44:
496:, or PDMS, which consists of a non-polar backbone made of repeating units of silicon and oxygen atoms. The non-polarity of PDMS allows for biomolecules to readily adsorb to its surface in order to lower interfacial energy. However, PDMS also has a low modulus of elasticity that allows for the release of fouling organisms at speeds of greater than 20 knots. The dependence of effectiveness on vessel speed prevents use of PDMS on slow-moving ships or those that spend significant amounts of time in port.
438:
700:
33:
192:
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692:; and "Brown stuff", which was simply sulfur added to Black stuff. In many of these cases, the purpose of these treatments is ambiguous. There is dispute whether many of these treatments were actual anti-fouling techniques, or whether, when they were used in conjunction with lead and wood sheathing, they were simply intended to combat wood-boring
364:
operational opening of their valves. Consequently, stock affected by biofouling can experience reduced growth, condition and survival, with subsequent negative impacts on farm productivity. Although many methods of removal exist, they often impact the cultured species, sometimes more so than the fouling organisms themselves.
350:
filters to collect microbes, some pathogens do pass through these filters, collect inside the device and are eventually blown out and infect other patients. Devices used in operating rooms rarely include fans, so as to minimize the chance of transmission. Also, medical equipment, HVAC units, high-end
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Fouling detection relies on the biomass' property of fluorescence. All microorganisms contain natural intracellular fluorophores, which radiate in the UV range when excited. At UV-range wavelengths, such fluorescence arises from three aromatic amino acids—tyrosine, phenylalanine, and tryptophan. The
354:
Historically, the focus of attention has been the severe impact due to biofouling on the speed of marine vessels. In some instances the hull structure and propulsion systems can become damaged. Over time, the accumulation of biofoulers on hulls increases both the hydrodynamic volume of a vessel and
338:
drug delivery devices, papermaking and pulp industry machines, underwater instruments, fire protection system piping, and sprinkler system nozzles. In groundwater wells, biofouling buildup can limit recovery flow rates, as is the case in the exterior and interior of ocean-laying pipes where fouling
97:
when the host surface is another organism and the relationship is not parasitic. Since biofouling can occur almost anywhere water is present, biofouling poses risks to a wide variety of objects such as boat hulls and equipment, medical devices and membranes, as well as to entire industries, such as
760:
By the mid-twentieth century, copper oxide-based paints could keep a ship out of drydock for as much as 18 months, or as little as 12 in tropical waters. The shorter service life was due to rapid leaching of the toxicant, and chemical conversion into less toxic salts, which accumulated as a crust
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Ultrasonic transducers may be mounted in or around the hull of small to medium-sized boats. Research has shown these systems can help reduce fouling, by initiating bursts of ultrasonic waves through the hull medium to the surrounding water, killing or denaturing the algae and other microorganisms
117:
of up to 60%. The drag increase has been seen to decrease speeds by up to 10%, which can require up to a 40% increase in fuel to compensate. With fuel typically comprising up to half of marine transport costs, antifouling methods save the shipping industry a considerable amount of money. Further,
783:
As an alternative to organotin toxins, there has been renewed interest in copper as the active agent in ablative or self polishing paints, with reported service lives up to 5 years; yet also other methods that do not involve coatings. Modern adhesives permit application of copper alloys to steel
411:
can be used to control biofouling. In less controlled environments, organisms are killed or repelled with coatings using biocides, thermal treatments, or pulses of energy. Nontoxic mechanical strategies that prevent organisms from attaching include choosing a material or coating with a slippery
359:
of up to 60% The additional drag can decrease speeds up to 10%, which can require up to a 40% increase in fuel to compensate. With fuel typically comprising up to half of marine transport costs, biofouling is estimated to cost the US Navy alone around $ 1 billion per year in increased fuel
112:
The buildup of biofouling on marine vessels poses a significant problem. In some instances, the hull structure and propulsion systems can be damaged. The accumulation of biofoulers on hulls can increase both the hydrodynamic volume of a vessel and the hydrodynamic friction, leading to increased
668:
of the impact fouling had on ship speed goes as follows: "when weeds, ooze, and filth stick upon its sides, the stroke of the ship is more obtuse and weak; and the water, coming upon this clammy matter, doth not so easily part from it; and this is the reason why they usually calk their ships."
612:
Medical devices used in operating rooms, ICUs, isolation rooms, biological analysis labs, and other high-contamination-risk areas have negative pressure (constant exhaust) in the rooms, maintain strict cleaning protocols, require equipment with no fans, and often drape equipment in protective
363:
Biofouling also impacts aquaculture, increasing production and management costs, while decreasing product value. Fouling communities may compete with shellfish directly for food resources, impede the procurement of food and oxygen by reducing water flow around shellfish, or interfere with the
499:
The second class of non-toxic antifouling coatings are hydrophilic coatings. They rely on high amounts of hydration in order to increase the energetic penalty of removing water for proteins and microorganisms to attach. The most common examples of these coatings are based on highly hydrated
806:
One trend of research is the study of the relationship between wettability and anti-fouling effectiveness. Another trend is the study of living organisms as the inspiration for new functional materials. For example, the mechanisms used by marine animals to inhibit biofouling on their skin.
512:. These coatings are also low-friction, but are considered by some to be superior to hydrophobic surfaces because they prevent bacteria attachment, preventing biofilm formation. These coatings are not yet commercially available and are being designed as part of a larger effort by the
2328:
Carman, Michelle L.; Estes, Thomas G.; Feinberg, Adam W.; Schumacher, James F.; Wilkerson, Wade; Wilson, Leslie H.; Callow, Maureen E.; Callow, James A.; Brennan, Anthony B. (January 2006). "Engineered antifouling microtopographies – correlating wettability with cell attachment".
372:
Shipping companies have historically relied on scheduled biofouler removal to keep such accretions to a manageable level. However, the rate of accretion can vary widely between vessels and operating conditions, so predicting acceptable intervals between cleanings is difficult.
554:(TBT) compounds were used as biocides (and thus anti-fouling agents). TBTs are toxic to both microorganisms and larger aquatic organisms. The international maritime community has phased out the use of organotin-based coatings. Replacing organotin compounds is
573:
that form the beginning of the fouling sequence. The systems cannot work on wooden-hulled boats, or boats with a soft-cored composite material, such as wood or foam. The systems have been loosely based on technology proven to control algae blooms.
634:
The earliest attestations of attempts to counter fouling, and thus also the earliest attestation of knowledge if it, is the use of pitch and copper plating as anti-fouling solutions that were attributed to ancient seafaring nations, such as the
360:
usage, maintenance and biofouling control measures. Increased fuel use due to biofouling contributes to adverse environmental effects and is predicted to increase emissions of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide between 38 and 72 percent by 2020.
130:
Biofouling organisms are highly diverse, and extend far beyond the attachment of barnacles and seaweeds. According to some estimates, over 1,700 species comprising over 4,000 organisms are responsible for biofouling. Biofouling is divided into
1408:
Sievers, Michael; Dempster, Tim; Fitridge, Isla; Keough, Michael J. (8 January 2014). "Monitoring biofouling communities could reduce impacts to mussel aquaculture by allowing synchronisation of husbandry techniques with peaks in settlement".
90:
where it is not wanted on surfaces such as ship and submarine hulls, devices such as water inlets, pipework, grates, ponds, and rivers that cause degradation to the primary purpose of that item. Such accumulation is referred to as
2500:
Taylor, S.; et al. (1994). "trans-2,3-cis-3,4-Dihydroxyproline, a New
Naturally Occurring Amino Acid, Is the Sixth Residue in the Tandemly Repeated Consensus Decapeptides of an Adhesive Protein from Mytilus edulis".
608:
typically involves heating a medical device to 121 °C (249 °F) for 15–20 minutes. Ultrasonic cleaning, UV light, and chemical wipe-down or immersion can also be used for different types of devices.
596:
Regimens to periodically use heat to treat exchanger equipment and pipes have been successfully used to remove mussels from power plant cooling systems using water at 105 °F (40 °C) for 30 minutes.
784:
hulls without creating galvanic corrosion. However, copper alone is not impervious to diatom and algae fouling. Some studies indicate that copper may also present an unacceptable environmental impact.
730:
The copper performed well in protecting the hull from invasion by worm, and in preventing the growth of weed, for when in contact with water, the copper produced a poisonous film, composed mainly of
2082:
734:, that deterred these marine creatures. Furthermore, as this film was slightly soluble, it gradually washed away, leaving no way for marine life to attach itself to the ship. From about 1770, the
919:
Yebra, Diego
Meseguer; Kiil, Søren; Dam-Johansen, Kim (July 2004). "Antifouling technology—past, present and future steps towards efficient and environmentally friendly antifouling coatings".
585:. Plasma pulse technology is effective against zebra mussels and works by stunning or killing the organisms with microsecond-duration energizing of the water with high-voltage electricity.
1460:
Pit, Josiah H.; Southgate, Paul C. (2003). "Fouling and predation; how do they affect growth and survival of the blacklip pearl oyster, Pinctada margaritifera, during nursery culture?".
276:
Governments and industry spend more than US$ 5.7 billion annually to prevent and control marine biofouling. Biofouling occurs everywhere but is most significant economically to the
143:—attachment of larger organisms. Due to the distinct chemistry and biology that determine what prevents them from settling, organisms are also classified as hard- or soft-fouling types.
1316:
BabiÄŤ, Monika; Gunde-Cimerman, Nina; Vargha, Márta; Tischner, ZsĂłfia; Magyar, Donát; VerĂssimo, Cristina; Sabino, Raquel; Viegas, Carla; Meyer, Wieland; BrandĂŁo, JoĂŁo (13 June 2017).
623:
in bacteria, viruses, and other microbes. Preventing biofilm formation prevents larger organisms from attaching themselves to the instrument and eventually rendering it inoperable.
1793:
Evans, S.M.; Leksono, T.; McKinnell, P.D. (January 1995). "Tributyltin pollution: A diminishing problem following legislation limiting the use of TBT-based anti-fouling paints".
291:
Biofouling is also found in almost all circumstances where water-based liquids are in contact with other materials. Industrially important impacts are on the maintenance of
619:
irradiation is a noncontact, nonchemical solution that can be used across a range of instruments. Radiation in the UVC range prevents biofilm formation by deactivating the
488:
and silicone coatings are commonly used. These coatings are ecologically inert but have problems with mechanical strength and long-term stability. Specifically, after days
2011:
1628:
Gang Cheng; et al. (2 June 2010), "Integrated
Antimicrobial and Nonfouling Hydrogels to Inhibit the Growth of Planktonic Bacterial Cells and Keep the Surface Clean",
1606:
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when they were found to be very toxic to diverse organisms. TBT in particular has been described as the most toxic pollutant ever deliberately released in the ocean.
2157:
1906:
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computers, swimming pools, drinking-water systems and other products that utilize liquid lines run the risk of biofouling as biological growth occurs inside them.
647:
have been used since early times. An
Aramaic record dating from 412 BC tells of a ship's bottom being coated with a mixture of arsenic, oil and sulphur. In
1552:"To treat or not to treat: a quantitative review of the effect of biofouling and control methods in shellfish aquaculture to evaluate the necessity of removal"
757:
and was referred to as "McIness" hot plastic paint. These treatments had a short service life, were expensive, and relatively ineffective by modern standards.
469:
Non-toxic anti-sticking coatings prevent attachment of microorganisms thus negating the use of biocides. These coatings are usually based on organic polymers.
1828:
1059:
1740:
Jiang, S.; Cao, Z. (2010), "Ultralow-Fouling, Functionalizable, and
Hydrolyzable Zwitterionic Materials and Their Derivatives for Biological Applications",
538:
Biocides are chemical substances that kill or deter microorganisms responsible for biofouling. The biocide is typically applied as a paint, i.e. through
738:
set about coppering the bottoms of the entire fleet and continued to the end of the use of wooden ships. The process was so successful that the term
1201:
Rouhi, A. Maureen (27 April 1998). "The
Squeeze On Tributyltins: Former EPA adviser voices doubts over regulations restricting antifouling paints".
227:. By the end of the first week, the rich nutrients and ease of attachment into the biofilm allow secondary colonizers of spores of macroalgae (e.g.
492:(slime) can coat the surfaces, which buries the chemical activity and allows microorganisms to attach. The current standard for these coatings is
837:
A study of the biotoxins used by organisms has revealed several effective compounds, some of which are more powerful than synthetic compounds.
118:
increased fuel use due to biofouling contributes to adverse environmental effects and is predicted to increase emissions of carbon dioxide and
2410:
2120:
1983:
972:
852:(PEG). Growing chains of PEG on surfaces is challenging. The resolution to this problem may come from understanding the mechanisms by which
43:
208:
343:. Besides interfering with mechanisms, biofouling also occurs on the surfaces of living marine organisms, when it is known as epibiosis.
2533:
2166:
777:
1936:
Sommerville, David C. (September 1986), "Development of a Site
Specific Biofouling Control Program for the Diablo Canyon Power Plant",
1271:"Waterborne microorganisms and biofilms related to hospital infections: strategies for prevention and control in healthcare facilities"
2394:
2063:
845:, was found to be over 100 times as potent as TBT, and over 6,000 times more effective in anti-settlement activity against barnacles.
800:
672:
Before the 18th century, various anti-fouling techniques were used, with three main substances employed: "White stuff", a mixture of
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causes the submerged surface to be covered with a conditioning film of organic polymers. In the next 24 hours, this layer allows the
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196:
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Medical devices often include fan-cooled heat sinks, to cool their electronic components. While these systems sometimes include
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Similarly, another method shown to be effective against algae buildups bounces brief high-energy acoustic pulses down pipes.
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335:
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sp.) to attach themselves. Within two to three weeks, the tertiary colonizers—the macrofoulers—have attached. These include
195:
Biofouling initial process: (left) Coating of submerged "substratum" with polymers. (moving right) Bacterial attachment and
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1912:
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Almeida, E; Diamantino, Teresa C.; De Sousa, Orlando (2007), "Marine paints: The particular case of antifouling paints",
555:
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surfaces. These coatings create a smooth surface, which can prevent attachment of larger microorganisms. For example,
203:
Marine fouling is typically described as following four stages of ecosystem development. Within the first minute the
1318:"Fungal Contaminants in Drinking Water Regulation? A Tale of Ecology, Exposure, Purification and Clinical Relevance"
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1832:
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Krishnan, S; Weinman, Craig J.; Ober, Christopher K. (2008), "Advances in polymers for anti-biofouling surfaces",
823:
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315:. Biofouling can occur in oil pipelines carrying oils with entrained water, especially those carrying used oils,
229:
513:
219:
727:, after which the bottoms and sides of several ships' keels and false keels were sheathed with copper plates.
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explicitly as an anti-fouling device but the first experiments were not made until 1761 with the sheathing of
1251:
827:
567:
2292:
Lappin-Scott, Hilary M. (2000), "Claude E. Zobell – his life and contributions to biofilm microbiology",
631:
Biofouling, especially of ships, has been a problem for as long as humans have been sailing the oceans.
2295:
Microbial
Biosystems: New Frontiers, Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Microbial Ecology
889:
811:
441:
A general idea of non-toxic coatings. (Coating represented here as light pea green layer.) They prevent
340:
168:
52:
1854:
Lee, TJ; Nakano, K; Matsumara, M (2001). "Ultrasonic irradiation for blue-green algae bloom control".
830:("plexiglas") demonstrate a high correlation between their resistance to bacterial adhesion and their
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2338:
1908:
Feasibility
Demonstration of a Pulsed Acoustic Device for Inhibition of Biofouling in Seawater Piping
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With the rise of iron hulls in the 19th century, copper sheathing could no longer be used due to its
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surface topologies similar to the skin of sharks and dolphins, which only offer poor anchor points.
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experiments linking the effectiveness of copper to its solute rate. In the 1930s microbiologist
776:(TBT) and were effective for up to four years. These biotoxins were subsequently banned by the
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easiest to detect is tryptophan, which radiates at 350 nm when irradiated at 280 nm.
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1911:, Bethesda, MD: Naval Surface Warfare Center Carderock Div., NSWCCD-TR-2000/04, archived from
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There are two classes of non-toxic anti-fouling coatings. The most common class relies on low
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that would inhibit further leaching of active cuprous oxide from the layer under the crust.
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were tried, and in 1860, the first practical paint to gain widespread use was introduced in
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383:(250–280 nm) equipment that can detect biofouling buildup, and can even prevent it.
2546:
2531:
Kirschner, Chelsea M; Brennan, Anthony B (2012), "Bio-Inspired
Antifouling Strategies",
2342:
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1503:
Sievers, Michael; Fitridge, Isla; Dempster, Tim; Keough, Michael J. (20 December 2012).
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2198:, 7, Organometallics in environment and toxicology, Cambridge: RSC publishing: 111–51,
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Gajda, M.; Jancso, A. (2010), "Organotins, formation, use, speciation and toxicology",
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Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (1952), "The History and Prevention of Foulng",
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Sievers, Michael; Fitridge, Isla; Bui, Samantha; Dempster, Tim (6 September 2017).
1536:
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37:
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1505:"Biofouling leads to reduced shell growth and flesh weight in the cultured mussel"
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described the anti-fouling efforts taken in the construction of the great ship of
1975:
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1945:
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558:. This compound, however, also suffers from broad toxicity to marine organisms.
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1666:"Clean Hulls Without Poisons: Devising and Testing Nontoxic Marine Coatings"
1359:
Fitridge, Isla; Dempster, Tim; Guenther, Jana; de Nys, Rocky (9 July 2012).
951:
Vladkova, T. (2009), "Surface Modification Approach to Control Biofouling",
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and microorganisms from attaching, which prevents large organisms such as
2380:
R. Oliveira; et al. (2001), "Hydrophobicity in Bacterial Adhesion",
1966:
Andersen, Bjørg Marit (2019). "Operation Department: Infection Control".
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The 1960s brought a breakthrough, with self-polishing paints that slowly
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Anti-fouling is the ability of specifically designed materials (such as
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224:
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1643:
1361:"The impact and control of biofouling in marine aquaculture: a review"
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546:. Other biocides are toxic to larger organisms in biofouling, such as
1727:
1228:
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (1952), "The Effects of Fouling",
853:
681:
600:
The medical industry utilizes a variety of energy methods to address
87:
2271:
Scripps Institution of Oceanography: Probing the Oceans 1936 to 1976
1269:
Capelletti, Raquel Vannucci; Moraes, Ă‚ngela Maria (7 August 2015).
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New hull coatings for Navy ships cut fuel use, protect environment
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60:
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31:
1322:
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
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adhere to solid surfaces in marine environments. Mussels utilize
742:
came to mean something that was highly dependable or risk free.
347:
83:
288:
performance of the vessel, and increases the fuel consumption.
179:, algae, and biofilm "slime". Together, these organisms form a
1607:"Photonic Frontiers: LEDs - UVC LEDs reduce marine biofouling"
860:, or MAPs. The service life of PEG coatings is also doubtful.
685:
620:
2137:
An Assessment of Ablative Organotin Antifouling (AF) Coatings
2008:
Photonic Frontiers: LEDs - UVC LEDs reduce marine biofouling
403:
is the process of preventing accumulations from forming. In
795:
showed that the attachment of organisms is preceded by the
2079:
The deipnosophists, or, Banquet of the learned of Athenæus
848:
One approach to antifouling entails coating surfaces with
810:
Materials research into superior antifouling surfaces for
171:. Examples of non-calcareous (soft) fouling organisms are
787:
Study of biofouling began in the early 19th century with
280:, since fouling on a ship's hull significantly increases
2113:
The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War 1600-1815
2043:, United States department of the Navy, Bureau of Ships
1237:, United States department of the Navy, Bureau of Ships
2095:
Plutarch (February 2002), "Essays and Miscellanies",
1060:"New Hull Coatings Cut Fuel Use, Protect Environment"
2383:
Biofilm community interactions: chance or necessity?
914:
912:
910:
908:
906:
904:
102:, underwater construction, and desalination plants.
2301:, Halifax, Canada: Society for Microbial Ecology,
1940:, IEEE Conference Publications, pp. 227–231,
992:"Modern approaches to marine antifouling coatings"
581:Pulsed laser irradiation is commonly used against
1968:Prevention and Control of Infections in Hospitals
768:, slowly releasing toxins. These paints employed
2411:"General Aspects of Tin-Free Antifouling Paints"
334:Other mechanisms impacted by biofouling include
2010:, Laser Focus World (July 2016) pp. 28–31
1104:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
211:to occur, with both diatoms and bacteria (e.g.
1252:"Sample records for oil-water emulsified fuel"
36:Current measurement instrument encrusted with
1905:Walch, M.; Mazzola, M.; Grothaus, M. (2000),
1788:
1786:
8:
2274:, San Diego, Calif: Tofua Press, p. 225
2243:Journal of Protective Coatings & Linings
355:the frictional effects leading to increased
1181:Biofouling: It's Not Just Barnacles Anymore
1100:"Designing biomimetic antifouling surfaces"
449:from attaching. Larger organisms require a
272:Dead biofouling, under a wood boat (detail)
223:) attaching, initiating the formation of a
122:between 38% and 72% by 2020, respectively.
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1171:
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985:
983:
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944:
942:
2484:
1384:
1343:
1333:
1123:
311:cycles of large industrial equipment and
107:toxic biocide paints, or non-toxic paints
51:) have covered (fouled) the sheath of an
2098:The Complete Works of Plutarch, Volume 3
2054:Culver, Henry E.; Grant, Gordon (1992),
799:of organic compounds now referred to as
542:. The biocides prevent the formation of
379:manufacturers have developed a range of
2029:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2019:
1203:Chemical & Engineering News Archive
1093:
1091:
900:
47:Plant organisms, bacteria and animals (
27:Growth of marine organisms on surfaces
1246:
1244:
139:formation and bacterial adhesion—and
7:
2555:10.1146/annurev-matsci-070511-155012
2467:Dalsin, J.; Messersmith, P. (2005).
1053:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1022:
1020:
711:in preparation for cleaning the hull
2534:Annual Review of Materials Research
2167:International Maritime Organization
2159:Focus on IMO - Anti-fouling systems
990:L.D. Chambers; et al. (2006).
778:International Maritime Organization
604:issues associated with biofouling.
109:) to remove or prevent biofouling.
2469:"Bioinspired antifouling polymers"
1482:10.1023/b:aqui.0000013310.17400.97
801:extracellular polymeric substances
25:
2236:"Redefining Antifouling Coatings"
2037:Marine Fouling and its Prevention
1231:Marine Fouling and its Prevention
1178:Stanczak, Marianne (March 2004),
643:(1500–300 BC). Wax, tar and
480:. Low surface energies result in
197:extracellular polymeric substance
147:(hard) fouling organisms include
953:Marine and Industrial Biofouling
772:("tin-based") biotoxins such as
516:to develop environmentally safe
453:to attach, which is composed of
1605:Venugopalan, Hari (July 2016).
1098:Salta, M.; et al. (2008).
999:Surface and Coatings Technology
955:, Springer Series on Biofilms,
875:Biomimetic antifouling coatings
2268:Shor, Elizabeth Noble (1978),
1716:Journal of Materials Chemistry
1670:Journal of Coatings Technology
1664:Brady, R.F. (1 January 2000),
1161:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2007.01.017
1011:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2006.08.129
933:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2003.06.001
684:; "Black stuff", a mixture of
534:Biomimetic antifouling coating
1:
2486:10.1016/S1369-7021(05)71079-8
1576:10.1080/08927014.2017.1361937
1027:Vietti, Peter (4 June 2009),
209:process of bacterial adhesion
2083:Volume I, Book V, Chapter 40
1976:10.1007/978-3-319-99921-0_35
1815:10.1016/0025-326X(94)00181-8
1521:10.1080/08927014.2012.749869
1431:10.1080/08927014.2013.856888
1386:10.1080/08927014.2012.700478
1149:Progress in Organic Coatings
921:Progress in Organic Coatings
703:Ships brought ashore on the
556:dichlorooctylisothiazolinone
307:spiral wound membranes) and
2204:10.1039/9781849730822-00111
2196:Metal Ions in Life Sciences
1946:10.1109/OCEANS.1986.1160543
1275:Journal of Water and Health
965:10.1007/978-3-540-69796-1_7
2597:
1033:, Office of Naval Research
664:A recorded explanation by
565:
550:. Formerly, the so-called
527:
2351:10.1080/08927010500484854
2115:, Conway Maritime Press,
1876:10.1080/09593332208618270
1795:Marine Pollution Bulletin
1462:Aquaculture International
1215:10.1021/cen-v076n017.p041
824:high-density polyethylene
230:Enteromorpha intestinalis
205:van der Waals interaction
2234:Swain, Geoffrey (1999).
2077:Athenaeus of Naucratis,
1058:Vietti, P. (Fall 2009).
514:Office of Naval Research
416:surface with the use of
339:is often removed with a
220:Pseudomonas putrefaciens
2135:Dowd, Theodore (1983).
1069:: 36–38. Archived from
749:interaction with iron.
284:, reducing the overall
239:) and protozoans (e.g.
199:(EPS) matrix formation.
74:is the accumulation of
2169:, 2002, archived from
2111:Lavery, Brian (2000),
2058:, Dover Publications,
1829:"Anti-fouling Systems"
1762:10.1002/adma.200901407
1335:10.3390/ijerph14060636
1125:10.1098/rsta.2010.0195
828:polymethylmethacrylate
812:fluidized bed reactors
712:
568:Ultrasonic antifouling
562:Ultrasonic antifouling
466:
273:
200:
64:
40:
2056:The Book of Old Ships
1938:Oceans 86 Proceedings
890:Corrosion engineering
702:
440:
412:surface, creating an
341:tube cleaning process
271:
194:
98:paper manufacturing,
46:
35:
1970:. pp. 453–489.
661:(died 467 BC).
494:polydimethylsiloxane
405:industrial processes
336:microelectrochemical
301:membrane bioreactors
295:, membrane systems (
214:Vibrio alginolyticus
2547:2012AnRMS..42..211K
2515:10.1021/ja00102a063
2509:(23): 10803–10804.
2409:Omae, Iwao (2003),
2343:2006Biofo..22...11C
2176:on 20 February 2014
1868:2001EnvTe..22..383L
1807:1995MarPB..30...14E
1754:2010AdM....22..920J
1638:(13): 10425–10428,
1568:2017Biofo..33..755S
1474:2003AqInt..11..545P
1423:2014Biofo..30..203S
1377:2012Biofo..28..649F
1287:10.2166/wh.2015.037
1116:2010RSPTA.368.4729S
1110:(1929): 4729–4754.
850:polyethylene glycol
770:organotin chemistry
751:Anti-fouling paints
540:physical adsorption
278:shipping industries
187:Ecosystem formation
63:, north of France).
2006:Hari Venugopalan,
1742:Advanced Materials
1682:10.1007/BF02698394
1256:World Wide Science
820:polyvinyl chloride
747:galvanic corrosive
713:
659:Hieron of Syracuse
467:
433:Non-toxic coatings
274:
201:
72:biological fouling
65:
49:freshwater sponges
41:
2432:10.1021/cr030669z
2122:978-0-85177-451-0
1985:978-3-319-99920-3
1722:(29): 3405–3413,
1644:10.1021/la101542m
1611:Laser Focus World
1076:on 5 October 2011
974:978-3-540-69794-7
858:adhesive proteins
818:plastics such as
814:suggest that low
774:tributyltin oxide
414:ultra-low fouling
181:fouling community
16:(Redirected from
2588:
2557:
2519:
2518:
2503:J. Am. Chem. Soc
2497:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2464:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2454:
2448:
2442:, archived from
2426:(9): 3431–3448,
2419:Chemical Reviews
2415:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2388:
2377:
2371:
2370:
2325:
2319:
2318:
2317:
2315:
2300:
2289:
2283:
2282:
2281:
2279:
2265:
2259:
2258:
2240:
2231:
2225:
2224:
2191:
2185:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2175:
2164:
2154:
2148:
2147:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2108:
2102:
2101:
2092:
2086:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2042:
2031:
2014:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1963:
1957:
1956:
1933:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1917:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1851:
1845:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1831:. Archived from
1825:
1819:
1818:
1790:
1781:
1780:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1728:10.1039/B801491D
1711:
1705:
1704:
1703:
1701:
1692:, archived from
1661:
1655:
1654:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1602:
1596:
1595:
1547:
1541:
1540:
1500:
1494:
1493:
1457:
1451:
1450:
1405:
1399:
1398:
1388:
1356:
1350:
1349:
1347:
1337:
1313:
1307:
1306:
1266:
1260:
1259:
1248:
1239:
1238:
1236:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1198:
1192:
1191:
1190:
1188:
1175:
1164:
1163:
1144:
1138:
1137:
1127:
1095:
1086:
1085:
1083:
1081:
1075:
1064:
1055:
1042:
1041:
1040:
1038:
1024:
1015:
1014:
1005:(4): 3642–3652.
996:
987:
978:
977:
948:
937:
936:
916:
721:copper sheathing
478:surface energies
319:, oils rendered
253:, mollusks, and
55:in a canal (Mid-
21:
2596:
2595:
2591:
2590:
2589:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2561:
2560:
2530:
2527:
2525:Further reading
2522:
2499:
2498:
2494:
2473:Materials Today
2466:
2465:
2461:
2452:
2450:
2449:on 24 June 2010
2446:
2413:
2408:
2407:
2403:
2397:
2386:
2379:
2378:
2374:
2327:
2326:
2322:
2313:
2311:
2309:
2298:
2291:
2290:
2286:
2277:
2275:
2267:
2266:
2262:
2238:
2233:
2232:
2228:
2214:
2193:
2192:
2188:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2162:
2156:
2155:
2151:
2134:
2133:
2129:
2123:
2110:
2109:
2105:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2076:
2072:
2066:
2053:
2052:
2048:
2040:
2033:
2032:
2017:
2005:
2001:
1986:
1965:
1964:
1960:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1921:
1919:
1918:on 8 April 2013
1915:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1856:Environ Technol
1853:
1852:
1848:
1838:
1836:
1835:on 11 June 2017
1827:
1826:
1822:
1792:
1791:
1784:
1739:
1738:
1734:
1713:
1712:
1708:
1699:
1697:
1696:on 11 June 2014
1663:
1662:
1658:
1627:
1626:
1622:
1604:
1603:
1599:
1549:
1548:
1544:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1459:
1458:
1454:
1407:
1406:
1402:
1358:
1357:
1353:
1315:
1314:
1310:
1268:
1267:
1263:
1250:
1249:
1242:
1234:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1200:
1199:
1195:
1186:
1184:
1177:
1176:
1167:
1146:
1145:
1141:
1097:
1096:
1089:
1079:
1077:
1073:
1062:
1057:
1056:
1045:
1036:
1034:
1026:
1025:
1018:
994:
989:
988:
981:
975:
950:
949:
940:
918:
917:
902:
898:
866:
740:copper-bottomed
650:Deipnosophistae
629:
594:
579:
570:
564:
536:
528:Main articles:
526:
520:ship coatings.
506:glycine betaine
459:polysaccharides
435:
430:
398:
393:
370:
305:reverse osmosis
266:
189:
128:
100:food processing
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2594:
2592:
2584:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2563:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2520:
2492:
2459:
2401:
2396:978-0952043294
2395:
2372:
2320:
2307:
2284:
2260:
2226:
2212:
2186:
2149:
2127:
2121:
2103:
2087:
2070:
2065:978-0486273327
2064:
2046:
2015:
1999:
1984:
1958:
1928:
1897:
1846:
1820:
1782:
1748:(9): 920–932,
1732:
1706:
1676:(900): 44–56,
1656:
1620:
1597:
1562:(9): 755–767.
1542:
1495:
1468:(6): 545–555.
1452:
1417:(2): 203–212.
1400:
1371:(7): 649–669.
1351:
1308:
1261:
1240:
1220:
1193:
1165:
1139:
1087:
1043:
1016:
979:
973:
959:(1): 135–163,
938:
899:
897:
894:
893:
892:
887:
882:
877:
872:
865:
862:
832:hydrophobicity
628:
625:
593:
590:
578:
577:Energy methods
575:
566:Main article:
563:
560:
525:
522:
486:fluoropolymers
463:microorganisms
434:
431:
429:
426:
420:, or creating
409:biodispersants
397:
394:
392:
389:
369:
366:
329:hydraulic oils
325:emulsification
313:power stations
265:
262:
188:
185:
127:
124:
120:sulfur dioxide
76:microorganisms
53:electric cable
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2593:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2535:
2529:
2528:
2524:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2496:
2493:
2487:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2463:
2460:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2420:
2412:
2405:
2402:
2398:
2392:
2385:
2384:
2376:
2373:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2324:
2321:
2310:
2308:9780968676332
2304:
2297:
2296:
2288:
2285:
2273:
2272:
2264:
2261:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2237:
2230:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2213:9781847551771
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2190:
2187:
2172:
2168:
2161:
2160:
2153:
2150:
2145:
2142:
2138:
2131:
2128:
2124:
2118:
2114:
2107:
2104:
2100:
2099:
2091:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2074:
2071:
2067:
2061:
2057:
2050:
2047:
2039:
2038:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2016:
2013:
2009:
2003:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1962:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1932:
1929:
1914:
1910:
1909:
1901:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1862:(4): 383–90.
1861:
1857:
1850:
1847:
1834:
1830:
1824:
1821:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1789:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1736:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1710:
1707:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1660:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1632:
1624:
1621:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1601:
1598:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1546:
1543:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1515:(1): 97–107.
1514:
1510:
1506:
1499:
1496:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1456:
1453:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1404:
1401:
1396:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1355:
1352:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1312:
1309:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1265:
1262:
1257:
1253:
1247:
1245:
1241:
1233:
1232:
1224:
1221:
1216:
1212:
1209:(17): 41–42.
1208:
1204:
1197:
1194:
1183:
1182:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1143:
1140:
1135:
1131:
1126:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1072:
1068:
1061:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1032:
1031:
1023:
1021:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
993:
986:
984:
980:
976:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
947:
945:
943:
939:
934:
930:
927:(2): 75–104.
926:
922:
915:
913:
911:
909:
907:
905:
901:
895:
891:
888:
886:
883:
881:
878:
876:
873:
871:
868:
867:
863:
861:
859:
855:
851:
846:
844:
840:
835:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
808:
804:
802:
798:
794:
793:Claude ZoBell
790:
785:
781:
779:
775:
771:
767:
762:
758:
756:
752:
748:
743:
741:
737:
733:
728:
726:
722:
718:
717:Charles Perry
710:
706:
705:Torres Strait
701:
697:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
676:(whale oil),
675:
670:
667:
662:
660:
656:
652:
651:
646:
642:
641:Carthaginians
638:
632:
626:
624:
622:
618:
614:
610:
607:
603:
598:
592:Other methods
591:
589:
586:
584:
576:
574:
569:
561:
559:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
535:
531:
523:
521:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
497:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
470:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
439:
432:
427:
425:
423:
419:
415:
410:
406:
402:
395:
390:
388:
384:
382:
378:
374:
367:
365:
361:
358:
352:
349:
344:
342:
337:
332:
330:
326:
322:
321:water-soluble
318:
314:
310:
309:cooling water
306:
302:
298:
294:
289:
287:
283:
279:
270:
263:
261:
259:
256:
252:
248:
244:
243:
238:
237:
232:
231:
226:
222:
221:
216:
215:
210:
206:
198:
193:
186:
184:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
161:zebra mussels
158:
154:
151:, encrusting
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
125:
123:
121:
116:
110:
108:
103:
101:
96:
95:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
62:
58:
54:
50:
45:
39:
38:zebra mussels
34:
30:
19:
2538:
2532:
2506:
2502:
2495:
2479:(9): 38–46.
2476:
2472:
2462:
2451:, retrieved
2444:the original
2423:
2417:
2404:
2382:
2375:
2337:(1): 11–21.
2334:
2330:
2323:
2312:, retrieved
2294:
2287:
2276:, retrieved
2270:
2263:
2249:(9): 26–35.
2246:
2242:
2229:
2195:
2189:
2178:, retrieved
2171:the original
2158:
2152:
2136:
2130:
2112:
2106:
2097:
2090:
2078:
2073:
2055:
2049:
2036:
2007:
2002:
1967:
1961:
1937:
1931:
1920:, retrieved
1913:the original
1907:
1900:
1859:
1855:
1849:
1837:. Retrieved
1833:the original
1823:
1801:(1): 14–21.
1798:
1794:
1745:
1741:
1735:
1719:
1715:
1709:
1698:, retrieved
1694:the original
1673:
1669:
1659:
1635:
1629:
1623:
1614:
1610:
1600:
1559:
1555:
1545:
1512:
1508:
1498:
1465:
1461:
1455:
1414:
1410:
1403:
1368:
1364:
1354:
1325:
1321:
1311:
1281:(1): 52–67.
1278:
1274:
1264:
1255:
1230:
1223:
1206:
1202:
1196:
1185:, retrieved
1180:
1152:
1148:
1142:
1107:
1103:
1078:. Retrieved
1071:the original
1066:
1035:, retrieved
1029:
1002:
998:
956:
952:
924:
920:
885:Bottom paint
847:
836:
809:
805:
786:
782:
763:
759:
744:
739:
729:
714:
671:
663:
648:
633:
630:
615:
611:
599:
595:
587:
580:
571:
537:
510:sulfobetaine
498:
471:
468:
400:
399:
385:
375:
371:
362:
353:
345:
333:
317:cutting oils
296:
290:
286:hydrodynamic
275:
246:
240:
234:
228:
218:
212:
202:
141:macrofouling
140:
133:microfouling
132:
129:
111:
104:
92:
71:
67:
66:
29:
2541:: 211–229,
2389:, BioLine,
1617:(7): 28–31.
1155:(1): 2–20,
880:Tributyltin
816:wettability
732:oxychloride
637:Phoenicians
606:Autoclaving
552:tributyltin
502:zwitterions
482:hydrophobic
418:zwitterions
401:Antifouling
396:Antifouling
293:mariculture
247:Zoothamnium
86:, or small
18:Antifouling
2565:Categories
2331:Biofouling
1556:Biofouling
1509:Biofouling
1411:Biofouling
1365:Biofouling
1328:(6): 636.
896:References
797:adsorption
736:Royal Navy
719:suggested
518:biomimetic
504:, such as
258:cnidarians
242:Vorticella
169:tube worms
167:and other
165:polychaete
145:Calcareous
68:Biofouling
2576:Pollution
2255:210981215
2144:ADA134019
2012:StackPath
1954:110171493
1778:205233845
1690:137350868
1295:1477-8920
843:bufotoxin
766:hydrolyze
755:Liverpool
725:HMS Alarm
715:In 1708,
694:shipworms
674:train oil
655:Athenaeus
645:asphaltum
613:plastic.
602:bioburden
447:barnacles
422:nanoscale
368:Detection
251:tunicates
153:bryozoans
149:barnacles
94:epibiosis
2440:12964877
2359:16551557
2222:20877806
1994:86654083
1892:22704787
1884:11329801
1770:20217815
1652:20518560
1631:Langmuir
1584:28876130
1529:23256892
1490:23263016
1447:13421038
1439:24401014
1395:22775076
1303:26837830
1134:20855318
1067:Currents
864:See also
709:careened
666:Plutarch
544:biofilms
524:Biocides
490:biofilms
476:and low
474:friction
455:proteins
443:proteins
428:Coatings
323:through
236:Ulothrix
177:hydroids
159:such as
157:mollusks
2581:Ecology
2571:Fouling
2543:Bibcode
2367:5810987
2339:Bibcode
1864:Bibcode
1839:10 June
1803:Bibcode
1750:Bibcode
1592:3490706
1564:Bibcode
1537:6743798
1470:Bibcode
1419:Bibcode
1373:Bibcode
1345:5486322
1112:Bibcode
870:Fouling
854:mussels
839:Bufalin
822:(PVC),
627:History
583:diatoms
530:Biocide
451:biofilm
391:Methods
255:sessile
225:biofilm
173:seaweed
137:biofilm
126:Biology
88:animals
2453:23 May
2438:
2393:
2365:
2357:
2314:23 May
2305:
2278:21 May
2253:
2220:
2210:
2180:22 May
2119:
2062:
1992:
1982:
1952:
1922:21 May
1890:
1882:
1776:
1768:
1700:22 May
1688:
1650:
1590:
1582:
1535:
1527:
1488:
1445:
1437:
1393:
1342:
1301:
1293:
1187:21 May
1132:
1080:6 June
1037:21 May
971:
789:Davy's
682:sulfur
461:, and
327:, and
264:Impact
163:, and
80:plants
2447:(PDF)
2414:(PDF)
2387:(PDF)
2363:S2CID
2299:(PDF)
2239:(PDF)
2174:(PDF)
2163:(PDF)
2041:(PDF)
1990:S2CID
1950:S2CID
1916:(pdf)
1888:S2CID
1774:S2CID
1686:S2CID
1588:S2CID
1533:S2CID
1486:S2CID
1443:S2CID
1235:(PDF)
1074:(PDF)
1063:(PDF)
995:(PDF)
690:pitch
678:rosin
548:algae
84:algae
61:Lille
57:Deûle
2455:2012
2436:PMID
2391:ISBN
2355:PMID
2316:2012
2303:ISBN
2280:2012
2251:OCLC
2218:PMID
2208:ISBN
2182:2012
2141:DTIC
2117:ISBN
2060:ISBN
1980:ISBN
1924:2012
1880:PMID
1841:2017
1766:PMID
1702:2012
1648:PMID
1580:PMID
1525:PMID
1435:PMID
1391:PMID
1299:PMID
1291:ISSN
1189:2012
1130:PMID
1082:2011
1039:2012
969:ISBN
841:, a
826:and
707:and
688:and
680:and
639:and
532:and
508:and
357:drag
348:HEPA
303:and
297:e.g.
282:drag
115:drag
2551:doi
2511:doi
2507:116
2481:doi
2428:doi
2424:103
2347:doi
2200:doi
2085:ff.
1972:doi
1942:doi
1872:doi
1811:doi
1758:doi
1724:doi
1678:doi
1640:doi
1572:doi
1517:doi
1478:doi
1427:doi
1381:doi
1340:PMC
1330:doi
1283:doi
1211:doi
1157:doi
1120:doi
1108:368
1007:doi
961:doi
929:doi
686:tar
621:DNA
617:UVC
381:UVC
377:LED
70:or
59:in
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2549:,
2539:42
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1948:,
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135:—
20:)
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