Anti-aircraft warfare - Knowledge (XXG)

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20 mm had already started to provide protection for the British and this was adopted in exchange for the M2 machine guns. From December 1941 to January 1942, production had risen to not only cover all British requirements but also allowed 812 units to be actually delivered to the US Navy. By the end of 1942 the 20 mm had accounted for 42% of all aircraft destroyed by the US Navy's shipboard AA. However, the King Board had noted that the balance was shifting towards the larger guns used by the fleet. The US Navy had intended to use the British pom-pom, however, the weapon required the use of cordite which BuOrd had found objectionable for US service. Further investigation revealed that US powders would not work in the pom-pom. Bureau of Ordnance was well aware of the Bofors 40 mm gun. The firm York Safe and Lock was negotiating with Bofors to attain the rights to the air-cooled version of the weapon. At the same time Henry Howard, an engineer, and businessman became aware of it and contacted RAMD W. R. Furlong, chief of the Bureau of Ordnance. He ordered the Bofors weapon system to be investigated. York Safe and Lock would be used as the contracting agent. The system had to be redesigned for both the English measurement system and mass production, as the original documents recommended hand fitting parts and drilling to shape. As early as 1928 the US Navy saw the need to replace the .50 caliber machine gun with something heavier. The 1.1"/75 (28 mm) Mark 1 was designed. Placed in quadruple mounts with a 500 rpm rate of fire it would have fit the requirements. However, the gun was suffering teething issues being prone to jamming. While this could have been solved the weight of the system was equal to that of the quad-mount Bofors 40 mm while lacking the range and power that the Bofors provided. The gun was relegated to smaller less vital ships by the end of the war. The

1225: 1923: 929:- the Predictor AA No 1. Given the target height, its operators tracked the target and the predictor produced bearing, quadrant elevation and fuse setting. These were passed electrically to the guns, where they were displayed on repeater dials to the layers who "matched pointers" (target data and the gun's actual data) to lay the guns. This system of repeater electrical dials built on the arrangements introduced by British coast artillery in the 1880s, and coast artillery was the background of many AA officers. Similar systems were adopted in other countries and for example the later Sperry M3A3 in the US, was also used by Britain as the Predictor AA No 2. Height finders were also increasing in size; in Britain, the seven-foot optical base World War I 685: 595: 2156: 2462: 1551: 2775: 1429: 2640: 1313: 1336:. Operators kept it pointed at the target, and the Predictor then calculated the proper aim point automatically and displayed it as a pointer mounted on the gun. The gun operators simply followed the pointer and loaded the shells. The Kerrison was fairly simple, but it pointed the way to future generations that incorporated radar, first for ranging and later for tracking. Similar predictor systems were introduced by Germany during the war, also adding radar ranging as the war progressed. 1272: 867: 752: 677: 1899: 2371: 2021: 1675: 2812: 855: 1532: 614: 565: 1745: 1388: 669: 5593: 1050:. It proved prone to jamming, and was eventually replaced in AA units by the Bofors 40 mm. The Bofors had attracted attention from the US Navy, but none were acquired before 1939. Also, in 1931 the US Army worked on a mobile anti-aircraft machine mount on the back of a heavy truck having four .30 calibre water-cooled machine guns and an optical director. It proved unsuccessful and was abandoned. 580: 2714: 2524: 1125: 785:, being hydrogen-filled balloons, were targets for incendiary shells and the British introduced these with airburst fuses, both shrapnel type-forward projection of incendiary "pot" and base ejection of an incendiary stream. The British also fitted tracers to their shells for use at night. Smoke shells were also available for some AA guns, these bursts were used as targets during training. 1801: 1294: 1340: 2881:. Firing an RPG at steep angles poses a danger to the user, because the backblast from firing reflects off the ground. In Somalia, militia members sometimes welded a steel plate onto the exhaust end of an RPG's tube to deflect pressure away from the shooter when shooting up at US helicopters. RPGs are used in this role only when more effective weapons are not available. 37: 2608:. Often, the high-altitude long-range missile systems force aircraft to fly at low level, where anti-aircraft guns can bring them down. As well as the small and large systems, for effective air defence there must be intermediate systems. These may be deployed at regiment-level and consist of platoons of self-propelled anti-aircraft platforms, whether they are 1309:

long range, the aircraft remains in firing range for a long time, so the necessary calculations can, in theory, be done by slide rules—though, because small errors in distance cause large errors in shell fall height and detonation time, exact ranging is crucial. For the ranges and speeds that the Bofors worked at, neither answer was good enough.

1617: 2347:, it was split off from the artillery to form a separate arm of its own in 1990. This is in contrast to some (largely communist or ex-communist) countries where not only are there provisions for air defence in the army, navy and air force but there are specific branches that deal only with the air defence of territory, for example, the Soviet 311:, although field-deployed air defence relied on less sophisticated arrangements. NATO later called these arrangements an "air defence ground environment", defined as "the network of ground radar sites and command and control centres within a specific theatre of operations which are used for the tactical control of air defence operations". 2385: 831:, the 77 mm had become the standard German weapon, and came mounted on a large traverse that could be easily transported on a wagon. Krupp 75 mm guns were supplied with an optical sighting system that improved their capabilities. The German Army also adapted a revolving cannon that came to be known to Allied fliers as the " 851:. When the war ended, it was clear that the increasing capabilities of aircraft would require better means of acquiring targets and aiming at them. Nevertheless, a pattern had been set: anti-aircraft warfare would employ heavy weapons to attack high-altitude targets and lighter weapons for use when aircraft came to lower altitudes. 2211:. Long range missiles depend on long-range detection to provide significant lead. Stealth designs cut detection ranges so much that the aircraft is often never even seen, and when it is, it is often too late for an intercept. Systems for detection and tracking of stealthy aircraft are a major problem for anti-aircraft development. 349:

destroy; nonetheless, damaged aircraft may be forced to abort their mission and, even if they manage to return and land in friendly territory, may be out of action for days or permanently. Ignoring small arms and smaller machine-guns, ground-based air defence guns have varied in calibre from 20 mm to at least 152 mm.

104:, and modern NATO and the United States, ground-based air defence and air defence aircraft have been under integrated command and control. However, while overall air defence may be for homeland defence (including military facilities), forces in the field, wherever they are, provide their own defences against airborne threats. 800:(76 mm), a new field mounting was introduced in 1916. Since most attacks were at night, searchlights were soon used, and acoustic methods of detection and locating were developed. By December 1916 there were 183 AA sections defending Britain (most with the 3-inch), 74 with the BEF in France and 10 in the Middle East. 922:

targets up to 24,000 ft (7.3 km). Mechanical time fuses were required because the speed of powder burning varied with height, so fuse length was not a simple function of time of flight. Automated fire ensured a constant rate of fire that made it easier to predict where each shell should be individually aimed.

1046:. It was standardised in 1927 as the T9 AA cannon, but trials quickly revealed that it was worthless in the ground role. However, while the shell was a bit light (well under 2 lbs) it had a good effective ceiling and fired 125 rounds per minute; an AA carriage was developed and it entered service in 1939 as the 283:

usefully used. One term is "ceiling", the maximum ceiling being the height a projectile would reach if fired vertically, not practically useful in itself as few AA guns are able to fire vertically, and the maximum fuse duration may be too short, but potentially useful as a standard to compare different weapons.

2687:). Area defence systems have medium to long range and can be made up of various other systems and networked into an area defence system (in which case it may be made up of several short range systems combined to effectively cover an area). An example of area defence is the defence of Saudi Arabia and Israel by 2893:

mission in Wardak province. One feature that makes RPGs useful in air defence is that they are fused to automatically detonate at 920 m. If aimed into the air this causes the warhead to airburst which can release a limited but potentially damaging amount of shrapnel hitting a helicopter landing or taking off.

4494:"Anti-Tank Guided Missile (ATGM) strikes on helicopters during the Syrian Civil War - I made a short compilation detailing the 8 recorded ATGM strikes on helicopters in Syria. 3 strikes on parked helis, 2 on landing helis, 2 on helis after emergency landings & 1 on heli in-flight https://t.co/Za6azGABVV" 93:). ‘Layered air defence’ usually refers to multiple ‘tiers’ of air defence systems which, when combined, an airborne threat must penetrate in order to reach its target; This defence is usually accomplished via the combined use of systems optimized for either short-, medium-, or long-range air defence. 1772:

system, an almost fully automated system including the radar, computers, power, and auto-loading gun on a single powered platform. The Skysweeper replaced all smaller guns then in use in the Army, notably the 40 mm Bofors. By 1955, the US military deemed the 40 mm Bofors obsolete due to its

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were used, mostly the former. Airburst fuses were either igniferious (based on a burning fuse) or mechanical (clockwork). Igniferious fuses were not well suited for anti-aircraft use. The fuse length was determined by time of flight, but the burning rate of the gunpowder was affected by altitude. The

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The essence of air defence is to detect hostile aircraft and destroy them. The critical issue is to hit a target moving in three-dimensional space; an attack must not only match these three coordinates, but must do so at the time the target is at that position. This means that projectiles either have

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The maximum distance at which a gun or missile can engage an aircraft is an important figure. However, many different definitions are used and unless the same definition is used, performance of different guns or missiles cannot be compared. For AA guns only the ascending part of the trajectory can be

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used RPGs in a direct fire role against landing helicopters. Four rangers were killed when their helicopter was shot down by an RPG, and SEAL team member Neil C. Roberts fell out of his helicopter when it was hit by two RPGs. In other instances helicopters have been shot down in Afghanistan during a

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The introduction of the guided missile resulted in a significant shift in anti-aircraft strategy. Although Germany had been desperate to introduce anti-aircraft missile systems, none became operational during World War II. Following several years of post-war development, however, these systems began

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had also put some thought into the problem, When the US Navy began to rearm in 1939 in many ships the primary short ranged gun was the M2 .50 caliber machine gun. While effective in fighters at 300 to 400 yards this is point blank range in naval anti-aircraft ranges. Production of the Swiss Oerlikon

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Until this time the British, at RAF insistence, continued their use of World War I machine guns, and introduced twin MG mountings for AAAD. The army was forbidden from considering anything larger than .50-inch. However, in 1935 their trials showed that the minimum effective round was an impact-fused

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Two assumptions underpinned the British approach to HAA fire; first, aimed fire was the primary method and this was enabled by predicting gun data from visually tracking the target and having its height. Second, that the target would maintain a steady course, speed and height. This HAA was to engage

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reported that the British government had decided to "dot the coasts of the British Isles with a series of towers, each armed with two quick-firing guns of special design," while "a complete circle of towers" was to be built around "naval installations" and "at other especially vulnerable points". By

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Passive air defence is defined by NATO as "Passive measures taken for the physical defence and protection of personnel, essential installations and equipment in order to minimise the effectiveness of air and/or missile attack". It remains a vital activity by ground forces and includes camouflage and

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The British adopted "effective ceiling", meaning the altitude at which a gun could deliver a series of shells against a moving target; this could be constrained by maximum fuse running time as well as the gun's capability. By the late 1930s the British definition was "that height at which a directly

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Most modern air defence systems are fairly mobile. Even the larger systems tend to be mounted on trailers and are designed to be fairly quickly broken down or set up. In the past, this was not always the case. Early missile systems were cumbersome and required much infrastructure; many could not be

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Larger SAMs may be deployed in fixed launchers, but can be towed/re-deployed at will. The SAMs launched by individuals are known in the United States as the Man-Portable Air Defence Systems (MANPADS). MANPADS of the former Soviet Union have been exported around the World, and can be found in use by

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Service trials demonstrated another problem however: that ranging and tracking the new high-speed targets was almost impossible. At short range, the apparent target area is relatively large, the trajectory is flat and the time of flight is short, allowing to correct lead by watching the tracers. At

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The British had already arranged licence building of the Bofors 40 mm, and introduced these into service. These had the power to knock down aircraft of any size, yet were light enough to be mobile and easily swung. The gun became so important to the British war effort that they even produced a

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prevented Germany having AA weapons, and for example, the Krupps designers joined Bofors in Sweden. Some World War I guns were retained and some covert AA training started in the late 1920s. Germany introduced the 8.8 cm FlaK 18 in 1933, the 36 and 37 models followed with various improvements,

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was replaced by the nine-foot optical base UB 7 and the eighteen-foot optical base UB 10 (only used on static AA sites). Goertz in Germany and Levallois in France produced five m (16 ft) instruments. However, in most countries the main effort in HAA guns until the mid-1930s was improving

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bombers had particularly influenced the British and was one of if not the main driver for forming an independent air force. As the capabilities of aircraft and their engines improved it was clear that their role in future war would be even more critical as their range and weapon load grew. However,

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had published any information by 1910. Krupp's designs included adaptations of their 65 mm 9-pounder, a 75 mm 12-pounder, and even a 105 mm gun. Erhardt also had a 12-pounder, while Vickers Maxim offered a 3-pounder and Schneider a 47 mm. The French balloon gun appeared in 1910,

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By the early 20th century balloon, or airship, guns, for land and naval use were attracting attention. Various types of ammunition were proposed, high explosive, incendiary, bullet-chains, rod bullets and shrapnel. The need for some form of tracer or smoke trail was articulated. Fuzing options were

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Batteries are usually grouped into battalions or equivalent. In the field army, a light gun or SHORAD battalion is often assigned to a manoeuvre division. Heavier guns and long-range missiles may be in air-defence brigades and come under corps or higher command. Homeland air defence may have a full

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The basic air defence unit is typically a battery with 2 to 12 guns or missile launchers and fire control elements. These batteries, particularly with guns, usually deploy in a small area, although batteries may be split; this is usual for some missile systems. SHORAD missile batteries often deploy

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tested a railgun; it fired a shell at 5,600 miles (9,000 km) per hour using 10 megajoules of energy. Its expected performance is over 13,000 miles (21,000 km) per hour muzzle velocity, accurate enough to hit a 5-metre target from 200 nautical miles (370 km) away while shooting at 10

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Although the firearms used by the infantry, particularly machine guns, can be used to engage low altitude air targets, on occasion with notable success, their effectiveness is generally limited and the muzzle flashes reveal infantry positions. Speed and altitude of modern jet aircraft limit target

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In 1939 radio controlled drones became available to actually test existing systems in British and American service. The results were disappointing by any measure. High-level manoeuvring drones were virtually immune to shipboard AA systems. The US drones could simulate dive bombing which showed the

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The US ended World War I with two 3-inch AA guns and improvements were developed throughout the inter-war period. However, in 1924 work started on a new 105 mm static mounting AA gun, but only a few were produced by the mid-1930s because by this time work had started on the 90 mm AA gun,

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However, the problem of deflection settings — "aim-off" — required knowing the rate of change in the target's position. Both France and the UK introduced tachymetric devices to track targets and produce vertical and horizontal deflection angles. The French Brocq system was electrical; the operator

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AA gunnery was a difficult business. The problem was of successfully aiming a shell to burst close to its target's future position, with various factors affecting the shells' predicted trajectory. This was called deflection gun-laying, where "off-set" angles for range and elevation were set on the

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Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions were the standard weapon; guided missiles then became dominant, except at the very shortest ranges. However, the type of shell or warhead and its fuzing and, with missiles, the guidance arrangement were and are varied. Targets are not always easy to

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Throughout the 20th century, air defence was one of the fastest-evolving areas of military technology, responding to the evolution of aircraft and exploiting technology such as radar, guided missiles and computing (initially electromechanical analogue computing from the 1930s on, as with equipment

1724:. With the liberation of Antwerp, the port city immediately became the highest priority target, and received the largest number of V-1 and V-2 missiles of any city. The smallest tactical unit of the operation was a gun battery consisting of four 90 mm guns firing shells equipped with a radio 989:

in a twin turret, which the army adopted in simplified single-gun mountings for static positions, mostly around ports where naval ammunition was available. The performance of the new guns was limited by their standard fuse No 199, with a 30-second running time, although a new mechanical time fuse

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As aircraft started to be used against ground targets on the battlefield, the AA guns could not be traversed quickly enough at close targets and, being relatively few, were not always in the right place (and were often unpopular with other troops), so changed positions frequently. Soon the forces

2795:, command posts etc.) benefit from being mounted on a fleet of vehicles. In general, a fixed system can be identified, attacked and destroyed whereas a mobile system can show up in places where it is not expected. Soviet systems especially concentrate on mobility, after the lessons learnt in the 1089:

WWI had been a war in which air warfare blossomed, but had not matured to the point of being a real threat to naval forces. The prevailing assumption was that a few relatively small caliber naval guns could manage to keep enemy aircraft beyond a range where harm might be expected. In 1939 radio

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Four years of war had seen the creation of a new and technically demanding branch of military activity. Air defence had made huge advances, albeit from a very low starting point. However, it was new and often lacked influential 'friends' in the competition for a share of limited defence budgets.

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mounted on a tripod. It measured the distance to the target and the elevation angle, which together gave the height of the aircraft. These were complex instruments and various other methods were also used. The HRF was soon joined by the height/fuse indicator (HFI), this was marked with elevation

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and these proved much more satisfactory. However, in general, these ad hoc solutions proved largely useless. With little experience in the role, no means of measuring target, range, height or speed the difficulty of observing their shell bursts relative to the target gunners proved unable to get

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As this process continued, the missile found itself being used for more and more of the roles formerly filled by guns. First to go were the large weapons, replaced by equally large missile systems of much higher performance. Smaller missiles soon followed, eventually becoming small enough to be

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in 1943 an entirely new system was developed that was required to knock down any low-flying aircraft with a single hit. The first attempt to produce such a system used a 50 mm gun, but this proved inaccurate and a new 55 mm gun replaced it. The system used a centralised control system

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and later in the decade it was redesigned by Mauser-Werke and became the 2 cm FlaK 38. Nevertheless, while 20 mm was better than a machine gun and mounted on a very small trailer made it easy to move, its effectiveness was limited. Germany therefore added a 3.7 cm. The first, the

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dire need for autocannons. Japan introduced powered gliders in 1940 as drones but apparently was unable to dive bomb. There is no evidence of other powers using drones in this application at all. It may have caused a major underestimation of the threat and an inflated view of their AA systems.

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and funds for the military had been sparse to the degree that 50% of shells used were still powder fused. The US Navy found that a significant portion of its shells were duds or low order detonations (incomplete detonation of the explosive contained by the shell). Virtually every major country

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The developments during World War II continued for a short time into the post-war period as well. In particular the US Army set up a huge air defence network around its larger cities based on radar-guided 90 mm and 120 mm guns. US efforts continued into the 1950s with the 75 mm

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fleets. The balloon, a simple blimp tethered to the ground, worked in two ways. Firstly, it and the steel cable were a danger to any aircraft that tried to fly among them. Secondly, to avoid the balloons, bombers had to fly at a higher altitude, which was more favourable for the guns. Barrage

1384:. Although of less power than Germany's 20 mm systems, the typical four or five combat batteries of an Army AAA battalion were often spread many kilometres apart from each other, rapidly attaching and detaching to larger ground combat units to provide welcome defence from enemy aircraft. 1038:

developed by Rheinmetall in the early 1930s, was basically an enlarged 2 cm FlaK 30. It was introduced in 1935 and production stopped the following year. A redesigned gun 3.7 cm FlaK 36 entered service in 1938, it too had a two-wheel carriage. However, by the mid-1930s the Luftwaffe

1290:, that encouraged workers on the assembly line to work harder. The Imperial measurement production drawings the British had developed were supplied to the Americans who produced their own (unlicensed) copy of the 40 mm at the start of the war, moving to licensed production in mid-1941. 1197:

entered service in increasing numbers. In addition, the RAF regiment was formed in 1941 with responsibility for airfield air defence, eventually with Bofors 40 mm as their main armament. Fixed AA defences, using HAA and LAA, were established by the Army in key overseas places, notably

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World War I demonstrated that aircraft could be an important part of the battlefield, but in some nations it was the prospect of strategic air attack that was the main issue, presenting both a threat and an opportunity. The experience of four years of air attacks on London by Zeppelins and

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moved at all. With the diversification of air defence there has been much more emphasis on mobility. Most modern systems are usually either self-propelled (i.e. guns or missiles are mounted on a truck or tracked chassis) or towed. Even systems that consist of many components (

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designed by Krupp. Artillery weapons of this sort have for the most part been superseded by the effective surface-to-air missile systems that were introduced in the 1950s, although they were still retained by many nations. The development of surface-to-air missiles began in

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The use of balloons by the U.S. Army during the American Civil War compelled the Confederates to develop methods of combating them. These included the use of artillery, small arms, and saboteurs. They were unsuccessful, and internal politics led the United States Army's

2663:. However, most air forces choose to augment airbase defence with surface-to-air missile systems as they are such valuable targets and subject to attack by enemy aircraft. In addition, some countries choose to put all air defence responsibilities under the air force. 804:

gunsight and updated as their target moved. In this method, when the sights were on the target, the barrel was pointed at the target's future position. Range and height of the target determined fuse length. The difficulties increased as aircraft performance improved.

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entered the target range and had displays at guns; it was used with their 75 mm. The British Wilson-Dalby gun director used a pair of trackers and mechanical tachymetry; the operator entered the fuse length, and deflection angles were read from the instruments.

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as counter measures, but none of them were ready at the end of the war. The Germans missile research was the most advanced of the war as the Germans put considerable effort in the research and development of rocket systems for all purposes. Among them were several

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fired his cannon at the enemy aircraft and successfully shot one down. It crashed in the city and both pilots died from their injuries. The cannon Ljutovac used was not designed as an anti-aircraft gun; it was a slightly modified Turkish cannon captured during the

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systems in the 1960s, and by the 1990s had replaced almost all such systems in modern armies. Man-portable missiles, MANPADS, as they are known today, were introduced in the 1960s and have supplanted or replaced even the smallest guns in most advanced armies.

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Post-war analysis demonstrated that even with newest anti-aircraft systems employed by both sides, the vast majority of bombers reached their targets successfully, on the order of 90%. While these figures were undesirable during the war, the advent of the

708:. Soldiers fired at them with shotguns and machine-guns but failed to prevent them from dropping 45 bombs over the city, hitting military installations, the railway station and many other, mostly civilian, targets in the city. During the bombing raid, 2481:

Layered air defence in naval tactics, especially within a carrier group, is often built around a system of concentric layers with the aircraft carrier at the centre. The outer layer will usually be provided by the carrier's aircraft, specifically its

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their fuse setting correct and most rounds burst well below their targets. The exception to this rule was the guns protecting spotting balloons, in which case the altitude could be accurately measured from the length of the cable holding the balloon.

796:, was appointed to make improvements, particularly an integrated AA defence for London. The air defences were expanded with more RNVR AA guns, 75 mm and 3-inch, the pom-poms being ineffective. The naval 3-inch was also adopted by the army, the 1709:, 'retaliation weapon'). The 419th and 601st anti-aircraft gun battalions of the US Army were first allocated to the Folkestone-Dover coast to defend London, and then moved to Belgium to become part of the "Antwerp X" project coordinated from the 410:

concealment to avoid detection by reconnaissance and attacking aircraft. Measures such as camouflaging important buildings were common in the Second World War. During the Cold War the runways and taxiways of some airfields were painted green.

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with mobile carriages and static mountings able to engage air, sea and ground targets. The M1 version was approved in 1940. During the 1920s there was some work on a 4.7-inch which lapsed, but revived in 1937, leading to a new gun in 1944.

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across an area with individual launchers several kilometres apart. When MANPADS is operated by specialists, batteries may have several dozen teams deploying separately in small sections; self-propelled air defence guns may deploy in pairs.

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A 3"/50 MK 22 semiautomatic dual gun was produced but not employed before the end of the war and therefore beyond the scope of this article. However early marks of the 3"/50 were employed in destroyer escorts and on merchant ships. 3″/50

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During the 1930s solid-fuel rockets were under development in the Soviet Union and Britain. In Britain the interest was for anti-aircraft fire, it quickly became clear that guidance would be required for precision. However, rockets, or

1736:, an electronic analogue computer to calculate the lead and elevation corrections for the guns. With the help of these three technologies, close to 90% of the V-1 missiles, on track to the defence zone around the port, were destroyed. 1009:(40 mm) on a modified naval mount. The air-cooled Bofors was vastly superior for land use, being much lighter than the water-cooled "pom-pom", and UK production of the Bofors 40 mm was licensed. The Predictor AA No 3, as the 175:

it was sometimes prefixed by "light" or "heavy" (LAA or HAA) to classify a type of gun or unit. Nicknames for anti-aircraft guns include "AA", "AAA" or "triple-A" (abbreviations of "anti-aircraft artillery"), "flak" (from the German

1410:, which was the most powerful AA gun with an impressive 60,000 ft (18 km) altitude capability, however no 120 M1 was ever fired at an enemy aircraft. The 90 mm and 120 mm guns continued to be used into the 1950s. 376:

belts that ran north–south across Germany, across a military formation's manoeuvre area, or above a city or port. In ground operations air defence areas may be used offensively by rapid redeployment across current aircraft transit

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involved in combat in World War II invested in aircraft development. The cost of aircraft research and development was small and the results could be large. So rapid was the performance leaps of evolving aircraft that the British

5260: 1107:(HACS) was obsolete and designing a successor very difficult for the British establishment. Electronics would prove to be an enabler for effective anti-aircraft systems and both the US and UK had a growing electronics industry. 1028:

Rheinmetall in Germany developed an automatic 20 mm in the 1920s and Oerlikon in Switzerland had acquired the patent to an automatic 20 mm gun designed in Germany during World War I. Germany introduced the rapid-fire

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All armies soon deployed AA guns often based on their smaller field pieces, notably the French 75 mm and Russian 76.2 mm, typically simply propped up on some sort of embankment to get the muzzle pointed skyward. The

2257:, would all be able to narrow down the location of a stealth aircraft under certain parameters. The newest SAMs have a claimed ability to be able to detect and engage stealth targets, with the most notable being the Russian 107:

Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions ranging from 7.62 mm (.30 in) to 152.4 mm (6 in) were the standard weapons; guided missiles then became dominant, except at the very shortest ranges (as with

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had ordered the development of a 40 mm naval anti-aircraft gun from the Bofors company. It was light, rapid-firing and reliable, and a mobile version on a four-wheel carriage was soon developed. Known simply as the

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platforms seek to suppress or negate the effectiveness of an opposing air-defence system. It is an arms race; as better jamming, countermeasures and anti-radiation weapons are developed, so are better SAM systems with

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it was an 11-pounder but mounted on a vehicle, with a total uncrewed weight of two tons. However, since balloons were slow moving, sights were simple. But the challenges of faster moving aeroplanes were recognised.

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formed in 1925 provided a network of observation posts to report hostile aircraft flying over Britain. Initially radar was used for airspace surveillance to detect approaching hostile aircraft. However, the German

2415:-equipped destroyers and cruisers are as much a threat to aircraft as any land-based air defence system. In general, naval vessels should be treated with respect by aircraft, however the reverse is equally true. 203:

NATO defines anti-aircraft warfare (AAW) as "measures taken to defend a maritime force against attacks by airborne weapons launched from aircraft, ships, submarines and land-based sites". In some armies the term

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shots per minute. It is expected to be ready in 2020 to 2025. These systems, while currently designed for static targets, would only need the ability to be retargeted to become the next generation of AA system.

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However, there were lessons to be learned. In particular the British, who had had AA guns in most theatres in action in daylight and used them against night attacks at home. Furthermore, they had also formed an

527:. Although lacking anti-aircraft weapons, they were the first to shoot down an airplane by rifle fire. The first aircraft to crash in a war was the one of Lieutenant Piero Manzini, shot down on August 25, 1912. 1094:

became available to the US Navy in quantity allowing a more realistic testing of existing anti-aircraft suites against actual flying and manoeuvring targets. The results were sobering to an unexpected degree.

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The most extreme case was the Soviet Union and this model may still be followed in some countries: it was a separate service, on a par with the army, navy, or air force. In the Soviet Union, this was called

2268:. Although air planners have imagined lasers in combat since the late 1960s, only the most modern laser systems are currently reaching what could be considered "experimental usefulness". In particular the 2129:. A variety of designs have been developed, using lasers, net-guns and air-to-air netting, signal jamming, and hi-jacking by means of in-flight hacking. Anti-UAV defence systems have been deployed against 322:. While these rules originate at the highest authority, different rules can apply to different types of air defence covering the same area at the same time. AAAD usually operates under the tightest rules. 296:

to be guided to hit the target, or aimed at the predicted position of the target at the time the projectile reaches it, taking into account the speed and direction of both the target and the projectile.

5049: 885:

in the years immediately after World War I, the prospect of another major war seemed remote, particularly in Europe, where the most militarily capable nations were, and little financing was available.

1950:

systems were commonly used for most anti-aircraft gunnery, starting with standard pieces on new mountings, and evolving to specially designed guns with much higher performance prior to World War II.

1217:, manned by artillery, was used in the vicinity of naval ports and made use of the naval ammunition supply. The 4.5-inch at Singapore had the first success in shooting down Japanese bombers. Mid war 365:

Area air defence, typically "belts" of air defence to provide a barrier, but sometimes an umbrella covering an area. Areas can vary widely in size. They may extend along a nation's border, e.g. the

3957: 1980:

Unlike the heavier guns, these smaller weapons are in widespread use due to their low cost and ability to quickly follow the target. Classic examples of autocannons and large calibre guns are the

1403:

would prove, as did the eighty-eight, to make an excellent anti-tank gun as well, and was widely used late in the war in this role. Also available to the Americans at the start of the war was the

2005:. Land-based SAMs can be deployed from fixed installations or mobile launchers, either wheeled or tracked. The tracked vehicles are usually armoured vehicles specifically designed to carry SAMs. 637:

By 1913 only France and Germany had developed field guns suitable for engaging balloons and aircraft and addressed issues of military organisation. Britain's Royal Navy would soon introduce the

300:

described below). Improvements were made to sensors, technical fire control, weapons, and command and control. At the start of the 20th century these were either very primitive or non-existent.

1628:

Some nations started rocket research before World War II, including for anti-aircraft use. Further research started during the war. The first step was unguided missile systems like the British

625:

also examined, both impact and time types. Mountings were generally pedestal type but could be on field platforms. Trials were underway in most countries in Europe but only Krupp, Erhardt,

307:

in the 1980s. Command and control remained primitive until the late 1930s, when Britain created an integrated system for ADGB that linked the ground-based air defence of the British Army's

974:

appeared, soon followed by the 39; this was designed primarily for static sites but had a mobile mounting, and the unit had 220 V 24 kW generators. In 1938 design started on the

1789:

to mature into viable weapons. The US started an upgrade of their defences using the Nike Ajax missile, and soon the larger anti-aircraft guns disappeared. The same thing occurred in the

1495:, and other auxiliary vessels, and were used as a secondary dual-purpose battery on some other types of ships, including some older battleships. They also replaced the original low-angle 594: 454:

In Britain and some other armies, the single artillery branch has been responsible for both home and overseas ground-based air defence, although there was divided responsibility with the

1361:

smaller-calibre air-defence weapons of the American forces were also quite capable. Their needs could cogently be met with smaller-calibre ordnance beyond using the usual singly-mounted

997:

While HAA and its associated target acquisition and fire control was the primary focus of AA efforts, low-level close-range targets remained and by the mid-1930s were becoming an issue.

1671:('waterfall') rocket. Owing to the severe war situation for Germany all of those systems were only produced in small numbers and most of them were only used by training or trial units. 981:

Britain had successfully tested a new 3.6-inch gun, in 1918. In 1928 a 3.7-inch (94 mm) gun became the preferred solution, but it took six years to gain funding. Production of the

486:

was disbanded in March 1955, but during the 1960s and 1970s the RAF's Fighter Command operated long-range air-defence missiles to protect key areas in the UK. During World War II, the

5139: 1268:

to point themselves at high speeds. Operators simply fed the guns and selected the targets. This system, modern even by today's standards, was in late development when the war ended.

985:

began in 1937; this gun was used on mobile carriages with the field army and transportable guns on fixed mountings for static positions. At the same time the Royal Navy adopted a new

914:

Centralised control of fire on each gun position, directed by tachymetric instruments incorporating the facility to apply corrections of the moment for meteorological and wear factors

303:

Initially sensors were optical and acoustic devices developed during World War I and continued into the 1930s, but were quickly superseded by radar, which in turn was supplemented by

490:

also provided air defence units; formally part of the mobile naval base defence organisation, they were handled as an integral part of the army-commanded ground based air defences.

451:. Many other nations also deploy an air-defence branch in the army. Some, such as Japan or Israel, choose to integrate their ground based air defence systems into their air force. 418:

While navies are usually responsible for their own air defence—at least for ships at sea—organisational arrangements for land-based air defence vary between nations and over time.

3339: 2192:, which is smaller, faster, and allows for mid-flight course correction (guidance) to ensure a hit. To bridge the gap between guns and missiles, Russia in particular produces the 5089: 5024: 4987: 4895: 4634:

History of the Ministry of Munitions. 1922. Volume X The Supply of Munitions, Part VI Anti-Aircraft Supplies. Reprinted by Naval & Military Press Ltd and Imperial War Museum.

1081:- was introduced first to deal with low-level or dive bombing attacks on smaller targets such as airfields. The three-inch was in development at the end of the inter-war period. 85:

Most modern anti-aircraft (AA) weapons systems are optimized for short-, medium-, or long-range air defence, although some systems may incorporate multiple weapons (such as both

1601:

and other tidal areas upon which they based guns. After the war most were left to rot. Some were outside territorial waters, and had a second life in the 1960s as platforms for

5124: 5094: 5044: 4991: 4010: 2627:

On a national level the United States Army was atypical in that it was primarily responsible for the missile air defences of the Continental United States with systems such as

5005: 5159: 5144: 5134: 5104: 5059: 1977:

and 40 mm calibre have been widely used in this role. Smaller weapons, typically .50 calibre or even 8 mm rifle calibre guns have been used in the smallest mounts.

5149: 5074: 5054: 5034: 1475:, and were subsequently mounted on many types of ships as the need for anti-aircraft protection was recognized. During World War II, they were the primary gun armament on 2087:

to provide tactical and operational warning and direction, primarily during defensive operations. In their functional roles they provide target search, threat detection,

5154: 5129: 5084: 5069: 3926: 1177:

Poland's AA defences were no match for the German attack, and the situation was similar in other European countries. Significant AAW (Anti-Air Warfare) started with the

4382: 5114: 4822: 2072:. Invariably the type is differentiated from other fighter aircraft designs by higher speeds and shorter operating ranges, as well as much reduced ordnance payloads. 3983: 4105: 1922: 1224: 740:(RGA) was given responsibility for AA defence in the field, using motorised two-gun sections. The first were formally formed in November 1914. Initially they used 5308: 5205: 5099: 3391: 2293:; if true, this would represent the first known time a vehicle mounted combat laser was used to destroy another combat vehicle during genuine wartime conditions. 1654: 1066: 1062: 1039:

realised that there was still a coverage gap between 3.7 cm and 8.8 cm guns. They started development of a 5 cm gun on a four-wheel carriage.

768:

was issued in 1915. It remained in service throughout the war but 18-pdr guns were lined down to take the 13-pdr shell with a larger cartridge producing the

208:(AAAD) is used for air defence by nonspecialist troops. Other terms from the late 20th century include "ground based air defence" (GBAD) with related terms " 2453:

aircraft are significant threats. The subsurface launched anti-air missile was first purposed by US Navy Rear Admiral Charles B. Momsen, in a 1953 article.

2188:

for last ditch anti-missile and anti-aircraft defence. Even this formerly front-line weapon is currently being replaced by new missile systems, such as the

5629: 684: 1252:, the gun proved to be one of the best anti-aircraft guns in the world, as well as particularly deadly against light, medium, and even early heavy tanks. 4930: 3949: 2064:

were built in the period starting after the end of World War II and ending in the late 1960s, when they became less important due to the shifting of the

1781:. In Europe NATO's Allied Command Europe developed an integrated air defence system, NATO Air Defence Ground Environment (NADGE), that later became the 3361: 5240: 5210: 4812: 4420: 1030: 1025:, it was adopted by some 17 different nations just before World War II and is still in use today in some applications such as on coastguard frigates. 820:

angles and height lines overlaid with fuse length curves, using the height reported by the HRF operator, the necessary fuse length could be read off.

656:

in 1911 to meet the perceived threat of airships, that eventually was used as the basis for the US Navy's first operational anti-aircraft cannon: the

2419:

are especially well defended, as not only do they typically consist of many vessels with heavy air defence armament but they are also able to launch

1244:, but the specifications were later amended to require much higher performance. In response Krupp's engineers presented a new 88 mm design, the 4837: 4960: 4192: 1890:

province, after it had attacked an Iranian target in Syria. In 2006, Israel also lost a helicopter over Lebanon, shot down by a Hezbollah rocket.

1264:, which calculated the aim point for the guns after considering windage and ballistics, and then sent electrical commands to the guns, which used 1065:, which appears to have been copied from the Bofors 40 mm. A Bofors 25 mm, essentially a scaled down 40 mm, was also copied as the 4631:

Handbook for the Ordnance, Q.F. 3.7-inch Mark II on Mounting, 3.7-inch A.A. Mark II – Land Service. 1940. London: War Office 26|Manuals|2494

4069: 1347:

A plethora of anti-aircraft gun systems of smaller calibre was available to the German Wehrmacht combined forces, and among them the 1940-origin

5064: 4169: 807:

The British dealt with range measurement first, when it was realised that range was the key to producing a better fuse setting. This led to the

432:

the Strategic Air defence Service responsible for Air Defence of the Homeland, created in 1941 and becoming an independent service in 1954, and

5079: 2735: 2545: 2435: 2017:

before being engaged. The developments in the latest and relatively cheap short-range missiles have begun to replace autocannons in this role.

1142: 398:

to illuminate aircraft at night for both gun-layers and optical instrument operators. During World War II searchlights became radar controlled.

41: 1969:) to explode close to the airborne target, releasing a shower of fast metal fragments. For shorter-range work, a lighter weapon with a higher 5164: 4890: 389:

to deter and threaten aircraft flying below the height of the balloons, where they are susceptible to damaging collisions with steel tethers.

54:

and it includes "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action". It includes surface based, subsurface (

5119: 776:

The first issue was ammunition. Before the war it was recognised that ammunition needed to explode in the air. Both high explosive (HE) and

4797: 4541:

Checkland, Peter and Holwell, Sue. 1998. "Information, Systems and Information Systems – making sense of the field". Chichester: Wiley

3746: 2130: 1207: 5039: 897:

during the war and accumulated large amounts of data that was subjected to extensive analysis. As a result, they published the two-volume

314:

Rules of engagement are critical to prevent air defences engaging friendly or neutral aircraft. Their use is assisted but not governed by

5225: 5029: 4243: 5265: 5255: 5109: 4139: 3331: 2941: 2855:

capabilities and the ability to shoot down anti-radiation missiles and other munitions aimed at them or the targets they are defending.

2231: 448: 4950: 4817: 4670:

1914 1918 war in Alsace – The Battle of Linge 1915 – The 63rd Anti Aircraft Regiment in 14 18 – The 96th poste semi-fixed in the Vosges

3005: 2900:

is to attempt to destroy them on the ground, either by penetrating an airbase perimeter and destroying aircraft individually, e.g. the

1425:

Mated with the Mark 37 director and the proximity fuse it could routinely knock drones out of the sky at ranges as far as 13,000 yards.

1214: 986: 5220: 4955: 2946: 2483: 2359: 2025: 1782: 1698:

balloons were limited in application, and had minimal success at bringing down aircraft, being largely immobile and passive defences.

894: 263:: Противовозду́шная оборо́на), a literal translation of 'anti-air defence', abbreviated as PVO. In Russian, the AA systems are called 4006: 2400:

Smaller boats and ships typically have machine-guns or fast cannons, which can often be deadly to low-flying aircraft if linked to a

1368:

machine gun atop a tank's turret, as four of the ground-used "heavy barrel" (M2HB) guns were mounted together on the American Maxson

4865: 4715: 4675: 4622: 4603: 4581: 4571: 4554: 4347: 4218: 3264: 3151: 2852: 2835: 2761: 2571: 1164: 613: 5298: 5230: 3259:

Essential Militaria: Facts, Legends, and Curiosities About Warfare Through the Ages, Nicholas Hobbs, Atlantic Monthly Press 2004,

2144:

at close range, and for smaller drones, training eagles to snatch them from the air. This only works on relatively small UAVs and

1221:

started being emplaced in some permanent sites around London. This gun was also deployed in dual-role coast defence/AA positions.

5303: 5235: 4741: 4313: 4036: 3809: 2901: 2609: 2502:, with a range of up to 30 nmi. Finally, virtually every modern warship will be fitted with small-calibre guns, including a 2189: 1911: 1581:, on which they placed anti-aircraft artillery. Those in cities attacked by the Allied land forces became fortresses. Several in 5288: 4920: 3835: 2134: 5622: 4915: 4855: 4827: 4802: 4792: 2904:, or finding a position where aircraft can be engaged with indirect fire, such as mortars. A recent trend emerging during the 2585: 2155: 1812: 1381: 1194: 1022: 213: 5283: 4860: 3922: 2461: 82:

is an extension of air defence, as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight.

5745: 5460: 5215: 4997: 4925: 4875: 4276: 3247: 2739: 2549: 1809: 1146: 4870: 3044: 1997:, though no working system was deployed before the war's end, and represented new attempts to increase effectiveness of the 1422:

rounded out the US Navy's AA suite. A dual purpose mount, it was used in both the surface and AA roles with great success.

1357:-based anti-aircraft weapon system was one of the most often-seen weapons, seeing service on both land and sea. The similar 1077:" as they were called, could be used for anti-aircraft barrages. A two-inch rocket using HE or wire obstacle warheads - the 5200: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4885: 4880: 2013:, then tracked before/while a SAM is "locked-on" and then fired. Potential targets, if they are military aircraft, will be 1550: 727:

The British recognised the need for anti-aircraft capability a few weeks before World War I broke out; on 8 July 1914, the

447:

that provides ground-based air defence for both homeland and the army in the field; however, it is operationally under the

5250: 4910: 4905: 4900: 4847: 3979: 3030: 2936: 2323:

Most Western and Commonwealth militaries integrate air defence purely with the traditional services of the military (i.e.

1636:, and were also fitted to warships. The firing of one of these devices during an air raid is suspected to have caused the 733: 5293: 4095: 3876: 539: 58:), and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements, and passive measures (e.g. 5465: 5245: 5016: 4807: 4478: 2788: 2774: 2014: 1805: 1348: 990:

giving 43 seconds was nearing readiness. In 1939 a machine fuse setter was introduced to eliminate manual fuse setting.

444: 428:, and had both fighter aircraft, separate from the air force, and ground-based systems. This was divided into two arms, 315: 160: 3387: 1428: 4764: 2644: 2318: 1637: 1621: 1301: 835:" from the shells in flight. This gun had five barrels that quickly launched a series of 37 mm artillery shells. 2724: 2534: 287:

approaching target at 400 mph can be engaged for 20 seconds before the gun reaches 70 degrees elevation".

788:

German air attacks on the British Isles increased in 1915 and the AA efforts were deemed somewhat ineffective, so a

564: 5750: 5615: 5578: 5470: 5190: 5185: 4978: 4663: 2878: 2847: 2269: 2029: 1693:

to act as physical obstacle initially to bomber aircraft over cities and later for ground attack aircraft over the

765: 436:

Air Defence of the Ground Forces. Subsequently, these became part of the air force and ground forces respectively.

28: 2743: 2728: 2553: 2538: 1135: 1042:

After World War I the US Army started developing a dual-role (AA/ground) automatic 37 mm cannon, designed by

478:'s operating bases in the UK. All ground-based air defence was removed from Royal Air Force (RAF) jurisdiction in 2874: 2348: 2301: 2284: 2197: 2080: 1512:

to provide better anti-aircraft protection. The gun was also used on specialist destroyer conversions; the "AVD"

424: 184:

used by the British for voice transmission of "AA"); and "archie" (a World War I British term probably coined by

5195: 405:

created by large smoke canisters on the ground to screen targets and prevent accurate weapon aiming by aircraft.

5755: 5505: 5328: 4759: 4754: 2843: 1824:

mounted on armoured cars and tank chassis. These started replacing, or at least supplanting, similar gun-based

1213:

While the 3.7-inch was the main HAA gun in fixed defences and the only mobile HAA gun with the field army, the

934: 737: 642: 517: 24: 579: 470:

was formed to protect airfields everywhere, and this included light air defences. In the later decades of the

1848:

missile system was the primary GBAD system, used by both British artillery and RAF regiment, a few brand-new

4779: 4749: 4427: 3365: 2680: 2474: 2434:

in the defence of its Home islands, and the United States also uses its Aegis-equipped ships as part of its

2290: 2126: 2116: 2061: 1985: 1610: 1506: 1362: 1229: 816: 475: 209: 90: 5418: 4645:

I templi incompiuti di Hitler", catalogo della mostra omonima, Milano, Spazio Guicciardini, 17.2-13.3.2009

2839: 2503: 2491: 2450: 2408: 2378: 2276: 1939: 1876: 1816: 1602: 1500: 1444: 1392: 1358: 1218: 1006: 844: 229: 217: 109: 1286: 5353: 5348: 4769: 4708: 2897: 2676: 2639: 1981: 1525: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1419: 1002: 502:

was part of ADGB. At its peak in 1941–42 it comprised three AA corps with 12 AA divisions between them.

499: 483: 308: 225: 20: 1312: 4059: 1701:

The Allies' most advanced technologies were showcased by the anti-aircraft defence against the German

1496: 958:

put into use in 1940 was capable of providing data suitable for controlling AA guns, and the British

657: 4787: 4497: 4452: 4161: 2877:(RPGs) can be—and often are—used against hovering helicopters (e.g., by Somali militiamen during the 2416: 2356: 2227: 1710: 1517: 1074: 1035: 966: 950: 741: 720:

in 1912. This was the first occasion in military history that a military aircraft was shot down with

653: 646: 2261:, which is claimed to be able to detect a target with a 0.05-square metre RCS from 90 km away. 1271: 917:

More accurate sound-location for the direction of searchlights and to provide plots for barrage fire

866: 381:

Air defence has included other elements, although after the Second World War most fell into disuse:

5398: 4683: 2412: 2405: 2235: 2223: 2084: 1962: 1464: 1190: 848: 769: 751: 736:(RNVR) was manning AA guns and searchlights assembled from various sources at some nine ports. The 676: 531: 530:

The earliest known use of weapons specifically made for the anti-aircraft role occurred during the

392:

Cables strung across valleys, sometimes forming a "curtain" with vertical cables hanging from them.

2430:

Nations such as Japan use their SAM-equipped vessels to create an outer air defence perimeter and

1898: 167:

command in 1925. However, arrangements in the UK were also called "anti-aircraft", abbreviated as

5403: 5363: 5333: 4732: 2885: 2660: 2442: 2215: 2152:

can be (and frequently are) shot down like manned aircraft of similar sizes and flight profiles.

2145: 2053: 2033: 1954: 1930: 1869: 1853: 1488: 1414: 1333: 1256: 1185:

provided the backbone of the ground-based AA defences, although initially significant numbers of

1182: 1010: 982: 859: 543: 440: 189: 117: 3738: 1836:, the Argentine armed forces deployed the newest west European weapons including the 35 mm 889:

Demobilisation meant that most AA guns were taken out of service, leaving only the most modern.

4563:

Gander, T 2014. "The Bofors gun", 3rd edn. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Military.

2370: 2020: 1773:

reduced capability to shoot down jet powered aircraft, and turned to SAM development, with the

1674: 949:

to be generally halted, although equipment was retained. Furthermore, in Britain the volunteer

5638: 5480: 5455: 5450: 5383: 5358: 4983: 4618: 4599: 4577: 4567: 4550: 4343: 4250: 4100: 3639: 3313: 3260: 3243: 3157: 3147: 3101: 2889: 2811: 2487: 2424: 2164: 2065: 1958: 1903: 1861: 1694: 1468: 1455: 1249: 1178: 955: 946: 854: 630: 604: 524: 359:

Accompanying defence, specialist air defence elements accompanying armoured or infantry units.

181: 4395: 4364: 4127: 5596: 5535: 5500: 5490: 5423: 5378: 5373: 5338: 4832: 4701: 3002: 2905: 2867: 2819: 2617: 2208: 2096: 2088: 2057: 2041: 1865: 1845: 1841: 1682: 1586: 1567: 1531: 1528:

conversions received three guns, and those retaining destroyer classification received six.

1484: 1476: 1186: 1099: 942: 930: 812: 797: 717: 638: 386: 319: 75: 2490:. If an attacker is able to penetrate this layer, then the next layers would come from the 2300:. Currently tests are underway on developing systems that could create as much damage as a 1665:. Guided systems were several sophisticated radio, wire, or radar guided missiles like the 5714: 5694: 5689: 5649: 5520: 5388: 4970: 4595: 3388:"Radoje Raka Ljutovac – first person in the world to shoot down an airplane with a cannon" 3009: 2824: 2688: 2605: 2495: 2466: 2336: 2254: 2177: 2100: 2045: 1926: 1774: 1733: 1702: 1690: 1513: 1236:

Germany's high-altitude needs were originally going to be filled by a 75 mm gun from

975: 971: 945:; these developments were sufficiently advanced by the late 1930s for development work on 926: 712: 535: 362:

Point defence around a key target, such as a bridge, critical government building or ship.

304: 221: 164: 79: 59: 2510:

of between 20 mm and 30 mm calibre capable of firing several thousand rounds per minute.

1189:

were also used. The Army's Anti-aircraft command, which was under operational command of

2866:

supplied by the United States were used against the aircraft of the Soviet Union by the

2196:, which uses both guns and missiles for final defence with two six-barrelled 30 mm 5724: 5540: 5495: 5485: 5445: 4538:

Bethel, Colonel HA. 1911. "Modern Artillery in the Field". London: Macmillan and Co Ltd

2921: 2863: 2800: 2648: 2593: 2389: 2219: 2218:

grows, so does anti-stealth technology. Multiple transmitter radars such as those from

2092: 1966: 1849: 1794: 1769: 1725: 1715: 1598: 1590: 1480: 1317: 959: 925:

In 1925 the British adopted a new instrument developed by Vickers. It was a mechanical

843:

based weapons mounted on poles. These short-range weapons proved more deadly, and the "

777: 709: 51: 4566:

Hogg, Ian V. 1998. "Allied Artillery of World War Two". Malborough: The Crowood Press

4032: 3805: 2009:

many armed forces. Targets for non-ManPAD SAMs will usually be acquired by air-search

1973:

is required, to increase a hit probability on a fast airborne target. Weapons between

1744: 1387: 668: 5739: 5573: 5563: 5510: 5433: 5413: 5275: 4576:

Hogg, Ian V. 1998. "Allied Artillery of World War One" Malborough: The Crowood Press

4064: 3831: 3229: 2926: 2684: 2672: 2613: 2601: 2344: 2287: 2273: 2181: 2149: 2104: 1998: 1974: 1887: 1833: 1729: 1645: 1555: 1404: 1369: 1043: 832: 808: 721: 498:

military structure. For example, the UK's Anti-Aircraft Command, commanded by a full

487: 373: 113: 1872:

short range systems. Machine guns in AA mountings were used both ashore and afloat.

1764:

considerably altered the acceptability of even a single bomber reaching its target.

558:— on top of a horse-drawn carriage for the purpose of shooting down these balloons. 5709: 5669: 5568: 5515: 5475: 5428: 2628: 2499: 2431: 2340: 2193: 1990: 1970: 1915: 1837: 1790: 1761: 1658: 1649: 1540: 1400: 1091: 1047: 1017: 761: 701: 467: 463: 402: 197: 185: 101: 97: 4493: 4287: 4217:

Smith, Saphora; Kube, Courtney; Gubash, Charlene; Gains, Mosheh (21 August 2019).

3012:

OED Online. September 2013. Oxford University Press. (accessed 14 September 2013).

4615:

History of the Royal regiment of Artillery – Anti-Aircraft Artillery 1914–55

3048: 2671:

Area air defence, the air defence of a specific area or location, (as opposed to

1938:

opportunities, and critical systems may be armoured in aircraft designed for the

688:

A French anti-aircraft motor battery (motorized AAA battery) that brought down a

5719: 5679: 5674: 5408: 5393: 4587: 2815: 2796: 2713: 2656: 2523: 2507: 2446: 2420: 2393: 2258: 2226:

are said to have the capabilities to detect stealth aircraft. Advanced forms of

2185: 1749: 1606: 1124: 840: 828: 793: 764:

adopted the 13-pounder quickly producing new mountings suitable for AA use, the

459: 395: 369: 172: 86: 3022: 2498:, with a range of up to 100 nmi, and the point-defence missiles, like the 2234:

would be able to optically see a stealth aircraft regardless of the aircraft's

1800: 1293: 523:

Turks carried out the first ever anti-airplane operation in history during the

74:

in any location. However, for most countries, the main effort has tended to be

4657: 3866: 2931: 2779: 2160: 1994: 1943: 1721: 1667: 1578: 1562: 1536: 1377: 1354: 1339: 1329: 1203: 789: 755:

A Maxim anti-aircraft machine gun in the anti-aircraft museum in Finland, 2006

705: 520:

to be disbanded mid-war. The Confederates experimented with balloons as well.

455: 193: 1343:

US coast guardsmen in the South Pacific man a 20 mm anti-aircraft cannon

905:

Shells of improved ballistic shape with HE fillings and mechanical time fuses

344:: weapons may only be fired in self-defence or in response to a formal order. 5654: 5368: 3219:

Spring 2007 issue of the American Association of Aviation Historians Journal

3161: 2597: 2332: 2242: 2176:

Guns are being increasingly pushed into specialist roles, such as the Dutch

2044:

designed specifically to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft, particularly

1947: 1907: 1629: 1594: 1521: 1492: 1467:

guns (Marks 10, 17, 18, and 20) first entered service in 1915 as a refit to

1399:

AAA battalions were also used to help suppress ground targets. Their larger

1265: 1245: 1078: 881: 745: 71: 55: 2083:

waves to identify the range, altitude, direction, or speed of aircraft and

542:

and French troops outside the city started an attempt at communication via

332:: weapons may be fired at any target not positively recognised as friendly. 36: 2449:, are equipped with surface-to-air missile systems, since helicopters and 1016:

The 40 mm Bofors had become available in 1931. In the late 1920s the

5174: 3141: 2692: 2621: 2600:

at smaller force levels up to army-level missile defence systems such as

2494:

carried by the carrier's escorts; the area-defence missiles, such as the

2280: 2279:(DEW) system is a Turkish dual electromagnetic/laser weapon developed by 2246: 2207:

Upsetting this development to all-missile systems is the current move to

2049: 1857: 1644:

attacks the British and US developed surface-to-air rockets like British

1641: 1451: 782: 689: 471: 366: 260: 40:

Artist's rendition of short and long range AA systems used by the Dutch

5699: 5684: 5558: 5530: 5525: 5440: 4509: 3871: 2470: 2305: 2297: 2239: 2141: 1753: 1662: 1365: 1149: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 626: 220:, ("SAMs") and surface-to-air guided weapons (SAGWs). Examples are the 4677:

Archie to SAM: A Short Operational History of Ground-Based Air Defense

4007:"Pilot of downed F-16 jet regains consciousness, taken off respirator" 1808:

fireteam practices using a rocket target with a training variant of a

1616: 962:, was designed to be used on AA gun positions and was in use by 1939. 901:

in 1924–1925. It included five key recommendations for HAA equipment:

116:

or, in very modern systems, surface-to-air adaptations of short-range

4724: 2589: 2375: 2343:

for instance, air defence is part of the artillery arm, while in the

2002: 1886:

In February 2018, an Israeli F-16 fighter was downed in the occupied

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existing ones, although various new designs were on drawing boards.

652:

The first US anti-aircraft cannon was a 1-pounder concept design by

4383:"What it takes to successfully attack an American Aircraft carrier" 3728:

Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 1642

3719:

Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 1617

2782:

can engage targets while moving, thus achieving high survivability.

2140:

Alternative approaches for dealing with UAVs have included using a

4688: 3710:

Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 271

3698:

Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 266

3689:

Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 242

2810: 2792: 2773: 2638: 2460: 2401: 2383: 2369: 2265: 2250: 2201: 2154: 2076: 2019: 2010: 1957:

fired by these weapons are usually fitted with different types of

1921: 1897: 1825: 1799: 1743: 1673: 1624:

bomber emerges from a cloud of flak with its No. 2 engine smoking.

1615: 1585:

were some of the last buildings to fall to the Soviets during the

1549: 1530: 1427: 1386: 1338: 1311: 1298: 1292: 1276: 1270: 1261: 1237: 1223: 1199: 1193:

within Air Defence GB, grew to 12 AA divisions in three AA corps.

865: 853: 750: 683: 675: 667: 547: 63: 35: 2396:, which can be fired from submerged anti-aircraft weapon systems 1879:

air power faced off against powerful SAM systems, like the 1980s

1001:

2 lb HE shell. The following year they decided to adopt the

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Israel and the US Air Force, in conjunction with the members of

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surface-to-air missiles provide for its defensive capabilities.

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Self-defence by ground forces using their organic weapons, AAAD.

325:

NATO calls these rules "weapon control orders" (WCO), they are:

171:, a term that remained in general use into the 1950s. After the 67: 5611: 4697: 1929:

CS/AA3 35 mm twin anti-aircraft gun system along with its FW-2

970:

but ballistic performance was unchanged. In the late 1930s the

3980:"Israeli jet crashes after attacking Iranian targets in Syria" 2707: 2517: 2040:

The interceptor aircraft (or simply interceptor) is a type of

1933:

system behind. CS/AA3 is a Chinese variant of the Oerlikon GDF

1852:

were used by British special forces. Both sides also used the

1728:. Incoming targets were acquired and automatically tracked by 1118: 2873:

during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan in the Cold War.

2264:

Another potential weapon system for anti-aircraft use is the

1098:

The United States was still emerging from the effects of the

338:: weapons may be fired only at targets recognised as hostile. 4532:

The Red God of War – Soviet Artillery and Rocket Forces

2272:

can be used in the anti-aircraft and anti-missile role. The

3950:"Israeli jet shot down after bombing Iranian site in Syria" 2888:

in March 2002 in Afghanistan. Taliban insurgents defending

2296:

The future of projectile based weapons may be found in the

1240:, designed in collaboration with their Swedish counterpart 4693: 4033:"Syria shoots down Israeli warplane as conflict escalates" 3501: 3499: 2584:

Armies typically have air defence in depth, from integral

2117:

Unmanned aerial vehicle § Counter unmanned air system

318:(IFF) electronic devices originally introduced during the 96:

In some countries, such as Britain and Germany during the

4219:"U.S. military drone shot down over Yemen, officials say" 3923:"Israeli F-16 jet shot down by Syria fire, says military" 3898:

Cruise Missile Defence: Defending Antwerp against the V-1

3295: 3293: 2148:(also called "suicide drones"). Larger UCAVs such as the 1946:, originally intended for air-to-ground use, and heavier 1910:. The Gepard is an autonomous all-weather-capable German 1661:(literally "aircraft fist") rocket launcher as the first 847:" is believed to have been shot down by an anti-aircraft 4314:"Did A Turkish Combat Laser Shoot Down A Chinese Drone?" 2355:

also had a separate strategic rocket force in charge of

2036:(formerly Petrograd, now called St. Petersburg) in 1941. 4684:

Japanese Anti-aircraft land/vessel doctrines in 1943–44

4668: 2679:

in the British Army, for instance) and Air Forces (the

2052:

capabilities. A number of jet interceptors such as the

1993:

during the late World War II with missiles such as the

1689:

Another aspect of anti-aircraft defence was the use of

1565:, some more than six stories high, which were known as 216:(MANPADS). Anti-aircraft missiles are variously called 4096:"What's Really the Best the Way to Take Down a Drone?" 2304:, but at a fraction of the cost. In February 2008 the 2238:(RCS). In addition, side-looking radars, high-powered 352:

Ground-based air defence is deployed in several ways:

4128:"AUDS Counter UAV System by Blighter spoted [ 3948:

Lubell, Maayan; Barrington, Lisa (10 February 2018).

2884:

Another example of using RPGs against helicopters is

235:

Non-English terms for air defence include the German

120:, often combined in one system with rotary cannons). 3777:

Bulletin of Ordnance Information, No.245, pp. 54–60.

2695:, where the objective was to cover populated areas. 2616:

or all-in-one surface-to-air missile platforms like

858:

The No. 1 Mark III Predictor that was used with the

781:

British pom-poms had only contact-fused ammunition.

550:

mounted a modified 1-pounder (37 mm) gun – the

5551: 5321: 5274: 5173: 5015: 4969: 4846: 4778: 4740: 4731: 4680:

by Kenneth P. Werrell (book available for download)

3143:

Heavy water and the wartime race for nuclear energy

3047:. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Archived from 2675:), have historically been operated by both armies ( 2655:Air defence by air forces is typically provided by 2028:anti-aircraft guns deployed in the neighborhood of 1732:,. Output from the gun-laying radar was fed to the 680:

A Canadian anti-aircraft unit of 1918 "taking post"

3806:"USA 1.1"/75 (28 mm) Mark 1 and Mark 2 - NavWeaps" 1632:and 3-inch, which was fired in large numbers from 1589:in 1945. The British built structures such as the 1561:The Germans developed massive reinforced-concrete 19:Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see 4193:"Air Force: Lost Predator was shot down in Syria" 2438:in the defence of the Continental United States. 2427:overhead to intercept incoming airborne threats. 3867:"Le Grand Veneur Keerbergen operation Antwerp X" 3027:Air of Authority – A History of RAF Organisation 2125:(AUDS) is a system for defence against military 4689:2nd/3rd Australian Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment 4340:The Modern Weaponry of the World's Armed Forces 3640:"Uncle Sam's Latest Weapons For War in the Air" 3332:"How was the first military airplane shot down" 3102:"Huge Ear Locates Planes and Tells Their Speed" 911:Height finding by long-base optical instruments 3925:. aljazeera.com. Aljazeera. 10 February 2018. 3912:, R.J. Backus, LTC, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 1971 3910:The Defense of Antwerp Against the V-1 Missile 2612:(SPAAGs), integrated air-defence systems like 1013:was officially known, was introduced with it. 870:Shooting with anti-aircraft gun in Sweden 1934 700:On the 30th of September, 1915, troops of the 672:1909 vintage Krupp 9-pounder anti-aircraft gun 5623: 4709: 3706: 3704: 3685: 3683: 1605:stations, while another became the base of a 1376:), which were often mounted on the back of a 619:20 mm Becker-Oerlikon Model 1917 AA-gun 271:') systems. In French, air defence is called 8: 3982:. france24.com. France24. 10 February 2018. 3856:Silverstone 1968 pp. 112, 212, 215, 276, 303 2896:For insurgents the most effective method of 1332:, in the form of a mechanical computer, the 4639:I bunker di Vienna", Abitare 2/2006, Milano 4453:"Investigation Confirms RPG Downed Chinook" 2742:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2552:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 908:Higher rates of fire assisted by automation 247:, 'aircraft defence cannon', also cited as 5630: 5616: 5608: 4737: 4716: 4702: 4694: 4089: 4087: 4009:. timesofisrael.com. The times of Israel. 2807:Air defence versus air defence suppression 704:observed three enemy aircraft approaching 3674: 3529: 3517: 3505: 3490: 3469: 3457: 3445: 3424: 3412: 3299: 3284: 3207: 3127: 2834:, have developed significant tactics for 2762:Learn how and when to remove this message 2572:Learn how and when to remove this message 1516:conversions received two guns; the "APD" 1232:flak gun in action against Allied bombers 1165:Learn how and when to remove this message 649:that could be used in various mountings. 647:Vickers 1-pounder quick firing "pom-poms" 4365:"Will the New Submarines Rule the Seas?" 4162:"Blighter® AUDS Anti-UAV Defence System" 3832:"USA 5"/38 (12.7 cm) Mark 12 - NavWeaps" 458:for air defence of the British Isles in 4035:. bbc.com. BBC News. 10 February 2018. 3749:from the original on 17 September 2018. 3186: 3174: 3069: 2989: 2987: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2962: 1856:. British naval missiles used included 1640:in 1943. Facing the threat of Japanese 560: 159:was probably first used by the UK when 4547:Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns & Gunnery 3838:from the original on 28 September 2017 3812:from the original on 30 September 2018 2506:, which is usually a radar-controlled 2436:Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System 1906:in motion at the 2015 Military Day in 1819:, Alaska, as part of Red Flag – Alaska 200:'s line "Archibald, certainly not!"). 42:Joint Ground-based Air Defence Command 16:Measures to combat enemy aerial forces 4338:Col. Y Udaya Chandar (Retd.) (2017). 4072:from the original on 14 December 2016 4060:"Lasers Technology Targets Mini-UAVs" 4013:from the original on 13 February 2018 3986:from the original on 18 December 2018 3879:from the original on 15 November 2016 2411:for point defence. Some vessels like 1304:hit by flak over Italy, 10 April 1945 1053:The USSR introduced a new 76 mm 941:From the early 1930s eight countries 7: 4479:"ODIN - OE Data Integration Network" 3616: 3604: 3592: 3553: 3541: 3250:, Greenwood Publishing Group, page 9 2799:between the US and Vietnam with the 2740:adding citations to reliable sources 2550:adding citations to reliable sources 2469:surface to air missile intercepts a 2441:Some modern submarines, such as the 2048:, usually relying on high speed and 1752:anti-aircraft missile, fired from a 1260:including both search and targeting 1147:adding citations to reliable sources 4526:AAP-6 NATO Glossary of Terms. 2009. 4371:. Hearst Magazines. pp. 74–78. 3394:from the original on 12 August 2015 3342:from the original on 31 August 2015 3242:James D. Crabtree: On air defense, 2942:Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon 2691:missile batteries during the first 2360:intercontinental ballistic missiles 449:Joint Force Air Component Commander 4312:Peck, Michael (1 September 2019). 4172:from the original on 12 March 2017 4142:from the original on 15 March 2017 4108:from the original on 13 March 2017 3638:Hearst Magazines (December 1931). 3436:The Ministry of Munitions pg 40–41 3312:Hearst Magazines (December 1911). 3146:. Bristol : Institute of Physics. 3100:Hearst Magazines (December 1930). 3033:from the original on 3 March 2009. 2947:The bomber will always get through 1783:NATO Integrated Air Defence System 1372:weapon (as a direct answer to the 895:Anti-Aircraft Experimental Section 14: 4613:Routledge, Brigadier NW. (1994). 4592:German Artillery of World War Two 4191:Everstine, Brian (29 June 2015). 4039:from the original on 6 April 2019 3960:from the original on 3 March 2019 3795:Friedman, 2014 Location 8956-8620 2610:self-propelled anti-aircraft guns 2283:allegedly used to destroy one of 1982:40 mm autocannon from Bofors 1554:A British North Sea World War II 1395:in an anti-aircraft mount in 1941 1248:. First used in Spain during the 899:Textbook of Anti-Aircraft Gunnery 811:(HRF), the first model being the 273:Défense contre les aéronefs (DCA) 188:, and believed to derive via the 5592: 5591: 4643:Flavia Foradini, Edoardo Conte: 4363:Hearst Magazines (August 1953). 4094:Schechter, Erik (5 April 2016). 3929:from the original on 21 May 2019 3646:. Hearst Magazines. p. 944. 3364:. Amanet Society. Archived from 3320:. Hearst Magazines. p. 776. 3108:. Hearst Magazines. p. 895. 2902:September 2012 Camp Bastion raid 2712: 2586:man-portable air-defense systems 2522: 2339:or as part of artillery. In the 2190:RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile 1912:self-propelled anti-aircraft gun 1793:after the introduction of their 1657:. Unguided systems involved the 1123: 612: 593: 578: 563: 4058:Sweetman, Bill (2 April 2015). 3481:The Ministry of Munitions pg 11 3081:le petit Larousse 2013 p20–p306 2230:such as those that incorporate 2001:faced with growing threat from 1382:M16 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage 1134:needs additional citations for 947:sound-locating acoustic devices 214:man-portable air-defense system 4005:Toi Staff (11 February 2018). 2167:are advanced air defence ships 2107:support to combat operations. 1942:. Adaptations of the standard 1705:cruise missiles (V stands for 817:optical coincident rangefinder 1: 4492:Kaaman, Hugo (18 May 2018). 4421:"Operation Anaconda Overview" 3314:"New American Aerial Weapons" 3118:Checkland and Holwell pg. 127 3023:"Air Vice-Marshal A E Borton" 2937:List of anti-aircraft weapons 2912:against landing helicopters. 2789:transporter/erector/launchers 2379:CIWS (close-in weapon system) 734:Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve 692:near Paris. From the journal 62:). It may be used to protect 4385:. Lexington Institute. p. 15 4275:Carlo Kopp (November 2003). 3786:Friedman, 2014 Location 8620 3768:Friedman, 2014 Location 8713 3759:Friedman, 2014 Location 8687 3390:. Pečat. 30 September 2014. 2838:. Dedicated weapons such as 1838:Oerlikon GDF-002 twin cannon 792:gunnery expert, Admiral Sir 744:(37 mm versions of the 554:(Balloon defence cannon) or 445:Air Defense Artillery Branch 316:identification friend or foe 161:Air Defence of Great Britain 5006:National Revolutionary Army 3900:, Lt. Col. John A. Hamilton 2486:aircraft combined with the 2319:Category:Air defence forces 2135:Battle of Mosul (2016–2017) 2015:identified as friend or foe 1986:8.8 cm FlaK 18, 36 gun 1655:guided and unguided systems 1302:Consolidated B-24 Liberator 766:13-pdr QF 6 cwt Mk III 226:Raytheon Standard Missile 6 5772: 4818:War of the Triple Alliance 4396:"Stacked Up Over Anaconda" 3656:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 127–130 3628:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 115–117 3583:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 108–110 3574:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 114–119 2848:electronic countermeasures 2316: 2270:Tactical High Energy Laser 2114: 1275:German soldier manning an 987:4.5-inch (113 mm) gun 862:was a mechanical computer. 439:At the other extreme, the 257:Protivovozdushnaya oborona 29:Anti-Aircraft (video game) 18: 5645: 5587: 4838:Pre-20th century firearms 4545:Friedman, Norman (2014). 4244:"Anti-Stealth Technology" 3565:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 97–107 3008:24 September 2015 at the 2875:Rocket-propelled grenades 2818:under the fuselage ofn a 2245:, and sky-scanning, high- 1679:Flak in the Balkans, 1942 1499:(Mark 9) on "flush-deck" 1279:anti-aircraft gun in WWII 1105:High Angle Control System 1007:twin barrel Vickers 2-pdr 960:Radar, Gun Laying, Mark I 603:on the Prussian corvette 5226:Cambodian–Vietnamese War 5216:South African Border War 4998:Second Sino-Japanese War 2972:A Dictionary of Aviation 2970:Wragg, David W. (1973). 2879:1993 Battle of Mogadishu 2844:electronics intelligence 2184:30 mm seven-barrel 2127:unmanned aerial vehicles 1391:Indian troops manning a 935:stereoscopic rangefinder 738:Royal Garrison Artillery 163:(ADGB) was created as a 25:Ack Ack (disambiguation) 5206:Portuguese Colonial War 4530:Bellamy, Chris (1986). 3739:"The Battle of Britain" 3003:"ack-ack, adj. and n.". 2840:anti-radiation missiles 2836:air defence suppression 2681:United States Air Force 2492:surface-to-air missiles 2409:radar-controlled cannon 2388:Model of the multirole 2200:rotary canon and eight 2123:anti-UAV defence system 1914:system armed with twin 1611:Principality of Sealand 1219:QF 5.25-inch naval guns 1181:in the summer of 1940. 1063:37 mm M1939 (61-K) 1057:in 1937, an 85 mm 742:QF 1-pounder "pom-pom"s 476:United States Air Force 255:, and the Russian term 218:surface-to-air missiles 210:short range air defense 180:), "ack-ack" (from the 110:close-in weapon systems 91:surface-to-air missiles 5574:Civilian gun ownership 3665:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 131 2827: 2783: 2652: 2588:(MANPADS) such as the 2478: 2451:anti-submarine warfare 2397: 2381: 2277:directed-energy weapon 2168: 2037: 1934: 1919: 1877:2008 South Ossetia war 1864:longer range systems, 1820: 1817:Eielson Air Force Base 1815:during an exercise at 1756: 1686: 1638:Bethnal Green disaster 1625: 1558: 1547: 1459: 1396: 1393:Bren light machine gun 1344: 1325: 1305: 1280: 1233: 871: 863: 756: 697: 681: 673: 462:. However, during the 128:It may also be called 112:, which typically use 44: 5746:Anti-aircraft warfare 5251:Nicaraguan Revolution 5201:Araguaia Guerilla War 4770:Early thermal weapons 4617:. London: Brassey's. 4318:The National Interest 3140:Dahl, Per F. (1999). 2974:. Osprey. p. 37. 2814: 2777: 2677:Anti-Aircraft Command 2642: 2464: 2417:Carrier battle groups 2387: 2373: 2228:thermographic cameras 2158: 2023: 1999:anti-aircraft systems 1925: 1901: 1803: 1747: 1677: 1619: 1553: 1534: 1518:high-speed transports 1431: 1390: 1353:quadruple-20 mm- 1342: 1315: 1296: 1274: 1227: 1075:unrotated projectiles 869: 857: 754: 687: 679: 671: 658:3-inch/23 caliber gun 645:AA guns and also had 484:Anti-Aircraft Command 482:. The British Army's 309:Anti-Aircraft Command 48:Anti-aircraft warfare 39: 21:Flak (disambiguation) 5256:Salvadoran Civil War 4823:Spanish–American War 4798:American Indian Wars 4534:. London: Brassey's. 4381:Naval Strike Forum. 4286:: 30. Archived from 4132:] in Mosul Iraq" 3743:raf100schools.org.uk 2736:improve this section 2546:improve this section 2224:low-frequency radars 2030:St Isaac's Cathedral 1143:improve this article 972:10.5 cm FlaK 38 967:Treaty of Versailles 839:were adding various 500:British Army general 279:meaning 'aircraft'. 267:(i.e., 'pointing to 206:all-arms air defence 178:Flugzeugabwehrkanone 5309:Russo-Ukrainian War 5246:Dominican Civil War 5221:Cambodian Civil War 5182:First Indochina War 4284:Australian Aviation 3875:. 25 January 2014. 3336:National Geographic 3230:"Turco-Italian War" 2898:countering aircraft 2661:air-to-air missiles 2457:Layered air defence 2443:Type 212 submarines 2406:fire-control system 2249:, high sensitivity 2236:radar cross-section 2172:Future developments 2146:loitering munitions 1571:'high bunkers' or " 1443:fire directed from 1191:RAF Fighter Command 1183:QF 3.7-inch AA guns 1036:3.7 cm FlaK 18 849:Vickers machine gun 809:height/range finder 770:13-pr QF 9 cwt 534:of 1870. After the 532:Franco-Prussian War 291:General description 245:Fliegerabwehrkanone 146:layered air defence 118:air-to-air missiles 5299:Russo-Georgian War 5241:Lebanese Civil War 5211:Rhodesian Bush War 4828:Mexican Revolution 4813:American Civil War 4803:War of the Pacific 4793:Napoleonic Warfare 4457:Air Force Magazine 4433:on 10 October 2015 4400:Air Force Magazine 4256:on 4 November 2011 3619:, p. 155–156. 3607:, p. 150–152. 3595:, p. 144–147. 3556:, p. 162–177. 3362:"Ljutovac, Radoje" 3210:, p. 396–397. 3198:Beckett 2008, 178. 3090:Hogg WW2 pg 99–100 2922:Air defence forces 2886:Operation Anaconda 2828: 2784: 2653: 2651:air to air missile 2479: 2398: 2382: 2216:stealth technology 2169: 2165:Type 45 destroyers 2133:drones during the 2085:weather formations 2054:F-102 Delta Dagger 2038: 2034:Siege of Leningrad 1940:ground attack role 1935: 1931:fire control radar 1920: 1894:AA warfare systems 1821: 1757: 1687: 1626: 1559: 1548: 1497:4"/50 caliber guns 1460: 1415:United States Navy 1397: 1345: 1334:Kerrison Predictor 1326: 1306: 1281: 1234: 1061:and developed the 1011:Kerrison Predictor 872: 864: 860:QF 3.7-inch AA gun 757: 732:December 1914 the 698: 682: 674: 601:Ballonabwehrkanone 586:Ballonabwehrkanone 571:Ballonabwehrkanone 552:Ballonabwehrkanone 540:Paris was besieged 474:this included the 441:United States Army 251:), whence English 190:Royal Flying Corps 150:air defence forces 114:rotary autocannons 56:submarine launched 50:is the counter to 45: 27:, and 5751:Military aviation 5733: 5732: 5639:Military branches 5605: 5604: 5317: 5316: 5261:Soviet–Afghan War 5236:Laotian Civil War 4984:Spanish Civil War 4637:Flavia Foradini: 4459:. 14 October 2011 4369:Popular Mechanics 4277:"Asia's new SAMs" 4101:Popular Mechanics 3644:Popular Mechanics 3368:on 6 October 2014 3318:Popular Mechanics 3106:Popular Mechanics 2890:Shah-i-Kot Valley 2859:Insurgent tactics 2772: 2771: 2764: 2582: 2581: 2574: 2425:combat air patrol 2180:, which uses the 2111:Anti-UAV defences 2105:weather reporting 2066:strategic bombing 1965:, time-delay, or 1695:Normandy invasion 1526:"DMS" minesweeper 1510:-class destroyers 1485:submarine chasers 1477:destroyer escorts 1456:Battle of Okinawa 1328:The solution was 1250:Spanish Civil War 1195:Bofors 40 mm guns 1179:Battle of Britain 1175: 1174: 1167: 1031:2 cm FlaK 30 1003:Bofors 40 mm 976:12.8 cm FlaK 931:Barr & Stroud 927:analogue computer 815:UB2, a two-metre 813:Barr & Stroud 536:disaster at Sedan 525:Italo-Turkish war 182:spelling alphabet 5763: 5632: 5625: 5618: 5609: 5595: 5594: 5471:Mass destruction 5379:Blunt instrument 5304:Syrian Civil War 4738: 4718: 4711: 4704: 4695: 4660: 4628: 4609: 4560: 4535: 4514: 4513: 4507: 4505: 4489: 4483: 4482: 4475: 4469: 4468: 4466: 4464: 4449: 4443: 4442: 4440: 4438: 4432: 4426:. Archived from 4425: 4417: 4411: 4410: 4408: 4406: 4392: 4386: 4379: 4373: 4372: 4360: 4354: 4353: 4342:. Notion Press. 4335: 4329: 4328: 4326: 4324: 4309: 4303: 4302: 4300: 4298: 4292: 4281: 4272: 4266: 4265: 4263: 4261: 4255: 4249:. Archived from 4248: 4240: 4234: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4214: 4208: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4188: 4182: 4181: 4179: 4177: 4166:www.blighter.com 4158: 4152: 4151: 4149: 4147: 4124: 4118: 4117: 4115: 4113: 4091: 4082: 4081: 4079: 4077: 4055: 4049: 4048: 4046: 4044: 4029: 4023: 4022: 4020: 4018: 4002: 3996: 3995: 3993: 3991: 3976: 3970: 3969: 3967: 3965: 3945: 3939: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3919: 3913: 3907: 3901: 3895: 3889: 3888: 3886: 3884: 3863: 3857: 3854: 3848: 3847: 3845: 3843: 3828: 3822: 3821: 3819: 3817: 3802: 3796: 3793: 3787: 3784: 3778: 3775: 3769: 3766: 3760: 3757: 3751: 3750: 3735: 3729: 3726: 3720: 3717: 3711: 3708: 3699: 3696: 3690: 3687: 3678: 3672: 3666: 3663: 3657: 3654: 3648: 3647: 3635: 3629: 3626: 3620: 3614: 3608: 3602: 3596: 3590: 3584: 3581: 3575: 3572: 3566: 3563: 3557: 3551: 3545: 3539: 3533: 3532:, p. 95-97. 3527: 3521: 3515: 3509: 3503: 3494: 3488: 3482: 3479: 3473: 3472:, p. 14–20. 3467: 3461: 3460:, p. 14–15. 3455: 3449: 3443: 3437: 3434: 3428: 3422: 3416: 3410: 3404: 3403: 3401: 3399: 3384: 3378: 3377: 3375: 3373: 3358: 3352: 3351: 3349: 3347: 3328: 3322: 3321: 3309: 3303: 3297: 3288: 3282: 3276: 3273: 3267: 3257: 3251: 3240: 3234: 3233: 3226: 3220: 3217: 3211: 3205: 3199: 3196: 3190: 3184: 3178: 3172: 3166: 3165: 3137: 3131: 3125: 3119: 3116: 3110: 3109: 3097: 3091: 3088: 3082: 3079: 3073: 3067: 3061: 3060: 3058: 3056: 3041: 3035: 3034: 3019: 3013: 3000: 2994: 2991: 2976: 2975: 2967: 2906:Syrian Civil War 2864:Stinger missiles 2767: 2760: 2756: 2753: 2747: 2716: 2708: 2667:Area air defence 2577: 2570: 2566: 2563: 2557: 2526: 2518: 2313:Force structures 2255:radio telescopes 2209:stealth aircraft 2058:F-106 Delta Dart 2042:fighter aircraft 1854:Blowpipe missile 1719: 1707:Vergeltungswaffe 1691:barrage balloons 1683:Helmuth Ellgaard 1648:or the American 1587:Battle of Berlin 1577: 1408:stratosphere gun 1187:QF 3-inch 20 cwt 1170: 1163: 1159: 1156: 1150: 1127: 1119: 1115:Second World War 1100:Great Depression 1067:25 mm M1939 1044:John M. Browning 827:By the start of 798:QF 3-inch 20 cwt 724:artillery fire. 718:First Balkan War 616: 597: 582: 567: 464:Second World War 387:barrage balloons 320:Second World War 249:Flugabwehrkanone 98:Second World War 76:homeland defence 60:barrage balloons 5771: 5770: 5766: 5765: 5764: 5762: 5761: 5760: 5756:Warfare by type 5736: 5735: 5734: 5729: 5715:Security forces 5695:Military police 5690:Missile defence 5650:Airborne forces 5641: 5636: 5606: 5601: 5583: 5579:Science fiction 5547: 5419:Directed-energy 5313: 5289:Afghanistan War 5270: 5169: 5011: 4971:Interwar period 4965: 4866:Austria-Hungary 4842: 4774: 4727: 4722: 4658: 4654: 4649: 4625: 4612: 4606: 4596:Greenhill Books 4586: 4557: 4544: 4529: 4522: 4517: 4503: 4501: 4491: 4490: 4486: 4477: 4476: 4472: 4462: 4460: 4451: 4450: 4446: 4436: 4434: 4430: 4423: 4419: 4418: 4414: 4404: 4402: 4394: 4393: 4389: 4380: 4376: 4362: 4361: 4357: 4350: 4337: 4336: 4332: 4322: 4320: 4311: 4310: 4306: 4296: 4294: 4293:on 23 July 2006 4290: 4279: 4274: 4273: 4269: 4259: 4257: 4253: 4246: 4242: 4241: 4237: 4227: 4225: 4216: 4215: 4211: 4201: 4199: 4197:Air Force Times 4190: 4189: 4185: 4175: 4173: 4160: 4159: 4155: 4145: 4143: 4126: 4125: 4121: 4111: 4109: 4093: 4092: 4085: 4075: 4073: 4057: 4056: 4052: 4042: 4040: 4031: 4030: 4026: 4016: 4014: 4004: 4003: 3999: 3989: 3987: 3978: 3977: 3973: 3963: 3961: 3956:. reuters.com. 3947: 3946: 3942: 3932: 3930: 3921: 3920: 3916: 3908: 3904: 3896: 3892: 3882: 3880: 3865: 3864: 3860: 3855: 3851: 3841: 3839: 3830: 3829: 3825: 3815: 3813: 3804: 3803: 3799: 3794: 3790: 3785: 3781: 3776: 3772: 3767: 3763: 3758: 3754: 3737: 3736: 3732: 3727: 3723: 3718: 3714: 3709: 3702: 3697: 3693: 3688: 3681: 3673: 3669: 3664: 3660: 3655: 3651: 3637: 3636: 3632: 3627: 3623: 3615: 3611: 3603: 3599: 3591: 3587: 3582: 3578: 3573: 3569: 3564: 3560: 3552: 3548: 3540: 3536: 3528: 3524: 3516: 3512: 3504: 3497: 3489: 3485: 3480: 3476: 3468: 3464: 3456: 3452: 3448:, p. 8–17. 3444: 3440: 3435: 3431: 3423: 3419: 3411: 3407: 3397: 3395: 3386: 3385: 3381: 3371: 3369: 3360: 3359: 3355: 3345: 3343: 3330: 3329: 3325: 3311: 3310: 3306: 3298: 3291: 3283: 3279: 3275:Bethel pg 56–80 3274: 3270: 3258: 3254: 3241: 3237: 3228: 3227: 3223: 3218: 3214: 3206: 3202: 3197: 3193: 3185: 3181: 3173: 3169: 3154: 3139: 3138: 3134: 3126: 3122: 3117: 3113: 3099: 3098: 3094: 3089: 3085: 3080: 3076: 3068: 3064: 3054: 3052: 3043: 3042: 3038: 3021: 3020: 3016: 3010:Wayback Machine 3001: 2997: 2992: 2979: 2969: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2955: 2918: 2861: 2825:Panavia Tornado 2809: 2768: 2757: 2751: 2748: 2733: 2717: 2706: 2701: 2689:MIM-104 Patriot 2669: 2637: 2578: 2567: 2561: 2558: 2543: 2527: 2516: 2496:RIM-67 Standard 2459: 2374:Soviet/Russian 2368: 2321: 2315: 2220:bistatic radars 2178:Goalkeeper CIWS 2174: 2119: 2113: 2101:instrumentation 2081:electromagnetic 1927:Bangladesh Army 1896: 1804:A three-person 1742: 1734:M9 gun director 1713: 1711:Le Grand Veneur 1575: 1514:seaplane tender 1481:patrol frigates 1420:5"/38 naval gun 1257:Dambusters raid 1215:QF 4.5-inch gun 1171: 1160: 1154: 1151: 1140: 1128: 1117: 1087: 983:QF 3.7-inch gun 943:developed radar 877: 713:Radoje Ljutovac 666: 664:First World War 654:Admiral Twining 620: 617: 608: 598: 589: 583: 574: 568: 513: 508: 416: 305:optoelectronics 293: 222:RIM-66 Standard 212:" (SHORAD) and 173:First World War 165:Royal Air Force 126: 80:Missile defence 32: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5769: 5767: 5759: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5738: 5737: 5731: 5730: 5728: 5727: 5725:Special forces 5722: 5717: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5646: 5643: 5642: 5637: 5635: 5634: 5627: 5620: 5612: 5603: 5602: 5600: 5599: 5588: 5585: 5584: 5582: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5555: 5553: 5549: 5548: 5546: 5545: 5544: 5543: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5437: 5436: 5431: 5421: 5416: 5411: 5406: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5354:Anti-personnel 5351: 5349:Anti-ballistic 5346: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5325: 5323: 5319: 5318: 5315: 5314: 5312: 5311: 5306: 5301: 5296: 5291: 5286: 5280: 5278: 5272: 5271: 5269: 5268: 5263: 5258: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5179: 5177: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5150:United Kingdom 5147: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5077: 5072: 5067: 5065:Czechoslovakia 5062: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5021: 5019: 5013: 5012: 5010: 5009: 4995: 4981: 4975: 4973: 4967: 4966: 4964: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4951:United Kingdom 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4852: 4850: 4844: 4843: 4841: 4840: 4835: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4815: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4784: 4782: 4776: 4775: 4773: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4746: 4744: 4735: 4729: 4728: 4723: 4721: 4720: 4713: 4706: 4698: 4692: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4673: 4666: 4653: 4652:External links 4650: 4648: 4647: 4641: 4635: 4632: 4629: 4623: 4610: 4604: 4584: 4574: 4564: 4561: 4555: 4542: 4539: 4536: 4527: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4515: 4484: 4470: 4444: 4412: 4387: 4374: 4355: 4348: 4330: 4304: 4267: 4235: 4209: 4183: 4153: 4119: 4083: 4050: 4024: 3997: 3971: 3940: 3914: 3902: 3890: 3858: 3849: 3823: 3797: 3788: 3779: 3770: 3761: 3752: 3730: 3721: 3712: 3700: 3691: 3679: 3675:Routledge 1994 3667: 3658: 3649: 3630: 3621: 3609: 3597: 3585: 3576: 3567: 3558: 3546: 3534: 3530:Routledge 1994 3522: 3518:Routledge 1994 3510: 3506:Routledge 1994 3495: 3491:Routledge 1994 3483: 3474: 3470:Routledge 1994 3462: 3458:Routledge 1994 3450: 3446:Routledge 1994 3438: 3429: 3425:Routledge 1994 3417: 3413:Routledge 1994 3405: 3379: 3353: 3323: 3304: 3300:Routledge 1994 3289: 3285:Routledge 1994 3277: 3268: 3252: 3235: 3221: 3212: 3208:Routledge 1994 3200: 3191: 3189:, p. 213. 3179: 3167: 3152: 3132: 3130:, p. 456. 3128:Routledge 1994 3120: 3111: 3092: 3083: 3074: 3072:, p. 219. 3062: 3051:on 14 May 2008 3036: 3029:. Rafweb.org. 3014: 2995: 2977: 2961: 2959: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2950: 2949: 2944: 2939: 2934: 2929: 2924: 2917: 2914: 2908:is the use of 2860: 2857: 2808: 2805: 2801:SA-2 Guideline 2770: 2769: 2720: 2718: 2711: 2705: 2702: 2700: 2697: 2668: 2665: 2636: 2633: 2580: 2579: 2530: 2528: 2521: 2515: 2512: 2458: 2455: 2367: 2364: 2314: 2311: 2173: 2170: 2112: 2109: 2093:reconnaissance 1895: 1892: 1860:and the older 1850:FIM-92 Stinger 1842:Roland missile 1795:SA-2 Guideline 1741: 1738: 1726:proximity fuse 1599:Thames Estuary 1591:Maunsell Forts 1173: 1172: 1131: 1129: 1122: 1116: 1113: 1086: 1083: 956:Würzburg radar 951:Observer Corps 919: 918: 915: 912: 909: 906: 876: 875:Interwar years 873: 729:New York Times 665: 662: 622: 621: 618: 611: 609: 599: 592: 590: 584: 577: 575: 569: 562: 512: 509: 507: 504: 415: 412: 407: 406: 399: 393: 390: 379: 378: 363: 360: 357: 346: 345: 339: 333: 292: 289: 125: 122: 52:aerial warfare 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5768: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5743: 5741: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5647: 5644: 5640: 5633: 5628: 5626: 5621: 5619: 5614: 5613: 5610: 5598: 5590: 5589: 5586: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5556: 5554: 5550: 5542: 5539: 5538: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5426: 5425: 5422: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5345: 5344:Anti-aircraft 5342: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5326: 5324: 5320: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5284:Yugoslav Wars 5282: 5281: 5279: 5277: 5276:Post-Cold War 5273: 5267: 5264: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5231:Iran–Iraq War 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5181: 5180: 5178: 5176: 5172: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5155:United States 5153: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5141: 5138: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5022: 5020: 5018: 5014: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4996: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4976: 4974: 4972: 4968: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4956:United States 4954: 4952: 4949: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4853: 4851: 4849: 4845: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4788:Early Warfare 4786: 4785: 4783: 4781: 4777: 4771: 4768: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4747: 4745: 4743: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4719: 4714: 4712: 4707: 4705: 4700: 4699: 4696: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4679: 4678: 4674: 4672: 4671: 4667: 4665: 4661: 4659:"Flak (1943)" 4656: 4655: 4651: 4646: 4642: 4640: 4636: 4633: 4630: 4626: 4624:1-85753-099-3 4620: 4616: 4611: 4607: 4605:1-85367-261-0 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4583: 4582:1-86126-104-7 4579: 4575: 4573: 4572:1-86126-165-9 4569: 4565: 4562: 4558: 4556:9781473852846 4552: 4548: 4543: 4540: 4537: 4533: 4528: 4525: 4524: 4519: 4511: 4499: 4495: 4488: 4485: 4480: 4474: 4471: 4458: 4454: 4448: 4445: 4429: 4422: 4416: 4413: 4401: 4397: 4391: 4388: 4384: 4378: 4375: 4370: 4366: 4359: 4356: 4351: 4349:9781946983794 4345: 4341: 4334: 4331: 4319: 4315: 4308: 4305: 4289: 4285: 4278: 4271: 4268: 4252: 4245: 4239: 4236: 4224: 4220: 4213: 4210: 4198: 4194: 4187: 4184: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4157: 4154: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4131: 4123: 4120: 4107: 4103: 4102: 4097: 4090: 4088: 4084: 4071: 4067: 4066: 4065:Aviation Week 4061: 4054: 4051: 4038: 4034: 4028: 4025: 4012: 4008: 4001: 3998: 3985: 3981: 3975: 3972: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3944: 3941: 3928: 3924: 3918: 3915: 3911: 3906: 3903: 3899: 3894: 3891: 3878: 3874: 3873: 3868: 3862: 3859: 3853: 3850: 3837: 3833: 3827: 3824: 3811: 3807: 3801: 3798: 3792: 3789: 3783: 3780: 3774: 3771: 3765: 3762: 3756: 3753: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3734: 3731: 3725: 3722: 3716: 3713: 3707: 3705: 3701: 3695: 3692: 3686: 3684: 3680: 3677:, p. 56. 3676: 3671: 3668: 3662: 3659: 3653: 3650: 3645: 3641: 3634: 3631: 3625: 3622: 3618: 3613: 3610: 3606: 3601: 3598: 3594: 3589: 3586: 3580: 3577: 3571: 3568: 3562: 3559: 3555: 3550: 3547: 3544:, p. 14. 3543: 3538: 3535: 3531: 3526: 3523: 3520:, p. 50. 3519: 3514: 3511: 3508:, p. 49. 3507: 3502: 3500: 3496: 3493:, p. 48. 3492: 3487: 3484: 3478: 3475: 3471: 3466: 3463: 3459: 3454: 3451: 3447: 3442: 3439: 3433: 3430: 3426: 3421: 3418: 3414: 3409: 3406: 3393: 3389: 3383: 3380: 3367: 3363: 3357: 3354: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3327: 3324: 3319: 3315: 3308: 3305: 3301: 3296: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3281: 3278: 3272: 3269: 3266: 3265:0-8021-1772-4 3262: 3256: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3239: 3236: 3231: 3225: 3222: 3216: 3213: 3209: 3204: 3201: 3195: 3192: 3188: 3183: 3180: 3177:, p. 82. 3176: 3171: 3168: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3153:0-585-25449-4 3149: 3145: 3144: 3136: 3133: 3129: 3124: 3121: 3115: 3112: 3107: 3103: 3096: 3093: 3087: 3084: 3078: 3075: 3071: 3066: 3063: 3050: 3046: 3040: 3037: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3018: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3004: 2999: 2996: 2990: 2988: 2986: 2984: 2982: 2978: 2973: 2966: 2963: 2957: 2952: 2948: 2945: 2943: 2940: 2938: 2935: 2933: 2930: 2928: 2927:Air supremacy 2925: 2923: 2920: 2919: 2915: 2913: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2894: 2891: 2887: 2882: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2871: 2865: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2849: 2845: 2842:and advanced 2841: 2837: 2833: 2826: 2823: 2822: 2817: 2813: 2806: 2804: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2781: 2776: 2766: 2763: 2755: 2752:February 2024 2745: 2741: 2737: 2731: 2730: 2726: 2721:This section 2719: 2715: 2710: 2709: 2703: 2698: 2696: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2685:CIM-10 Bomarc 2682: 2678: 2674: 2673:point defence 2666: 2664: 2662: 2658: 2650: 2646: 2641: 2634: 2632: 2630: 2625: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2614:2K22 Tunguska 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2576: 2573: 2565: 2562:February 2024 2555: 2551: 2547: 2541: 2540: 2536: 2531:This section 2529: 2525: 2520: 2519: 2513: 2511: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2463: 2456: 2454: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2439: 2437: 2433: 2428: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2407: 2403: 2395: 2391: 2386: 2380: 2377: 2372: 2365: 2363: 2361: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2345:Pakistan Army 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2320: 2312: 2310: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2294: 2292: 2289: 2288:Wing Loong II 2286: 2282: 2278: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2262: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2212: 2210: 2205: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2182:GAU-8 Avenger 2179: 2171: 2166: 2162: 2157: 2153: 2151: 2150:MQ-1 Predator 2147: 2143: 2138: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2118: 2110: 2108: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2073: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2022: 2018: 2016: 2012: 2006: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1987: 1983: 1978: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1951: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1900: 1893: 1891: 1889: 1888:Golan Heights 1884: 1882: 1878: 1873: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1834:Falklands War 1830: 1827: 1818: 1814: 1811: 1807: 1802: 1798: 1796: 1792: 1786: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1771: 1765: 1763: 1755: 1751: 1746: 1739: 1737: 1735: 1731: 1730:SCR-584 radar 1727: 1723: 1717: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1699: 1696: 1692: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1670: 1669: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1651: 1647: 1646:Fairey Stooge 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1623: 1618: 1614: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1574: 1570: 1569: 1564: 1557: 1556:Maunsell Fort 1552: 1546: 1542: 1539:built during 1538: 1535:One of eight 1533: 1529: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1509: 1504: 1503: 1498: 1494: 1491:, some fleet 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1473: (BB-35) 1472: 1466: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1448: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1423: 1421: 1416: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1405:120 mm M1 gun 1402: 1394: 1389: 1385: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1370:M45 Quadmount 1367: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1351: 1341: 1337: 1335: 1331: 1323: 1319: 1314: 1310: 1303: 1300: 1295: 1291: 1289: 1288: 1278: 1273: 1269: 1267: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1231: 1226: 1222: 1220: 1216: 1211: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1169: 1166: 1158: 1148: 1144: 1138: 1137: 1132:This section 1130: 1126: 1121: 1120: 1114: 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