73:
173:, are indicated for moderate to severe asthma exacerbation to reduce airway inflammation. It is important for patients with refractory asthma exacerbation who are already on intensive bronchodilator therapy as airflow resistance in the airway is likely to be caused by mucus accumulation and inflammation on the airway.
600:
The rationale behind using inhaled corticosteroids and formoterol combination therapy as a reliever as opposed to salbutamol, a short-acting β2-adrenergic agonist, is that this dosage regimen shows a reduction in the severe asthma exacerbation risk compared with using β2-adrenergic agonists reliever.
539:
For newly diagnosed asthma patients, the 5 levels derived from the severity of asthma depend on the occurrence of symptoms and their frequencies. These symptoms include bronchoconstriction, shortness of breath and wheezing that exacerbates after physical activities. Frequent coughing, chest tightness
176:
Systemic administration of glucocorticoids can reduce airway mucus production. It can also suppress inflammatory responses by inhibiting the synthesis and release of inflammatory mediators and lowering the infiltration and activity of inflammatory cells. Additionally, glucocorticoids can
143:, can be used as an adjunct therapy with short-acting β2-adrenergic agonists in moderate to severe asthma exacerbations to achieve bronchodilation. Short-acting muscarinic antagonists are usually discontinued upon hospital admission due to a lack of benefits among hospitalized patients.
601:
As inhaled formoterol medications are often accompanied by a corticosteroid, this combination is a simpler regimen for patients as it utilizes the same formulation for both reliever and maintenance therapy as well as providing a long duration of bronchodilation effect.
58:
Global
Initiative of Asthma (GINA) is the official guideline on the usage of anti-asthmatic agents. The GINA guideline outlines the class, dosage and administration of anti-asthmatic agents prescription depending on the severity of asthma symptoms and nature.
540:
and breathing difficulties are also signs of asthma worsening. These symptoms can interfere with a patient's daily living and affect quality of life. These 5 levels are indicators of what drug treatments should be administered. The guideline is as follows:
355:
Therapeutic drug monitoring is required for patients on methylxanthines as the therapeutic range is narrow. Methylxanthines are not routinely used owing to their adverse effect profiles and the risk of toxicity. Adverse effects of
Methylxanthines include
239:
43:. Anti-asthmatic agents as maintenance medications for asthmatic symptom control include long-acting β2-adrenergic agonists (LABA), inhaled glucocorticoids, long-acting muscarinic antagonists (LAMA), methylxanthine/phosphodiesterase inhibitors,
274:
Inhaled corticosteroids are commonly used together with long-acting β2-adrenergic agonists in maintenance therapy as corticosteroids can increase the amount of airway bronchial β2-receptors and their sensitivity towards β2-selective agents.
111:
within the airway smooth muscle cells to catalyse the conversion of ATP to cAMP. cAMP as a second messenger further activates protein kinase A and decreases the intracellular calcium level, causing subsequent smooth muscle relaxation.
399:, inhibit pro-inflammatory leukotrienes bindings to LTC4 and LTD4 receptors. This blocks the downstream inflammatory pathways that lead to bronchospasm and smooth muscle contractions in asthmatic patients.
516:
Tezepelumab binds to thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), which is an inflammatory cytokine in the airway epithelial cells involved in asthma exacerbations, inhibiting subsequent inflammatory responses.
23:
or reduce inflammation on the airway to decrease airway resistance for asthmatic patients, or both. The goal of asthmatic agents is to reduce asthma exacerbation frequencies and related hospital visits.
107:β2-adrenergic agonists can trigger the activation of Gs protein-coupled β2-adrenergic receptors on the airway smooth muscle cells in the lungs. The β2-adrenergic receptors activation allows the
342:, inhibiting phosphodiesterase degradation action of cyclic 3′,5′-adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). This resulted accumulation of cAMP relaxes smooth muscles, leading to dilation of airways.
1685:
Hanania, Nicola A.; Alpan, Oral; Hamilos, Daniel L.; Condemi, John J.; Reyes-Rivera, Irmarie; Zhu, Jin; Rosen, Karin E.; Eisner, Mark D.; Wong, Dennis A.; Busse, William (2011-05-03).
1636:
van der Wouden, Johannes C; Uijen, Johannes HJM; Bernsen, Roos MD; Tasche, Marjolein JA; de
Jongste, Johan C; Ducharme, Francine M (2008-10-08). Cochrane Airways Group (ed.).
436:
are drugs that inhibit the degranulation and activation of mast cells upon contact with antigen. This prevents the subsequent release of pro-inflammatory mediators such as
1879:
Pelaia, Corrado; Calabrese, Cecilia; Vatrella, Alessandro; Busceti, Maria Teresa; Garofalo, Eugenio; Lombardo, Nicola; Terracciano, Rosa; Pelaia, Girolamo (2018-05-10).
1939:"Human medicines European public assessment report (EPAR): Dupixent, dupilumab, Dermatitis, Atopic, Date of authorisation: 27/09/2017, Revision: 3, Status: Authorised"
349:
and subsequent DNA folding. This inhibits the synthesis of pro-inflammatory factors that induce asthma attacks and exacerbations, achieving anti-inflammatory effects.
150:
for muscarinic receptors and provide an antagonistic effect on muscarinic receptors, causing inhibition of cholinergic bronchomotor tone and hence bronchodilation.
842:"Randomized Trial of the Addition of Ipratropium Bromide to Albuterol and Corticosteroid Therapy in Children Hospitalized Because of an Acute Asthma Exacerbation"
510:
Benralizumab blocks the IL-5 receptors on basophils, preventing binding of IL-5 with IL-5 receptors on basophils, inhibiting subsequent inflammatory responses.
96:
exacerbation for all patients to provide rapid bronchodilating effects. Short-acting β2-adrenergic agonists can be delivered by different devices, for example,
507:
Mepolizumab and reslizumab inhibit
Interleukin (IL)-5 binding with IL-5 receptors on the surface of eosinophils, inhibiting subsequent inflammatory responses.
536:
According to the Global
Initiative of Asthma (GINA), the guideline for anti-asthmatic treatment is divided into 5 levels according to asthma severity.
1229:"Safety and Effectiveness of Magnesium Sulphate for Severe Acute Asthma Management Among Under-five Children: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis"
1789:
Pelaia, Corrado; Vatrella, Alessandro; Busceti, Maria Teresa; Gallelli, Luca; Terracciano, Rosa; Savino, Rocco; Pelaia, Girolamo (2017-10-30).
1513:
1373:
744:
618:
Lugogo, Njira; O’Connor, Maeve; George, Maureen; Merchant, Rajan; Bensch, Greg; Portnoy, Jay; Oppenheimer, John; Castro, Mario (2023-11-01).
1972:
Zoumot, Zaid; Busaidi, Nasser Al; Tashkandi, Wail; Aljohaney, Ahmed A.; Isse, Said; Vidyasagar, Kota; Ukwaja, Kingsley Nnanna (2022-11-18).
1500:, Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, vol. 200, no. 200, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 439–456,
214:
Intravenous magnesium sulfate can reduce calcium ions influx into smooth muscle cells on the airway, causing airway muscle relaxation.
492:
to reduce IgE level in circulation. This reduces the subsequent binding of IgE to the IgE receptors on inflammatory cells, including
450:
Common adverse effects of Mast cell stabilizers include mouth dryness, cough, throat irritation, nasal congestion and bronchospasm.
1325:
DONAHUE, JAMES G.; WEISS, SCOTT T.; LIVINGSTON, JAMES M.; GOETSCH, MARCIA A.; GREINEDER, DIRK K.; ATT, RICHARD PI (April 1998).
1881:"Benralizumab: From the Basic Mechanism of Action to the Potential Use in the Biological Therapy of Severe Eosinophilic Asthma"
305:
Muscarinic antagonists can reduce cholinergic bronchomotor tone, resulting in airway muscle relexation and bronchodilation.
123:. The incidence and severity of side effects depend on the dose and route of administration of the β2-adrenergic agonists.
706:
892:
1435:"Structure-Bioactivity Relationships of Methylxanthines: Trying to Make Sense of All the Promises and the Drawbacks"
1542:
Camargo, Carlos A.; Smithline, Howard A.; Malice, Marie-Pierre; Green, Stuart A.; Reiss, Theodore F. (2003-02-15).
178:
920:
Papi, Alberto; Fabbri, Leonardo M; Kerstjens, Huib A.M.; Rogliani, Paola; Watz, Henrik; Singh, Dave (March 2021).
1791:"Severe eosinophilic asthma: from the pathogenic role of interleukin-5 to the therapeutic action of mepolizumab"
282:. The risk of overgrowth of oropharyngeal candidiasis can be reduced by rinsing the mouth with water after use.
182:
81:
803:"Ipratropium Bromide Plus Nebulized Albuterol for the Treatment of Hospitalized Children with Acute Asthma"
444:. Mast cell stabilizers are given as prophylactic treatment to prevent exacerbation of asthmatic symptoms.
405:
Common adverse effects of leukotriene receptor antagonists include headache, abdominal pain and diarrhoea.
222:
32:
132:
52:
707:"2023 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) Report: Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention"
197:
523:
Common adverse effects include local site reactions, joint pain, back pain, headache and sore throat.
1227:
Mega, Teshale Ayele; Gugsa, Habtamu; Dejenie, Habte; Hussen, Hikma; Lulseged, Kalkidan (2023-03-03).
413:
299:
101:
520:
Monoclonal antibodies for the treatment of asthmatic symptoms are given by subcutaneous injections.
458:
140:
28:
513:
Dupilumab blocks IL-4 receptors, inhibiting subsequent inflammatory activities of IL-4 and IL-13.
221:, resulting in muscle weakness. Intravenous magnesium sulfate is contraindicated in patients with
1974:"Tezepelumab for Patients with Severe Uncontrolled Asthma: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"
1734:"Mechanisms of action that contribute to efficacy of omalizumab in chronic spontaneous urticaria"
1136:"Intravenous magnesium sulfate for treating adults with acute asthma in the emergency department"
977:
Rowe, Brian H; Spooner, Carol; Ducharme, Francine; Bretzlaff, Jennifer; Bota, Gary (2001-01-22).
295:
291:
136:
19:
refer to drugs that can aid in airway smooth muscle dilation to allow normal breathing during an
72:
2052:
2005:
1954:
1920:
1902:
1861:
1822:
1771:
1753:
1714:
1706:
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1618:
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1519:
1509:
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1412:
1369:
1346:
1307:
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1209:
1165:
1116:
1098:
1059:
1051:
1012:
994:
959:
951:
869:
861:
822:
740:
657:
639:
339:
208:
40:
1686:
1190:"Intravenous Magnesium Sulfate for the Treatment of Acute Asthma in the Emergency Department"
27:
Anti-asthmatic agents as rescue medications for acute asthma attacks include short-acting β2-
1995:
1985:
1946:
1910:
1892:
1853:
1812:
1802:
1761:
1745:
1702:
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1657:
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1501:
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1201:
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1090:
1043:
1002:
986:
941:
933:
853:
814:
732:
647:
631:
417:
279:
211:
is indicated for severe or life-threatening asthma exacerbation to achieve bronchodilation.
108:
153:
Inhaled muscarinic antagonists commonly cause dry mouth, throat irritation and dizziness.
2047:
388:
218:
36:
1493:
1366:
Australian pharmaceutical formulary and handbook: the everyday guide to pharmacy practice
1279:
1188:
SKOBELOFF, EMIL M.; SPIVEY, WILLIAM H.; McNAMARA, ROBERT M.; GREENSPAN, LEE (June 1990).
564:
Step 4: Daily symptoms, or waking with asthma once a week or more, and low lung function
1433:
Monteiro, João P.; Alves, Marco G.; Oliveira, Pedro F.; Silva, Branca M. (August 2016).
1160:
1134:
Kew, Kayleigh M; Kirtchuk, Liza; Michell, Clare I (2014-05-28), Kew, Kayleigh M. (ed.),
776:
652:
2000:
1973:
1915:
1880:
1817:
1790:
1766:
1662:
1637:
1469:
1434:
1255:
1228:
1111:
1078:
1007:
736:
501:
170:
162:
1326:
1189:
1030:
Menzies-Gow, Andrew; Busse, William W.; Castro, Mario; Jackson, David J. (July 2021).
2041:
1591:"The actual role of sodium cromoglycate in the treatment of asthma—a critical review"
1590:
1342:
1205:
724:
620:"Expert Consensus on SABA Use for Asthma Clinical Decision-Making: A Delphi Approach"
328:
324:
186:
147:
20:
1687:"Omalizumab in Severe Allergic Asthma Inadequately Controlled With Standard Therapy"
1135:
979:"Early emergency department treatment of acute asthma with systemic corticosteroids"
200:. The side effects of glucocorticoids depend on the dose and duration of treatment.
1653:
1151:
474:
365:
332:
320:
266:, are commonly used together with inhaled corticosteroid in maintenance treatment.
193:
166:
116:
1589:
Netzer, Nikolaus C.; Küpper, T.; Voss, Hans W.; Eliasson, Arn H. (December 2012).
841:
308:
Muscarinic antagonists commonly cause dry mouth, throat irritation and dizziness.
1505:
1079:"Glucocorticoids: mechanisms of action and anti-inflammatory potential in asthma"
893:"Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma 2007 (EPR-3) | NHLBI, NIH"
857:
549:
Low-dose inhaled corticosteroids and formoterol combination therapy when required
278:
The use of inhaled corticosteroid may commonly cause dysphonia and overgrowth of
1031:
577:
Step 5: Further worsening of symptoms and increased occurrence of exacerbations
482:
466:
441:
396:
392:
377:
357:
251:
238:
85:
44:
1543:
1047:
978:
937:
635:
572:
Short-course oral corticosteroids when required in severely uncontrolled asthma
447:
For asthma maintenance therapy, mast cell stabilizers are taken by inhalation.
1606:
1559:
1451:
990:
802:
470:
462:
429:
421:
345:
Methylxanthines activate histone deacetylases, promoting the deacetylation of
263:
259:
255:
247:
89:
1958:
1906:
1865:
1757:
1710:
1614:
1567:
1460:
1350:
1303:
1213:
1102:
1055:
998:
955:
921:
865:
826:
818:
643:
619:
588:
Consider high dose inhaled corticosteroids and formoterol maintenance therapy
1407:
1390:
1278:
Conway, John; Friedman, Benjamin (October 2020). Zehtabchi, Shahriar (ed.).
493:
478:
437:
433:
425:
97:
76:
Inhaled short acting β2-adrenergic agonist (Salbutamol metered-dose inhaler)
48:
2009:
1924:
1897:
1826:
1775:
1718:
1671:
1622:
1575:
1523:
1478:
1416:
1311:
1264:
1169:
1094:
1063:
1016:
963:
922:"Inhaled long-acting muscarinic antagonists in asthma – A narrative review"
873:
661:
1544:"A Randomized Controlled Trial of Intravenous Montelukast in Acute Asthma"
1120:
1938:
1807:
946:
497:
489:
361:
316:
120:
1990:
1950:
1368:(22nd ed.). Deakin West, ACT: Pharmaceutical Society of Australia.
1245:
1733:
1295:
1280:"Intravenous Magnesium Sulfate for Acute Asthma Exacerbation in Adults"
725:"Management of Respiratory Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Asthma"
369:
346:
115:
Common side effects of inhaled β2-adrenergic agonists include tremors,
1841:
1749:
569:
Medium dose inhaled corticosteroids and formoterol maintenance therapy
554:
Step 3: Symptoms most days, or waking with asthma once a week or more
1857:
373:
93:
840:
Goggin, Norma; Macarthur, Colin; Parkin, Patricia C. (2001-12-01).
559:
Low-dose inhaled corticosteroids and formoterol maintenance therapy
331:, are a class of drugs that can achieve bronchodilation and reduce
352:
For asthma maintenance therapy, methylxanthines are taken orally.
237:
192:
The use of systemic glucocorticoids may cause depressed immunity,
71:
2023:
1732:
Kaplan, A. P.; Giménez-Arnau, A. M.; Saini, S. S. (2017-01-04).
585:
Refer for phenotypic assessment with or without biologic therapy
1327:"Inhaled Steroids and the Risk of Hospitalization for Asthma"
1032:"Prevention and Treatment of Asthma Exacerbations in Adults"
723:
Chan, Amy Hai Yan; Watkins, Kim; Schneider, Carl R. (2019),
302:, are indicated for severe asthma in maintenance treatment.
1842:"Reslizumab: add-on therapy for severe eosinophilic asthma"
1146:(5), Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd: CD010909,
1036:
The
Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology: In Practice
504:. The release of inflammatory mediators is then prevented.
1548:
American
Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine
217:
It is possible for intravenous magnesium sulfate to cause
729:
Encyclopedia of
Pharmacy Practice and Clinical Pharmacy
591:
Consider Anti-IgE, anti-iL5/5R, anti-IL4Rα or anti-TSLP
1638:"Inhaled sodium cromoglycate for asthma in children"
402:Leukotriene receptor antagonists are taken orally.
372:, gastrointestinal disturbance (nausea, vomiting),
338:Methylxanthines act as a competitive inhibitor of
1364:Pharmaceutical Society of Australia, ed. (2012).
246:Long-acting β2-adrenergic agonists, for example,
846:Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine
596:Reliever: As-needed-only low dose ICS-formoterol
461:that aid in asthma symptomatic control include
290:Long-acting muscarinic antagonists, including
242:Long-acting β2-adrenergic agonist (Salmeterol)
312:Methylxanthine / Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors
8:
544:Step 1-2: Symptoms less than 4–5 days a week
127:Inhaled short-acting muscarinic antagonists
68:Inhaled short-acting β2-adrenergic agonists
1395:Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology
1999:
1989:
1914:
1896:
1816:
1806:
1765:
1661:
1468:
1450:
1406:
1254:
1244:
1159:
1110:
1006:
945:
651:
582:Add-on long-acting muscarinic antagonists
92:, are the first-line drugs indicated for
146:Muscarinic antagonists can compete with
1703:10.7326/0003-4819-154-9-201105030-00002
1642:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1140:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
983:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
610:
1391:"Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases"
1428:
1426:
926:European Journal of Internal Medicine
701:
699:
697:
695:
693:
691:
7:
1795:Drug Design, Development and Therapy
915:
913:
887:
885:
883:
801:Randolph, Christopher (2002-08-01).
771:
769:
767:
765:
763:
761:
689:
687:
685:
683:
681:
679:
677:
675:
673:
671:
2028:Global Initiative for Asthma - GINA
1389:Essayan, David M. (November 2001).
335:for symptomatic control of asthma.
1077:Velden, Van Der; J, V. H. (1998).
737:10.1016/b978-0-12-812735-3.00508-2
624:Current Allergy and Asthma Reports
286:Long-acting muscarinic antagonists
234:Long-acting β2-adrenergic agonists
14:
1343:10.1097/00132586-199804000-00061
1206:10.1097/00132586-199006000-00039
389:Leukotriene receptor antagonists
384:Leukotriene Receptor Antagonists
488:Omalizumab binds to free human
1654:10.1002/14651858.CD002173.pub2
1152:10.1002/14651858.cd010909.pub2
731:, Elsevier, pp. 244–263,
181:and their sensitivity towards
1:
1978:Journal of Asthma and Allergy
1885:BioMed Research International
1840:Chaplin, Steve (March 2017).
1233:Journal of Asthma and Allergy
1506:10.1007/978-3-642-13443-2_17
858:10.1001/archpedi.155.12.1329
777:"MedicinesComplete — Log in"
380:and increased urine output.
1691:Annals of Internal Medicine
1494:"Methylxanthines in Asthma"
1492:Tilley, Stephen L. (2011),
1284:Academic Emergency Medicine
2069:
1048:10.1016/j.jaip.2021.05.016
938:10.1016/j.ejim.2021.01.027
636:10.1007/s11882-023-01111-z
1607:10.1007/s11325-011-0639-1
1560:10.1164/rccm.200208-802oc
1452:10.3390/molecules21080974
1083:Mediators of Inflammation
991:10.1002/14651858.cd002178
781:www.medicinescomplete.com
280:oropharyngeal candidiasis
1331:Survey of Anesthesiology
819:10.1542/peds.110.s2.465b
428:, pemirolast potassium,
157:Systemic glucocorticoids
1408:10.1067/mai.2001.119555
270:Inhaled glucocorticoids
229:Maintenance Medications
179:β2-adrenergic receptors
177:increase the amount of
47:receptors antagonists,
1095:10.1080/09629359890910
243:
183:β2-adrenergic agonists
133:muscarinic antagonists
82:β2-adrenergic agonists
77:
33:muscarinic antagonists
1943:Case Medical Research
813:(Supplement_2): 465.
459:Monoclonal Antibodies
454:Monoclonal Antibodies
414:Mast Cell Stabilizers
409:Mast cell stabilizers
241:
131:Inhaled short-acting
102:metered-dose inhalers
80:Inhaled short-acting
75:
53:monoclonal antibodies
31:(SABA), short-acting
17:Anti-asthmatic agents
1898:10.1155/2018/4839230
1808:10.2147/DDDT.S150656
490:immunoglobulin (IgE)
1991:10.2147/JAA.S378062
1951:10.31525/cmr-399730
1595:Sleep and Breathing
1246:10.2147/JAA.S390389
1216:– via PubMed.
418:sodium cromoglycate
223:renal insufficiency
29:adrenergic agonists
1296:10.1111/acem.14066
244:
198:Cushing’s syndrome
78:
63:Rescue Medications
1750:10.1111/all.13083
1515:978-3-642-13442-5
1375:978-0-646-57019-8
1290:(10): 1061–1063.
897:www.nhlbi.nih.gov
852:(12): 1329–1334.
746:978-0-12-812736-0
422:nedocromil sodium
340:phosphodiesterase
209:Magnesium sulfate
204:Magnesium Sulfate
41:magnesium sulfate
35:(SAMA), systemic
2060:
2032:
2031:
2020:
2014:
2013:
2003:
1993:
1969:
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1962:
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1858:10.1002/psb.1553
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1769:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1682:
1676:
1675:
1665:
1633:
1627:
1626:
1601:(4): 1027–1032.
1586:
1580:
1579:
1539:
1533:
1532:
1531:
1530:
1489:
1483:
1482:
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1386:
1380:
1379:
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1354:
1322:
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1315:
1275:
1269:
1268:
1258:
1248:
1224:
1218:
1217:
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1179:
1178:
1177:
1176:
1163:
1131:
1125:
1124:
1114:
1074:
1068:
1067:
1042:(7): 2578–2586.
1027:
1021:
1020:
1010:
974:
968:
967:
949:
917:
908:
907:
905:
904:
889:
878:
877:
837:
831:
830:
798:
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789:
787:
773:
756:
755:
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753:
720:
714:
713:
712:. July 10, 2023.
711:
703:
666:
665:
655:
615:
169:and intravenous
109:adenylyl cyclase
51:stabilizers and
2068:
2067:
2063:
2062:
2061:
2059:
2058:
2057:
2038:
2037:
2036:
2035:
2022:
2021:
2017:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1937:
1936:
1932:
1878:
1877:
1873:
1839:
1838:
1834:
1788:
1787:
1783:
1731:
1730:
1726:
1684:
1683:
1679:
1648:(1): CD002173.
1635:
1634:
1630:
1588:
1587:
1583:
1541:
1540:
1536:
1528:
1526:
1516:
1498:Methylxanthines
1491:
1490:
1486:
1432:
1431:
1424:
1388:
1387:
1383:
1376:
1363:
1362:
1358:
1324:
1323:
1319:
1277:
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1272:
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1225:
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1133:
1132:
1128:
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1075:
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1029:
1028:
1024:
985:(1): CD002178.
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918:
911:
902:
900:
891:
890:
881:
839:
838:
834:
800:
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775:
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749:
747:
722:
721:
717:
709:
705:
704:
669:
630:(11): 621–634.
617:
616:
612:
607:
598:
534:
529:
527:Treatment Steps
502:dendritic cells
456:
411:
386:
317:Methylxanthines
314:
288:
272:
236:
231:
219:hypermagnesemia
206:
165:, such as oral
163:glucocorticoids
159:
129:
70:
65:
37:glucocorticoids
12:
11:
5:
2066:
2064:
2056:
2055:
2050:
2040:
2039:
2034:
2033:
2015:
1964:
1945:. 2019-03-07.
1930:
1871:
1832:
1781:
1744:(4): 519–533.
1724:
1697:(9): 573–582.
1677:
1628:
1581:
1554:(4): 528–533.
1534:
1514:
1484:
1422:
1401:(5): 671–680.
1381:
1374:
1356:
1337:(2): 117–118.
1317:
1270:
1219:
1180:
1126:
1089:(4): 229–237.
1069:
1022:
969:
909:
879:
832:
793:
757:
745:
715:
667:
609:
608:
606:
603:
597:
594:
593:
592:
589:
586:
583:
574:
573:
570:
561:
560:
551:
550:
533:
532:GINA guideline
530:
528:
525:
455:
452:
410:
407:
385:
382:
313:
310:
287:
284:
271:
268:
235:
232:
230:
227:
205:
202:
187:smooth muscles
185:on the airway
171:hydrocortisone
158:
155:
128:
125:
69:
66:
64:
61:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2065:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2045:
2043:
2029:
2025:
2019:
2016:
2011:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1984:: 1665–1679.
1983:
1979:
1975:
1968:
1965:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1934:
1931:
1926:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1875:
1872:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1836:
1833:
1828:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1801:: 3137–3144.
1800:
1796:
1792:
1785:
1782:
1777:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1728:
1725:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1681:
1678:
1673:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1632:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1585:
1582:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1538:
1535:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1488:
1485:
1480:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1429:
1427:
1423:
1418:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1385:
1382:
1377:
1371:
1367:
1360:
1357:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1321:
1318:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1274:
1271:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1223:
1220:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1184:
1181:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1130:
1127:
1122:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1073:
1070:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1026:
1023:
1018:
1014:
1009:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
973:
970:
965:
961:
957:
953:
948:
947:11392/2445136
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
916:
914:
910:
898:
894:
888:
886:
884:
880:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
836:
833:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
797:
794:
782:
778:
772:
770:
768:
766:
764:
762:
758:
748:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
719:
716:
708:
702:
700:
698:
696:
694:
692:
690:
688:
686:
684:
682:
680:
678:
676:
674:
672:
668:
663:
659:
654:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
614:
611:
604:
602:
595:
590:
587:
584:
581:
580:
579:
578:
571:
568:
567:
566:
565:
558:
557:
556:
555:
548:
547:
546:
545:
541:
537:
531:
526:
524:
521:
518:
514:
511:
508:
505:
503:
499:
495:
491:
486:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
453:
451:
448:
445:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
408:
406:
403:
400:
398:
394:
390:
383:
381:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
353:
350:
348:
343:
341:
336:
334:
330:
326:
325:aminophylline
322:
318:
311:
309:
306:
303:
301:
297:
293:
285:
283:
281:
276:
269:
267:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
240:
233:
228:
226:
224:
220:
215:
212:
210:
203:
201:
199:
195:
190:
188:
184:
180:
174:
172:
168:
164:
156:
154:
151:
149:
148:acetylcholine
144:
142:
138:
134:
126:
124:
122:
118:
113:
110:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
74:
67:
62:
60:
56:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
25:
22:
21:asthma attack
18:
2027:
2018:
1981:
1977:
1967:
1942:
1933:
1891:: e4839230.
1888:
1884:
1874:
1852:(3): 53–54.
1849:
1845:
1835:
1798:
1794:
1784:
1741:
1737:
1727:
1694:
1690:
1680:
1645:
1641:
1631:
1598:
1594:
1584:
1551:
1547:
1537:
1527:, retrieved
1497:
1487:
1442:
1438:
1398:
1394:
1384:
1365:
1359:
1334:
1330:
1320:
1287:
1283:
1273:
1236:
1232:
1222:
1197:
1193:
1183:
1173:, retrieved
1143:
1139:
1129:
1086:
1082:
1072:
1039:
1035:
1025:
982:
972:
929:
925:
901:. Retrieved
899:. 2020-12-03
896:
849:
845:
835:
810:
806:
796:
784:. Retrieved
780:
750:, retrieved
728:
718:
627:
623:
613:
599:
576:
575:
563:
562:
553:
552:
543:
542:
538:
535:
522:
519:
515:
512:
509:
506:
487:
475:benralizumab
457:
449:
446:
442:leukotrienes
416:, including
412:
404:
401:
391:, including
387:
366:irritability
354:
351:
344:
337:
333:bronchospasm
321:theophylline
319:, including
315:
307:
304:
300:umeclidinium
289:
277:
273:
245:
216:
213:
207:
194:osteoporosis
191:
175:
167:prednisolone
160:
152:
145:
130:
117:palpitations
114:
106:
79:
57:
26:
16:
15:
1239:: 241–247.
483:tezepelumab
467:mepolizumab
397:zafirlukast
393:montelukast
378:palpitation
358:nervousness
252:indacaterol
141:ipratropium
86:terbutaline
45:leukotriene
2042:Categories
1846:Prescriber
1529:2024-03-11
1445:(8): 974.
1200:(3): 176.
1175:2024-03-11
903:2024-03-11
807:Pediatrics
752:2024-03-11
605:References
494:mast cells
471:reslizumab
463:omalizumab
438:histamines
430:repirinast
329:dyphylline
296:aclidinium
292:tiotropium
264:salmeterol
260:formoterol
256:olodaterol
248:vilanterol
137:oxitropium
135:, such as
98:nebulizers
90:salbutamol
84:, such as
2024:"Reports"
1959:2643-4652
1907:2314-6133
1866:0959-6682
1758:0105-4538
1711:0003-4819
1615:1520-9512
1568:1073-449X
1461:1420-3049
1439:Molecules
1351:0039-6206
1304:1069-6563
1214:0039-6206
1103:0962-9351
1056:2213-2198
999:1465-1858
956:0953-6205
932:: 14–22.
866:1072-4710
827:0031-4005
644:1534-6315
498:basophils
479:dupilumab
434:tranilast
426:amlexanox
161:Systemic
49:mast cell
2053:Medicine
2010:36425526
1925:29862274
1827:29133975
1776:27861988
1719:21536936
1672:18843630
1623:22218743
1576:12456380
1524:20859807
1479:27472311
1417:11692087
1312:32574392
1265:36895494
1170:24865567
1161:10892514
1064:34246434
1017:10796685
964:33563506
874:11732951
662:37991672
653:10716188
362:insomnia
121:headache
2001:9680989
1916:5971345
1818:5669784
1767:5915348
1738:Allergy
1663:8436730
1470:6273298
1256:9990504
1121:9792333
1112:1781857
1008:7025797
786:18 July
370:anxiety
347:histone
2048:Asthma
2008:
1998:
1957:
1923:
1913:
1905:
1864:
1825:
1815:
1774:
1764:
1756:
1717:
1709:
1670:
1660:
1621:
1613:
1574:
1566:
1522:
1512:
1477:
1467:
1459:
1415:
1372:
1349:
1310:
1302:
1263:
1253:
1212:
1168:
1158:
1119:
1109:
1101:
1062:
1054:
1015:
1005:
997:
962:
954:
872:
864:
825:
743:
660:
650:
642:
374:tremor
94:asthma
710:(PDF)
2006:PMID
1955:ISSN
1921:PMID
1903:ISSN
1889:2018
1862:ISSN
1823:PMID
1772:PMID
1754:ISSN
1715:PMID
1707:ISSN
1668:PMID
1646:2011
1619:PMID
1611:ISSN
1572:PMID
1564:ISSN
1520:PMID
1510:ISBN
1475:PMID
1457:ISSN
1413:PMID
1370:ISBN
1347:ISSN
1308:PMID
1300:ISSN
1261:PMID
1210:ISSN
1194:JAMA
1166:PMID
1144:2014
1117:PMID
1099:ISSN
1060:PMID
1052:ISSN
1013:PMID
995:ISSN
960:PMID
952:ISSN
870:PMID
862:ISSN
823:ISSN
788:2024
741:ISBN
658:PMID
640:ISSN
500:and
481:and
440:and
432:and
395:and
327:and
298:and
262:and
196:and
139:and
119:and
100:and
88:and
39:and
1996:PMC
1986:doi
1947:doi
1911:PMC
1893:doi
1854:doi
1813:PMC
1803:doi
1762:PMC
1746:doi
1699:doi
1695:154
1658:PMC
1650:doi
1603:doi
1556:doi
1552:167
1502:doi
1465:PMC
1447:doi
1403:doi
1399:108
1339:doi
1292:doi
1251:PMC
1241:doi
1202:doi
1156:PMC
1148:doi
1107:PMC
1091:doi
1044:doi
1003:PMC
987:doi
942:hdl
934:doi
854:doi
850:155
815:doi
811:110
733:doi
648:PMC
632:doi
2044::
2026:.
2004:.
1994:.
1982:15
1980:.
1976:.
1953:.
1941:.
1919:.
1909:.
1901:.
1887:.
1883:.
1860:.
1850:28
1848:.
1844:.
1821:.
1811:.
1799:11
1797:.
1793:.
1770:.
1760:.
1752:.
1742:72
1740:.
1736:.
1713:.
1705:.
1693:.
1689:.
1666:.
1656:.
1644:.
1640:.
1617:.
1609:.
1599:16
1597:.
1593:.
1570:.
1562:.
1550:.
1546:.
1518:,
1508:,
1496:,
1473:.
1463:.
1455:.
1443:21
1441:.
1437:.
1425:^
1411:.
1397:.
1393:.
1345:.
1335:42
1333:.
1329:.
1306:.
1298:.
1288:27
1286:.
1282:.
1259:.
1249:.
1237:16
1235:.
1231:.
1208:.
1198:34
1196:.
1192:.
1164:,
1154:,
1142:,
1138:,
1115:.
1105:.
1097:.
1085:.
1081:.
1058:.
1050:.
1038:.
1034:.
1011:.
1001:.
993:.
981:.
958:.
950:.
940:.
930:85
928:.
924:.
912:^
895:.
882:^
868:.
860:.
848:.
844:.
821:.
809:.
805:.
779:.
760:^
739:,
727:,
670:^
656:.
646:.
638:.
628:23
626:.
622:.
496:,
485:.
477:,
473:,
469:,
465:,
424:,
420:,
376:,
368:,
364:,
360:,
323:,
294:,
258:,
254:,
250:,
225:.
189:.
104:.
55:.
2030:.
2012:.
1988::
1961:.
1949::
1927:.
1895::
1868:.
1856::
1829:.
1805::
1778:.
1748::
1721:.
1701::
1674:.
1652::
1625:.
1605::
1578:.
1558::
1504::
1481:.
1449::
1419:.
1405::
1378:.
1353:.
1341::
1314:.
1294::
1267:.
1243::
1204::
1150::
1123:.
1093::
1087:7
1066:.
1046::
1040:9
1019:.
989::
966:.
944::
936::
906:.
876:.
856::
829:.
817::
790:.
735::
664:.
634::
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