:Archived 2852:Archived 2785:37958515 2777:21083757 2740:19 April 2704:Archived 2652:Archived 2558:10475946 2478:Archived 2444:Archived 2397:Archived 2360:Archived 2333:Archived 2290:Archived 2253:Archived 2232:24447897 2158:Archived 2125:Archived 2088:Archived 2053:Archived 1921:cover-up 1852:Kantubek 1782:Unit 731 1694:catalyst 1656:such as 1636:Maryland 1623:Gruinard 1592:plasmids 1419:(1919). 1394:Bradford 1324:Stirling 1061:BioThrax 1045:soreness 1037:erythema 995:Vaccines 930:Bacillus 922:Bacillus 903:Bacillus 851:cytokine 791:protease 744:widening 579:Bacteria 518:Stirling 492:necrotic 407:'s work 393:Egyptian 133:Symptoms 49:You may 7713:Anthrax 7505:Tetanus 7476:motile: 7388:Anthrax 6928:Bacilli 6628:Western 6621:Eastern 6578:Anthrax 6371:Anthrax 6360:med/148 6303:D000881 6206:Anthrax 6131:3222928 5916:. CNN. 5774:7973702 5754:Bibcode 5746:Science 5657:. PBS. 5200:2869126 5179:Bibcode 5117:6547374 5096:Bibcode 4796:2346352 4764:2382239 4646:19 July 4368:8357318 4288:8357318 4119:4 April 3666:1986636 3343:3361358 3203:2082573 3174:, Cohns 3121:2784286 3072:4109055 2945:. CDC. 2599:at the 2566:6157235 2223:3901462 1938:aerosol 1823:in the 1809:linseed 1698:ligands 1686:in situ 1600:capsule 1557:Trieste 1447:vaccine 1386:tanning 1378:worsted 1364:versus 1334:History 1320:Glasgow 1298:Croatia 1246:Animals 1227:toxemia 1219:antigen 1011:vaccine 775:antigen 692:bacilli 686:from a 514:Glasgow 497:bruises 397:lesions 387:), the 379:anthrax 309:culture 258:Anthrax 160:abscess 97:Anthrax 6722:Typhus 6682:Plague 6349:001325 6210:Curlie 6138: 6128: 6089: 5895: 5807: 5772: 5724: 5635: 5625: 5611:275–77 5507: 5442: 5305: 5240:8 June 5207: 5197: 5124: 5114: 4891: 4839: 4793: 4761: 4691: 4616:16 May 4504:101438 4502: 4425: 4417: 4366: 4358: 4286: 4278: 4247:. FDA. 4190:Forbes 4170: 4160: 3973:8 June 3922:19 May 3869:8 June 3783: 3673: 3663: 3585: 3509: 3477: 3388: 3350: 3340: 3301: 3259: 3252:303457 3249: 3210: 3200: 3128: 3118: 3079: 3069: 2988: 2783: 2775: 2644: 2581:ἄνθραξ 2564: 2556: 2515:14 May 2470: 2436: 2403:14 May 2366:14 May 2325: 2296:14 May 2259:14 May 2230: 2220: 2164:14 May 2131:14 May 2094:14 May 2059:14 May 1984:enzyme 1478:cattle 1472:, one 1443:France 1402:German 1400:, the 1384:, and 1079:, the 976:- and 956:test. 954:Ascoli 869:, and 797:and PA 777:(PA), 688:monkey 682:shows 488:eschar 478:-like 401:eschar 384:ἄνθραξ 305:spores 174:Causes 113:eschar 7559:spore 7466:spore 7048:group 6903:(low- 6803:Toxin 6798:Virus 6687:Ricin 6647:Fungi 6613:Ebola 6177:Wired 5976:(PDF) 5969:(PDF) 5411:(PDF) 5404:(PDF) 5301:(PDF) 5294:(PDF) 5256:Video 5026:Video 4889:S2CID 4833:27–28 4423:S2CID 4364:S2CID 4284:S2CID 3863:(PDF) 3848:(PDF) 3503:Wired 3170:(PDF) 3155:(PDF) 2999:(PDF) 2978:(PDF) 2818:(PDF) 2807:(PDF) 2781:S2CID 2562:S2CID 2447:(PDF) 2430:(PDF) 2208:(2). 1844:Nixon 1470:sheep 1382:hides 1215:edema 1153:, or 1049:fever 783:edema 779:edema 698:(red) 590:of a 574:Cause 530:Lungs 484:ulcer 389:Greek 275:ulcer 57:, or 7311:MRSA 7265:Cat+ 6942:Cat- 6677:Mold 6416:and 6314:1203 6298:MeSH 6287:9-CM 6262:1B97 6189:2016 6136:PMID 6087:PMID 6002:2008 5952:2009 5926:2008 5893:ISBN 5870:2016 5840:2013 5805:PMID 5770:PMID 5722:ISBN 5698:2008 5667:2008 5633:PMID 5623:ISBN 5579:2020 5546:2014 5505:ISBN 5440:ISBN 5419:2023 5366:2016 5336:2016 5242:2009 5205:PMID 5152:2008 5122:PMID 5069:2013 5012:2008 4986:2009 4837:ISBN 4725:2021 4689:ISBN 4648:2022 4618:2020 4587:2014 4561:2014 4535:2014 4500:PMID 4469:2023 4439:2020 4415:PMID 4380:2020 4356:PMID 4321:2023 4276:PMID 4230:2012 4168:PMID 4121:2011 4095:2016 4069:2020 4039:2016 4005:2023 3975:2017 3924:2024 3897:2008 3871:2017 3830:2008 3799:2023 3781:ISBN 3740:2019 3671:PMID 3626:2016 3599:2023 3583:PMID 3558:2023 3523:2023 3507:ISSN 3475:ISBN 3421:2023 3386:PMID 3348:PMID 3299:PMID 3257:PMID 3208:PMID 3126:PMID 3077:PMID 3032:2015 2986:ISBN 2955:2020 2912:2020 2882:2023 2826:2013 2773:PMID 2742:2007 2712:2018 2642:ISBN 2554:PMID 2517:2016 2468:ISBN 2434:ISBN 2405:2016 2368:2016 2323:ISBN 2298:2016 2261:2016 2228:PMID 2166:2016 2133:2016 2096:2016 2061:2016 1909:NATO 1864:and 1704:and 1507:The 1500:and 1474:goat 1322:and 1308:Sava 1273:UCLA 1055:and 920:All 845:and 801:. PA 539:and 516:and 476:boil 445:Skin 325:and 7323:Cg- 7286:Cg+ 7228:+: 7226:BEA 7198:+: 7196:BEA 7133:+: 6905:G+C 6292:022 6283:ICD 6277:A22 6268:ICD 6253:ICD 6227:, " 6208:at 6126:PMC 6118:doi 6077:doi 5797:doi 5762:doi 5750:266 5615:doi 5607:343 5195:PMC 5187:doi 5112:PMC 5104:doi 4881:doi 4791:PMC 4759:PMC 4751:doi 4492:doi 4407:doi 4348:doi 4344:144 4268:doi 4264:144 4158:PMC 4148:doi 3661:PMC 3653:doi 3649:360 3448:doi 3378:doi 3338:PMC 3330:doi 3326:184 3291:doi 3287:322 3247:PMC 3239:doi 3235:186 3198:PMC 3116:PMC 3108:doi 3067:PMC 3059:doi 2811:HPS 2765:doi 2700:CDC 2544:doi 2505:CDC 2393:CDC 2356:CDC 2286:FDA 2218:PMC 2210:doi 2154:CDC 2121:CDC 2084:CDC 2049:CDC 1894:KGB 1854:on 1630:at 1538:. 1281:CDC 1141:), 7709:: 7008:: 6918:G+ 6916:: 6907:) 6369:: 6358:: 6347:: 6323:: 6312:: 6301:: 6290:: 6275:: 6272:10 6260:: 6257:11 6179:. 6175:. 6156:. 6134:. 6124:. 6112:. 6108:. 6085:. 6073:87 6071:. 6067:. 6049:" 6018:. 5971:. 5856:. 5826:. 5803:. 5793:24 5791:. 5768:. 5760:. 5748:. 5736:^ 5706:^ 5684:. 5653:. 5631:. 5621:. 5613:. 5605:. 5601:. 5587:^ 5569:. 5563:. 5532:. 5513:. 5467:. 5463:. 5406:. 5386:. 5352:. 5326:. 5322:. 5296:. 5265:, 5232:. 5228:. 5217:^ 5203:. 5193:. 5185:. 5175:76 5173:. 5169:. 5120:. 5110:. 5102:. 5092:53 5090:. 5086:. 5059:. 5035:, 4972:. 4932:, 4887:. 4877:14 4875:. 4835:. 4785:. 4781:. 4757:. 4745:. 4741:. 4711:. 4664:. 4634:. 4608:. 4604:. 4525:. 4521:. 4498:. 4486:. 4459:. 4455:. 4429:. 4421:. 4413:. 4403:59 4401:. 4397:. 4370:. 4362:. 4354:. 4342:. 4338:. 4307:. 4296:^ 4282:. 4274:. 4262:. 4220:. 4214:. 4192:. 4188:. 4166:. 4156:. 4144:13 4142:. 4138:. 4055:. 4029:. 4025:. 4013:^ 3991:. 3946:, 3914:, 3856:49 3854:. 3850:. 3789:. 3730:. 3726:. 3713:^ 3669:. 3659:. 3647:. 3643:. 3589:. 3577:. 3565:^ 3544:, 3531:^ 3513:. 3505:. 3501:. 3489:^ 3444:60 3442:. 3438:. 3411:. 3407:. 3384:. 3374:54 3372:. 3360:^ 3346:. 3336:. 3324:. 3320:. 3297:. 3285:. 3269:^ 3255:. 3245:. 3233:. 3229:. 3206:. 3194:37 3192:. 3188:. 3161:. 3157:. 3138:^ 3124:. 3114:. 3104:30 3102:. 3098:. 3075:. 3065:. 3055:14 3053:. 3049:. 3018:. 2994:. 2984:. 2920:^ 2898:. 2872:. 2868:. 2850:. 2846:. 2834:^ 2809:. 2793:^ 2779:. 2771:. 2761:27 2759:. 2728:. 2698:. 2650:. 2617:. 2593:; 2589:; 2585:. 2560:. 2552:. 2540:87 2538:. 2534:. 2503:. 2486:^ 2476:. 2442:. 2413:^ 2391:. 2376:^ 2354:. 2341:^ 2331:. 2306:^ 2284:. 2269:^ 2240:^ 2226:. 2216:. 2206:20 2204:. 2200:. 2174:^ 2152:. 2141:^ 2119:. 2104:^ 2082:. 2069:^ 2047:. 2028:^ 1963:. 1712:. 1660:, 1634:, 1504:. 1460:, 1380:, 1213:, 1193:. 1149:, 1145:, 1047:, 1043:, 1039:, 940:. 901:. 865:, 811:63 807:63 803:20 799:63 795:20 718:.) 436:. 369:. 321:, 219:, 7557:( 7464:( 7267:) 7263:( 7191:D 7183:γ 7122:B 7071:A 7062:β 6963:α 6944:) 6940:( 6891:e 6884:t 6877:v 6637:) 6619:( 6406:e 6399:t 6392:v 6285:- 6270:- 6255:- 6245:D 6191:. 6142:. 6120:: 6114:4 6093:. 6079:: 6038:" 6004:. 5954:. 5928:. 5901:. 5872:. 5842:. 5811:. 5799:: 5776:. 5764:: 5756:: 5730:. 5700:. 5669:. 5639:. 5617:: 5581:. 5548:. 5448:. 5421:. 5368:. 5338:. 5287:" 5244:. 5211:. 5189:: 5181:: 5154:. 5128:. 5106:: 5098:: 5071:. 5014:. 4988:. 4905:" 4895:. 4883:: 4845:. 4799:. 4787:2 4767:. 4753:: 4747:2 4727:. 4697:. 4650:. 4620:. 4589:. 4563:. 4537:. 4506:. 4494:: 4488:9 4471:. 4441:. 4409:: 4382:. 4350:: 4323:. 4290:. 4270:: 4232:. 4174:. 4150:: 4123:. 4097:. 4071:. 4041:. 4007:. 3977:. 3899:. 3873:. 3832:. 3801:. 3742:. 3677:. 3655:: 3628:. 3601:. 3525:. 3483:. 3456:. 3450:: 3423:. 3392:. 3380:: 3354:. 3332:: 3305:. 3293:: 3263:. 3241:: 3214:. 3163:2 3152:" 3132:. 3110:: 3083:. 3061:: 3034:. 2957:. 2914:. 2884:. 2828:. 2787:. 2767:: 2744:. 2714:. 2669:. 2623:. 2603:. 2568:. 2546:: 2519:. 2407:. 2370:. 2300:. 2263:. 2234:. 2212:: 2168:. 2135:. 2098:. 2063:. 1602:. 1545:) 1541:( 1137:( 1035:( 938:2 934:2 632:( 415:( 381:( 80:) 74:( 69:) 65:( 47:. 23:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index