610:. The idea behind Batesian mimicry is that predators that have tried to eat the unpalatable species learn to associate its colors and markings with an unpleasant taste. This results in the predator learning to avoid species displaying similar colours and markings, including Batesian mimics, which are in effect parasitic on the chemical or other defences of the unprofitable models. Some species of octopus can mimic a selection of other animals by changing their skin color, skin pattern and body motion. When a damselfish attacks an octopus, the octopus mimics a banded sea-snake. The model chosen varies with the octopus's predator and habitat. Most of these octopuses use Batesian mimicry, selecting an organism repulsive to predators as a model.
992:
479:", causes the fawn's heart rate to drop from 155 to 38 beats per minute within one beat of the heart. This drop in heart rate can last up to two minutes, causing the fawn to experience a depressed breathing rate and decrease in movement, called tonic immobility. Tonic immobility is a reflex response that causes the fawn to enter a low body position that simulates the position of a corpse. Upon discovery of the fawn, the predator loses interest in the "dead" prey. Other symptoms of alarm bradycardia, such as salivation, urination, and defecation, can also cause the predator to lose interest.
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exceed those of lions for great distances, lions try to attack an ostrich when its head is down. By grouping, the ostriches present the lions with greater difficulty in determining how long the ostriches' heads stay down. Thus, although individual vigilance decreases, the overall vigilance of the group increases.
935:. Goshawks are less successful when attacking larger flocks of wood pigeons than they are when attacking smaller flocks. This is because the larger the flock size, the more likely it is that one bird will notice the hawk sooner and fly away. Once one pigeon flies off in alarm, the rest of the pigeons follow. Wild
52:. First, the predators approach their potential prey. Predators bite or try to swallow the hagfishes, but the hagfishes have already projected jets of slime (arrows) into the predators' mouths. Choking, the predators release the hagfishes and gag in an attempt to remove slime from their mouths and gill chambers.
681:. These fish have a sharp scalpel-like spine on the front of each of their tail fins, able to inflict deep wounds. The area around the spines is often brightly colored to advertise the defensive capability; predators often avoid the Sohal surgeonfish. Defensive spines may be detachable, barbed or poisonous.
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secrete enormous amounts of mucus when it is provoked or stressed. The gelatinous slime has dramatic effects on the flow and viscosity of water, rapidly clogging the gills of any fish that attempt to capture hagfish; predators typically release the hagfish within seconds. Common predators of hagfish
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and his colleagues as an example of this. When stationary, a single zebra stands out because of its large size. To reduce the risk of attack, zebras often travel in herds. The striped patterns of all the zebras in the herd may confuse the predator, making it harder for the predator to focus in on an
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or other snake, a "chutter". The monkeys hearing these calls respond defensively, but differently in each case: to the eagle call, they look up and run into cover; to the leopard call, they run up into the trees; to the snake call, they stand on two legs and look around for snakes, and on seeing the
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also seeds of plants, make use of poisonous chemicals for self-defence. These may be concentrated in surface structures such as spines or glands, giving an attacker a taste of the chemicals before it actually bites or swallows the prey animal: many toxins are bitter-tasting. A last-ditch defence is
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in Tsavo
National Park in Kenya feed either alone or in groups of up to four birds. They are subject to predation by lions. As the ostrich group size increases, the frequency at which each individual raises its head to look for predators decreases. Because ostriches are able to run at speeds that
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to explain why animals seek central positions in a group. The theory's central idea is to reduce the individual's domain of danger. A domain of danger is the area within the group in which the individual is more likely to be attacked by a predator. The center of the group has the lowest domain of
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of North
America have evolved to eliminate their shadow and blend in with the ground. The bodies of these lizards are flattened, and their sides thin towards the edge. This body form, along with the white scales fringed along their sides, allows the lizards to effectively hide their shadows. In
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A radical strategy for avoiding predators which may otherwise kill a large majority of the emerging stage of a population is to emerge very rarely, at irregular intervals. Predators with a life-cycle of one or a few years are unable to reproduce rapidly enough in response to such an emergence.
1140:), as a last defence. Canids often drop horned lizards after being squirted, and attempt to wipe or shake the blood out of their mouths, suggesting that the fluid has a foul taste; they choose other lizards if given the choice, suggesting a learned aversion towards horned lizards as prey.
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occurs when an organism (the mimic) simulates signal properties of another organism (the model) to confuse a third organism. This results in the mimic gaining protection, food, and mating advantages. There are two classical types of defensive mimicry: Batesian and Müllerian. Both involve
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when threatened. The stomach oil is made from their aquatic diets. It causes the predator's feathers to mat, leading to the loss of flying ability and the loss of water repellency. This is especially dangerous for aquatic birds because their water repellent feathers protect them from
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are able to shoot squirts of blood from their eyes, by rapidly increasing the blood pressure within the eye sockets, if threatened. Because an individual may lose up to 53% of blood in a single squirt, this is only used against persistent predators like foxes, wolves and coyotes
230:
uses any combination of materials, coloration, or illumination for concealment to make the organism hard to detect by sight. It is common in both terrestrial and marine animals. Camouflage can be achieved in many different ways, such as through resemblance to surroundings,
177:
used by animals to either avoid predation or to enhance prey hunting. Predation risk has long been recognized as critical in shaping behavioral decisions. For example, this predation risk is of prime importance in determining the time of evening emergence in echolocating
421:, jumping high with stiff legs and an arched back. This is thought to signal to predators that they have a high level of fitness and can outrun the predator. As a result, predators may choose to pursue a different prey that is less likely to outrun them.
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Defensive structures such as spines may be used both to ward off attack as already mentioned, and if need be to fight back against a predator. Methods of fighting back include chemical defences, mobbing, defensive regurgitation, and suicidal altruism.
761:
are insects that live on the surface of fresh water, and are attacked from beneath by predatory fish. Experiments varying the group size of the water striders showed that the attack rate per individual water strider decreases as group size increases.
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with zigzagging or jinking flight. In the tropical rain forests of
Southeast Asia in particular, many vertebrates escape predators by falling and gliding. Among the insects, many moths turn sharply, fall, or perform a powered dive in response to the
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In the improved vigilance effect, groups are able to detect predators sooner than solitary individuals. For many predators, success depends on surprise. If the prey is alerted early in an attack, they have an improved chance of escape. For example,
194:. They forage in relatively open habitats, and reduce their activity outside their nest burrows in response to moonlight. During a full moon, they shift their activity towards areas of relatively dense cover to compensate for the extra brightness.
381:, so as to scare off or momentarily distract a predator, thus giving the prey animal an opportunity to escape. In the absence of toxins or other defences, this is essentially bluffing, in contrast to aposematism which involves honest signals.
3386:
Eisner, Thomas; Jones, Tappey H.; Aneshansley, Daniel J.; Tschinkel, Walter R.; Silberglied, Robert E.; Meinwald, Jerrold (1977). "Chemistry of defensive secretions of bombardier beetles (Brachinini, Metriini, Ozaenini, Paussini)".
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has specialized glands on the tip of its abdomen that allows it to direct a toxic spray towards predators. The spray is generated explosively through oxidation of hydroquinones and is sprayed at a temperature of 100 °C.
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Individuals living in large groups may be safer from attack because the predator may be confused by the large group size. As the group moves, the predator has greater difficulty targeting an individual prey animal. The
3416:
1186:, a common predator. The male red colobus monkeys group together and place themselves between predators and the group's females and juveniles. The males jump together and actively bite the chimpanzees.
1633:
Daly, M.; Behrends, P.R.; Wilson, M.; Jacobs, L. (1992). "Behavioural modulation of predation risk: moonlight avoidance and crepuscular compensation in a nocturnal desert rodent, Dipodomys merriami".
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In communal defence, prey groups actively defend themselves by grouping together, and sometimes by attacking or mobbing a predator, rather than allowing themselves to be passive victims of predation.
745:
proposed that group living evolved because it provides benefits to the individual rather than to the group as a whole, which becomes more conspicuous as it becomes larger. One common example is the
797:. Using decoy seals, the researchers varied the distance between the decoys to produce different domains of danger. The seals with a greater domain of danger had an increased risk of shark attack.
711:, have numerous protuberances and stinging spines along their dorsal surfaces. Species that possess these stinging spines suffer less predation than larvae that lack them, and a predator, the
433:, benefiting both predator and prey: the predator is informed that it has been detected and might as well save time and energy by giving up the chase, while the prey is protected from attack.
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to protect the entire colony, so the self-destructive acts benefit all individuals in the colony. When a worker ant's leg is grasped, it suicidally expels the contents of its hypertrophied
425:
and other prey mammals flag with conspicuous (often black and white) tail markings when alarmed, informing the predator that it has been detected. Warning calls given by birds such as the
1233:
chicks vomit a bright orange, foul smelling liquid when they sense danger. This repels prospective predators and may alert their parents to danger: they respond by delaying their return.
757:
often attacks these horses, sucking blood and carrying diseases. When the flies are most numerous, the horses gather in large groups, and individuals are indeed attacked less frequently.
606:, a palatable, harmless prey species mimics the appearance of another species that is noxious to predators, thus reducing the mimic's risk of attack. This form of mimicry is seen in many
1274:, expelling corrosive irritant compounds and adhesives onto the predator. These prevent predation and serve as a signal to other enemy ants to stop predation of the rest of the colony.
551:
attract the attention of predators away from an object, typically the nest or young, that is being protected, as when some birds feign a broken wing while hopping about on the ground.
1313:, according to the animal's capabilities. Escape paths are often erratic, making it difficult for the predator to predict which way the prey will go next: for example, birds such as
71:. Throughout the animal kingdom, adaptations have evolved for every stage of this struggle, namely by avoiding detection, warding off attack, fighting back, or escaping when caught.
2530:"Crypsis, conspicuousness, mimicry and polyphenism as antipredator defences of foraging octopuses on Indo-Pacific coral reefs, with a method of quantifying crypsis form video tapes"
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In a group, prey seek central positions in order to reduce their domain of danger. Individuals along the outer edges of the group are more at risk of being targeted by the predator.
2179:
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are birds which may nest either solitarily or in colonies. Within colonies, fieldfares mob and defecate on approaching predators, shown experimentally to reduce predation levels.
3869:
Peterson, Steven C., Nelson D. Johnson, and John L. LeGuyader (1987). "Defensive
Regurgitation of Allelochemicals Derived From Host Cyanogenesis By Eastern Tent Caterpillars".
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accurately squirt venom from their fangs at the eyes of potential predators, striking their target eight times out of ten, and causing severe pain. Termite soldiers in the
121:, despite the increased conspicuousness of a group, through improved vigilance, predator confusion, and the likelihood that the predator will attack some other individual.
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shed their tails when attacked: the tail goes on writhing for a while, distracting the predator, and giving the lizard time to escape; a smaller tail slowly regrows.
173:. Nocturnality is an animal behavior characterized by activity during the night and sleeping during the day. This is a behavioral form of detection avoidance called
4167:
Geffroy, Benjamin; Sadoul, Bastien; Putman, Breanna J.; Berger-Tal, Oded; Garamszegi, László Zsolt; Møller, Anders Pape; Blumstein, Daniel T. (22 September 2020).
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danger, so animals are predicted to strive constantly to gain this position. Testing
Hamilton's selfish herd effect, Alta De Vos and Justin O'Rainn (2010) studied
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1305:
The normal reaction of a prey animal to an attacking predator is to flee by any available means, whether flying, gliding, falling, swimming, running, jumping,
902:
snake, they sometimes mob it. Similar calls are found in other species of monkey, while birds also give different calls that elicit different responses.
2127:
Derby, Charles D. (December 2007). "Escape by Inking and
Secreting: Marine Molluscs Avoid Predators Through a Rich Array of Chemicals and Mechanisms".
991:
689:'s short spines, which are modified hairs, readily bend, and are barbed into the body, so they are not easily lost; they may be jabbed at an attacker.
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190:. This results in an optimum evening emergence time that is a compromise between the conflicting demands. Another nocturnal adaptation can be seen in
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death to avoid being attacked by predators seeking live prey. Thanatosis can also be used by the predator in order to lure prey into approaching.
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A dilution effect is seen when animals living in a group "dilute" their risk of attack, each individual being just one of many in the group.
2050:
Alboni, Paolo; Alboni, Marco; Bertorelle, Giorgio (2008). "The origin of vasovagal syncope: to protect the heart or to escape predation?".
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regurgitate when disturbed by ants. The vomit of noctuid moths has repellent and irritant properties that help to deter predator attacks.
3571:
Sherbrooke, W.C. (2001). "Do vertebral-line patterns in two horned lizards (Phrynosoma spp.) mimic plant-stem shadows and stem litter?".
2226:
4325:
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3555:
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Foster, W.A.; Treherne, J.E. (1981). "Evidence for the dilution effect in the selfish herd from fish predation on a marine insect".
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in a last-ditch attempt to elude a predator's grasp or to distract the predator and thereby allow escape. The lost body part may be
3216:
Stanford, Craig B (1995). "The influence of chimpanzee predation on group size and anti-predator behavior in red colobus monkeys".
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is the harassing of a predator by many prey animals. Mobbing is usually done to protect the young in social colonies. For example,
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1444:
had markedly reduced the antipredator responses of animals such as rats and pigeons; similar changes are observed in captive and
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give themselves a last chance to escape by distracting their attackers. To do this, they eject a mixture of chemicals, which may
1466:
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of fish. Experiments provide direct evidence for the decrease in individual attack rate seen with group living, for example in
294:
Another way to remain unattacked in plain sight is to look different from other members of the same species. Predators such as
3977:
Jones, T.H.; Clark, D.A.; Edwards, A.; Davidson, D.W.; Spande, T.F.; Snelling, R.R. (2004). "The chemistry of exploding ants,
280:, a South American bird, habitually perches on a tree, convincingly resembling a broken stump of a branch, while a butterfly,
4253:
1935:
Bergstrom, C. T.; Lachmann, M. (2001). "Alarm calls as costly signals of antipredator vigilance: the watchful babbler game".
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Predators may feast on the emerging population, but are unable to consume more than a fraction of the brief surfeit of prey.
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spines are long, stiff, break at the tip, and in some species are barbed to stick into a would-be predator. In contrast, the
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Andersson, Malte; Wiklund, Christer G. (1978). "Clumping versus spacing out: Experiments on nest predation in fieldfares (
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fawns, which experience a drop in heart rate in response to approaching predators. This response, referred to as "alarm
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146:
4169:"Evolutionary dynamics in the Anthropocene: Life history and intensity of human contact shape antipredator responses"
414:
Pursuit-deterrent signals are behavioral signals used by prey to convince predators not to pursue them. For example,
182:. Although early access during brighter times permits easier foraging, it also leads to a higher predation risk from
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692:
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Duncan, P.; Vigne, N. (1979). "The effect of group size in horses on the rate of attacks by blood-sucking flies".
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is a sharp, needle-like structure used to inflict pain on predators. An example of this seen in nature is in the
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include seabirds, pinnipeds and cetaceans, but few fish, suggesting that predatory fish avoid hagfish as prey.
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1104:"many centimeters". The material is sticky and toxic to other insects. One of the terpenes in the secretion,
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Group living can decrease the risk of predation to the individual in a variety of ways, as described below.
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244:
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Alternatively, prey animals may ward off attack, whether by advertising the presence of strong defences in
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1944:
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1765:(2005). "The role of eyespots as anti-predator mechanisms, principally demonstrated in the Lepidoptera".
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625:. Birds avoid eating both species because their wing patterns honestly signal their unpleasant taste.
32:
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individual zebra. Furthermore, when moving rapidly, the zebra stripes create a confusing, flickering
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selectively hunt for abundant types of insect, ignoring less common types that were present, forming
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83:
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Vincent, J. F. V.; Owers, P. (1986). "Mechanical design of hedgehog spines and porcupine quills".
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Many animals are protected against predators with armour in the form of hard shells (such as most
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243:, self-decoration, cryptic behavior, or changeable skin patterns and colour. Animals such as the
102:
2180:"Chemical Composition of Inks of Diverse Marine Molluscs Suggests Convergent Chemical Defenses"
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1100:, a gland on the front of their head which can secrete and shoot an accurate jet of resinous
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2765:"Stinging spines protect slug caterpillars (Limacodidae) from multiple generalist predators"
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regurgitates a droplet of digestive fluid to repel attacking ants. Similarly, larvae of the
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915:
603:
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2178:
Derby, Charles D.; Kicklighter, Cynthia E.; Johnson, P. M. & Xu Zhang (29 March 2007).
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or otherwise confuse predators. In response to a predator, animals in these groups release
248:
addition, these lizards hide any remaining shadows by pressing their bodies to the ground.
3420:
3357:
2944:"Sharks shape the geometry of a selfish seal herd: experimental evidence from seal decoys"
1857:(1986). "The functions of stotting in Thomson's gazelles: Some tests of the predictions".
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follows a zigzagging path, often doubling back erratically, when chased by a fish-eating
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Some prey animals are able to eject noxious materials to deter predators actively. The
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Endler, J. A. (1981). "An overview of the relationships between mimicry and crypsis".
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The first line of defence consists in avoiding detection, through mechanisms such as
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3796:
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2569:
Holen, O.H.; Johnstone, R. A. (2004). "The
Evolution of Mimicry under Constraints".
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2001:
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836:, which emerge at intervals of 13 or 17 years, are often used as an example of this
256:
4406:
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Ritland, D. B. (1995). "Comparative unpalatability of mimetic viceroy butterflies (
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Hingston, R. W. G. (1927). "The liquid-squirting habit of oriental grasshoppers".
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Murphy, Shannon M.; Leahy, Susannah M.; Williams, Laila S.; Lill, John T. (2010).
197:
4285:
Avoiding Attack: The
Evolutionary Ecology of Crypsis, Warning Signals and Mimicry
4185:
3836:
2435:"Contributions to an insect fauna of the Amazon valley. Lepidoptera: Heliconidae"
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can sacrifice a claw, which can be regrown over several successive moults; among
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94:
3812:"Armed Rollers: Does Nestling's Vomit Function as a Defence against Predators?"
3608:"Canid Elicitation of Blood-Squirting in a Horned Lizard (Phrynosoma Cornutum)"
1367:
can distract predators, continuing to writhe while the lizard makes its escape.
943:
395:
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Some birds and insects use defensive regurgitation to ward off predators. The
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secrete noxious liquids when threatened, sometimes ejecting these forcefully.
810:
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522:
227:
222:
201:
187:
162:
75:
4194:
3252:"The Incidence, Functions and Ecological Significance of Petrel Stomach Oils"
3251:
464:. Thanatosis is a form of bluff in which an animal mimics its own dead body,
161:
Animals may avoid becoming prey by living out of sight of predators, whether
4147:
2781:
2764:
1980:
Getty, T. (2002). "The discriminating babbler meets the optimal diet hawk".
1428:
1411:
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840:, though other explanations of their unusual life-cycle have been proposed.
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682:
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60:
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2672:; a remarkable case of mimicry in butterflies. (R. Meldola translation.)".
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1993:
1958:
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545:, affecting the predator's feeding senses, causing it to attack the cloud.
3810:
Parejo, D; Avilés, JM; Peña, A; Sánchez, L; Ruano, F; et al. (2013).
3475:"The buccal buckle: The functional morphology of venom spitting in cobras"
3096:
2928:
1892:
Bildstein, Keith L. (May 1983). "Why White-Tailed Deer Flag Their Tails".
805:
4237:
4042:
Tropical rain forests : an ecological and biogeographical comparison
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3927:
3730:
Lim, Jeanette; Fudge, Douglas F.; Levy, Nimrod; Gosline, John M. (2006).
3326:
Hulme, P. E.; Benkman, C. W. (2002). Herrera, C. M.; Pellmyr, O. (eds.).
1854:
1424:, including the use of ink as a distraction, camouflage, and signalling.
1384:
1372:
1364:
1351:
1267:
1025:
686:
518:
492:
418:
403:
362:
183:
68:
3700:
2148:
4445:
4435:
4303:
3898:
3708:
3675:
Sherbrooke, Wade C.; George, A. Middendorf III; Douglas, M. E. (2004).
3631:
3196:
3194:
3192:
2400:
2036:
2015:
Pasteur, Georges (1982). "A classificatory review of mimicry systems".
1913:
1492:"Hagfish Slime as a Defense Mechanism against Gill-breathing Predators"
1414:
recorded observations (around 350 BC) of the antipredator behaviour of
1144:
1137:
1101:
936:
932:
894:
859:
663:
655:
588:
560:
530:
514:
415:
282:
174:
98:
49:
3748:
3731:
3491:
3474:
3414:"See It to Believe It: Animals Vomit, Spurt Blood to Thwart Predators"
3145:
Stevens, M; Searle, WT; Seymour, JE; Marshall, KL; Ruxton, GD (2011).
1515:
3681:) to Antipredator Blood-Squirting and Blood of Texas Horned Lizards (
2874:
2282:
2280:
2140:
1441:
1400:
1360:
1167:
1105:
617:, two or more aposematic forms share the same warning signals, as in
607:
400:
323:
3890:
3623:
3607:
2434:
1832:
1162:
3473:
Young, B. A.; Dunlap, K.; Koenig, K.; Singer, M. (September 2004).
3110:
Bertram, Brian C. (1980). "Vigilance and group size in ostriches".
2582:
1905:
1431:
wrote a compendious study of camouflage, mimicry, and aposematism,
889:
give different calls depending on the nature of the attack: for an
339:
Many species make use of behavioral strategies to deter predators.
3283:"A review on self-destructive defense behaviors in social insects"
1490:; Stewart, Andrew L.; Struthers, Carl D.; Harvey, Euan S. (2011).
1396:
1355:
1314:
1283:
1197:
1161:
990:
962:
948:
942:
909:
890:
863:
855:
842:
804:
764:
691:
627:
568:
526:
486:
446:
394:
317:
295:
277:
255:
196:
145:
31:
3926:
Smedley, Scott R., Elizabeth
Ehrhardt, and Thomas Eisner (1993).
3732:"Hagfish Slime Ecomechanics: testing the gill-clogging mechanics"
3147:"Motion dazzle and camouflage as distinct anti-predator defenses"
1388:
354:
179:
64:
4307:
2479:
Norman, Mark; Finn, Julian; Tregenza, Tom (September 7, 2001).
1112:. Seeds deter predation with combinations of toxic non-protein
4118:
4116:
4114:
4112:
3369:
3367:
599:, or warning signals, to avoid being attacked by a predator.
2993:"The ecology, behavior, and evolution of periodical cicadas"
302:
of the desired prey. This creates a mechanism for negative
1258:
An unusual type of predator deterrence is observed in the
373:
such as octopuses, make use of patterns of threatening or
1589:
Duverge, P.L.; Jones, G; Rydell, J.; Ransome, R. (2000).
1056:
similarly release blood at their joints when threatened (
3067:
Pulliam, H. R. (1973). "On the advantages of flocking".
1835:. The Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland
813:: millions emerge at once, at long intervals, likely to
2528:
Hanlon, R.T.; Forsythe, J.W.; Joneschild, D.E. (1999).
1462:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
113:, by using defensive structures such as spines, and by
3276:
3274:
3272:
2379:) from four south-eastern United States populations".
1236:
Numerous insects utilize defensive regurgitation. The
1032:. Many insects acquire toxins from their food plants;
1739:. University of California, Riverside. Archived from
1591:"Functional significance of emergence timing in bats"
1170:
in defensive formation, horns ready, and highly alert
1020:
for the animal's flesh itself to be toxic, as in the
715:, chooses larvae without spines when given a choice.
4045:(2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 197, 200.
3245:
3243:
3241:
3239:
2674:
1584:
1582:
1001:, exuding a drop of noxious red liquid (upper right)
4389:
4341:
4299:
Antipredatory Behavior lecture by William E. Cooper
3606:Middendorf, George A.; Sherbrooke, Wade C. (1992).
3516:"Cobras Spit Venom at Eyes With Nearly Perfect Aim"
3448:
Transactions of the Entomological Society of London
3321:
3319:
3200:
2286:
1554:. University of California Press. pp. 117–118.
410:
to the predator that the chase will be unprofitable
36:Anti-predator adaptation in action: the seal shark
4264:
3928:"Defensive Regurgitation by a Noctuid Moth Larva (
2326:
2324:
2322:
1666:
1664:
584:, similar in appearance, unpalatable to predators.
4069:Trace Fossils: Biology, Taxonomy and Applications
4039:Corlett, Richard T.; Primack, Richard B. (2011).
3670:
3668:
1460: – Psychological impact induced by predators
29:Defensive feature of prey for selective advantage
3281:Davidson, D.W.; Salim, K.A.; Billen, J. (2011).
1552:Introduction to horned lizards of North America
1545:
1543:
2704:
2702:
2700:
1628:
1626:
1387:discard stinging papillae; arthropods such as
1218:vomits a bright orange, oily substance called
4319:
3034:. Oxford University Press. pp. 113–121.
2942:De Vos, A.; O'Riain, M. J. (September 2009).
2612:Norman, M.D.; Finn, J.; Tregenza, T. (2001).
2091:
2089:
1375:(self-amputation), shedding one of their own
885:that give warning of an attack. For example,
67:organisms in their constant struggle against
8:
3962:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3911:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2614:"Dynamic Mimicry in an Indo-Malayan Octopus"
2481:"Dynamic mimicry in an Indo-Malayan octopus"
1469: – Plants' defenses against being eaten
3429:blog, 28 July 2009, retrieved 17 March 2010
3211:
3209:
2370:
2368:
1440:By the 21st century, adaptation to life in
1182:monkeys exhibit mobbing when threatened by
101:animals which do possess such defences, by
4326:
4312:
4304:
4242:Antipredator Defenses in Birds and Mammals
4034:
4032:
666:), or tough chitinous exoskeletons (as in
377:, such as suddenly displaying conspicuous
4349:Coloration evidence for natural selection
4202:
4184:
3947:
3845:
3835:
3747:
3490:
3172:
3162:
2967:
2899:(1971). "Geometry for the selfish herd".
2790:
2780:
2637:
2553:
2534:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
2504:
2464:Stearns, Stephen; Hoekstra, Rolf (2005).
2356:
2337:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
2301:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
1948:
1614:
1523:
1015:Many prey animals, and to defend against
4093:Kruszelnicki, Karl S. (August 9, 1999).
3645:Pianka, Erika R. & Wendy L. Hodges.
2694:. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 96–97.
2017:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
784:The selfish herd theory was proposed by
353:Many weakly-defended animals, including
332:, attempting to startle a predator with
4134:
4122:
3441:
3439:
3437:
3435:
3373:
2805:
2468:. Oxford University Press. p. 464.
1478:
1143:The slime glands along the body of the
881:Animals that live in groups often give
499:from its nest by feigning a broken wing
3955:
3904:
3353:
3343:
2991:Williams, K.S. & C. Simon (1995).
276:as inedible objects. For example, the
4105:from the original on October 1, 2016.
3649:. University of Texas. Archived from
3514:Mayell, Hillary (February 10, 2005).
2690:Thomas, Craig. Scott, Susan. (1997).
1486:Zintzen, Vincent; Roberts, Clive D.;
1131:A few vertebrate species such as the
7:
3054:
1833:"Octopus vulgaris. Dymantic display"
1718:
1706:
1694:
1682:
1670:
1206:chick protects itself with a jet of
965:has been suggested by the zoologist
460:Another pursuit-deterrent signal is
4156:. Vol. IX. pp. 621b–622a.
3736:The Journal of Experimental Biology
3014:10.1146/annurev.en.40.010195.001413
2439:Transactions of the Linnean Society
2259:(2nd ed.). CRC Press. p.
2029:10.1146/annurev.es.13.110182.001125
974:effect in the eye of the predator.
272:Animals can hide in plain sight by
109:that pursuit is not worthwhile, by
4007:10.1023/b:joec.0000042063.01424.28
3460:10.1111/j.1365-2311.1927.tb00060.x
2723:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1986.tb03620.x
2451:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1860.tb00146.x
2331:Holmgren, H.; Enquist, M. (1999).
2313:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1981.tb01840.x
1616:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2000.tb00258.x
707:Many species of slug caterpillar,
25:
3201:Ruxton, Sherratt & Speed 2004
2287:Ruxton, Sherratt & Speed 2004
897:or other cat, a loud bark; for a
662:), leathery or scaly skin (as in
59:are mechanisms developed through
2618:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
2485:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
951:is hard to catch amongst a herd.
3936:Psyche: A Journal of Entomology
3543:Sociobiology: the New Synthesis
3479:Journal of Experimental Biology
3330:. Blackwell. pp. 132–154.
2333:"Dynamics of mimicry evolution"
2108:from the original on 2021-09-24
1467:Plant defense against herbivory
286:, looks just like a dead leaf.
4255:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
4244:. University of Chicago Press.
3259:New Zealand Ecological Society
2901:Journal of Theoretical Biology
2742:. Reaktion Books. p. 10.
2736:Warwick, Hugh (15 June 2014).
2096:Inman, Mason (29 March 2005).
1831:Smith, Ian (3 December 2012).
1568:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
1434:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
1036:caterpillars accumulate toxic
918:, chases up an alert flock of
471:An example of this is seen in
1:
4095:"Real Wheel Animals—Part Two"
4072:. Routledge. pp. 69–72.
3124:10.1016/S0003-3472(80)80030-3
1871:10.1016/S0003-3472(86)80052-5
1647:10.1016/s0003-3472(05)80748-1
304:frequency-dependent selection
208:, its flattened, fringed and
4283:; Speed, Michael P. (2004).
4186:10.1371/journal.pbio.3000818
4066:Bromley, Richard G. (2012).
3837:10.1371/journal.pone.0068862
3789:10.1016/0003-3472(78)90110-0
3401:10.1016/0022-1910(77)90162-7
3389:Journal of Insect Physiology
3230:10.1016/0003-3472(95)90033-0
3089:10.1016/0022-5193(73)90184-7
2921:10.1016/0022-5193(71)90189-5
2832:10.1016/0003-3472(79)90201-x
2098:"Sea Hares Lose Their Lunch"
1571:. London: Methuen. pp.
1371:Some animals are capable of
1124:and amylase inhibitors, and
893:, a disyllabic cough; for a
3987:Journal of Chemical Ecology
3001:Annual Review of Entomology
2251:Barrows, Edward M. (2001).
2187:Journal of Chemical Ecology
2052:Clinical Autonomic Research
1325:evade fast raptors such as
117:. Members of groups are at
4503:
4258:. Oxford University Press.
2466:Evolution: An Introduction
1550:Sherbrooke, W. C. (2003).
1349:
1251:
1155:
1004:
931:flocks are preyed upon by
874:
820:
777:
722:
558:
502:
462:thanatosis or playing dead
440:
388:
346:
220:
139:
128:
107:signalling to the predator
4263:Edmunds, Malcolm (1974).
3677:"Responses of Kit Foxes (
3302:10.1007/s00040-011-0210-x
2207:10.1007/s10886-007-9279-0
2064:10.1007/s10286-008-0479-7
1808:Edmunds, Malcolm (2012).
1779:10.1017/S1464793105006810
1458:Ecology of fear (concept)
1296:fly from possible danger.
1158:Mobbing (animal behavior)
385:Pursuit-deterrent signals
119:reduced risk of predation
86:, living underground, or
57:Anti-predator adaptations
48:(d–f) attempt to prey on
4487:Antipredator adaptations
4402:Anti-predator adaptation
4099:Great Moments in Science
3548:Harvard University Press
3030:; Harper, David (2003).
1733:"Antipredatory Behavior"
1238:eastern tent caterpillar
995:The bloody-nose beetle,
854:that warn of attacks by
753:in Southern France. The
541:, creating a cloud, and
235:, shadow elimination by
42:(a–c) and the wreckfish
18:Antipredator adaptations
4376:Paradox of the plankton
2571:The American Naturalist
2129:The Biological Bulletin
1894:The American Naturalist
1407:History of observations
1260:Malaysian exploding ant
1194:Defensive regurgitation
555:Mimicry and aposematism
452:Eastern hog-nosed snake
245:flat-tail horned lizard
212:body eliminating shadow
206:flat-tail horned lizard
4153:The History of Animals
3593:10.1006/jare.2001.0852
3164:10.1186/1741-7007-9-81
2960:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0628
2630:10.1098/rspb.2001.1708
2555:10.1006/bijl.1998.0264
2497:10.1098/rspb.2001.1708
2358:10.1006/bijl.1998.0269
1994:10.1006/anbe.2001.1890
1959:10.1006/anbe.2000.1636
1368:
1297:
1227:when diving for food.
1211:
1171:
1060:). Several species of
1002:
952:
923:
867:
818:
770:
704:
646:
585:
500:
497:distracting a predator
457:
411:
343:Startling the predator
336:
269:
213:
210:disruptively patterned
158:
53:
4342:Patterns of evolution
3526:on November 10, 2005.
3250:Warham, John (1977).
2792:10.1093/beheco/arp166
2782:10.1093/beheco/arp166
2692:All Stings Considered
1359:
1287:
1252:Further information:
1201:
1165:
1156:Further information:
1118:cyanogenic glycosides
1085:Tegra novaehollandiae
1005:Further information:
994:
946:
913:
846:
808:
768:
723:Further information:
695:
631:
572:
490:
450:
398:
389:Further information:
321:
259:
233:disruptive coloration
200:
149:
129:Further information:
35:
4354:Convergent evolution
4335:Evolutionary ecology
3930:Litoprosopus futilis
3550:. pp. 302–305.
3395:(11–12): 1383–1386.
1332:sonar clicks of bats
1272:submandibular glands
998:Timarcha tenebricosa
650:Defensive structures
549:Distraction displays
241:counter-illumination
136:Staying out of sight
45:Polyprion americanus
4427:Distraction display
4371:Divergent evolution
4281:Sherratt, Thomas N.
4137:, pp. 179–181.
4125:, pp. 145–149.
3999:2004JCEco..30.1479J
3983:Cylindricus complex
3883:1987Ecol...68.1268P
3828:2013PLoSO...868862P
3701:10.1643/ch-03-157r1
3683:Phrynosoma cornutum
3585:2002JArEn..50..109S
3520:National Geographic
3376:, pp. 189–201.
3081:1973JThBi..38..419P
3057:, pp. 115–149.
3028:Maynard Smith, John
2913:1971JThBi..31..295H
2867:1981Natur.293..466F
2808:, pp. 202–207.
2624:(1478): 1755–1758.
2546:1999BJLS...66....1H
2491:(1478): 1755–1758.
2393:1995Oecol.103..327R
2377:Limenitis archippus
2349:1999BJLS...66..145H
2232:on 15 November 2009
2199:2007JCEco..33.1105D
1810:"Deimatic Behavior"
1731:Cooper, William E.
1709:, pp. 318–320.
1607:2000Ecogr..23...32D
1565:Cott, H.B. (1940).
1508:2011NatSR...1E.131Z
1133:Texas horned lizard
1126:phytohemagglutinins
1067:Poecilocerus pictus
780:Selfish herd theory
623:monarch butterflies
509:distraction display
408:signalling honestly
375:startling behaviour
308:apostatic selection
290:Apostatic selection
204:illustrated by the
157:to avoid predators.
84:apostatic selection
4422:Deimatic behaviour
4381:Predator satiation
4366:Parallel evolution
4267:Defence in Animals
3949:10.1155/1993/67950
3419:2017-09-14 at the
2769:Behavioral Ecology
2711:Journal of Zoology
2401:10.1007/BF00328621
1767:Biological Reviews
1496:Scientific Reports
1488:Anderson, Marti J.
1421:History of Animals
1369:
1334:. Among fish, the
1323:black-headed gulls
1298:
1212:
1172:
1108:, functions as an
1079:Aularches miliaris
1073:Parasanaa donovani
1026:danaid butterflies
1003:
956:Predator confusion
953:
924:
906:Improved vigilance
868:
838:predator satiation
834:Periodical cicadas
823:Predator satiation
819:
801:Predator satiation
795:great white sharks
771:
739:George C. Williams
705:
647:
644:warning coloration
635:Erethizon dorsatum
586:
501:
458:
412:
349:Deimatic behaviour
337:
334:deimatic behaviour
314:Warding off attack
270:
214:
159:
125:Avoiding detection
54:
4459:
4458:
4397:Signalling theory
4277:Ruxton, Graeme D.
4079:978-1-135-07607-8
3749:10.1242/jeb.02067
3538:O. Wilson, Edward
3492:10.1242/jeb.01170
3485:(20): 3483–3494.
3426:Discover Magazine
3337:978-0-632-05267-7
3203:, pp. 64–69.
3041:978-0-19852-685-8
2861:(5832): 466–467.
2749:978-1-78023-315-4
2270:978-0-8493-2005-7
2193:(33): 1105–1113.
1721:, pp. 61–65.
1697:, pp. 53–55.
1685:, pp. 35–60.
1516:10.1038/srep00131
1327:peregrine falcons
1248:Suicidal altruism
1058:autohaemorrhaging
1054:Armoured crickets
1049:bombardier beetle
1011:bombardier beetle
1007:autohaemorrhaging
987:Chemical defences
827:Periodical cicada
815:satiate predators
811:periodical cicada
719:Safety in numbers
679:sohal surgeonfish
615:Müllerian mimicry
473:white-tailed deer
423:White-tailed deer
391:Signalling theory
115:living in a group
105:the attacker, by
16:(Redirected from
4494:
4328:
4321:
4314:
4305:
4288:
4272:
4270:
4259:
4245:
4225:
4224:
4206:
4188:
4164:
4158:
4157:
4144:
4138:
4132:
4126:
4120:
4107:
4106:
4090:
4084:
4083:
4063:
4057:
4056:
4036:
4027:
4026:
3993:(8): 1479–1492.
3974:
3968:
3967:
3961:
3953:
3951:
3923:
3917:
3916:
3910:
3902:
3866:
3860:
3859:
3849:
3839:
3807:
3801:
3800:
3783:(4): 1207–1212.
3777:Animal Behaviour
3768:
3762:
3761:
3751:
3742:(Pt 4): 702–10.
3727:
3721:
3720:
3672:
3663:
3662:
3660:
3658:
3653:on 29 April 2011
3647:"Horned Lizards"
3642:
3636:
3635:
3603:
3597:
3596:
3568:
3562:
3561:
3534:
3528:
3527:
3522:. Archived from
3511:
3505:
3504:
3494:
3470:
3464:
3463:
3443:
3430:
3423:, Allison Bond,
3411:
3405:
3404:
3383:
3377:
3371:
3362:
3361:
3355:
3351:
3349:
3341:
3323:
3314:
3313:
3290:Insectes Sociaux
3287:
3278:
3267:
3266:
3256:
3247:
3234:
3233:
3218:Animal Behaviour
3213:
3204:
3198:
3187:
3186:
3176:
3166:
3142:
3136:
3135:
3112:Animal Behaviour
3107:
3101:
3100:
3064:
3058:
3052:
3046:
3045:
3024:
3018:
3017:
2997:
2988:
2982:
2981:
2971:
2939:
2933:
2932:
2893:
2887:
2886:
2875:10.1038/293466a0
2850:
2844:
2843:
2820:Animal Behaviour
2815:
2809:
2803:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2784:
2760:
2754:
2753:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2706:
2695:
2688:
2682:
2681:
2658:
2652:
2651:
2641:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2525:
2519:
2518:
2508:
2476:
2470:
2469:
2461:
2455:
2454:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2372:
2363:
2362:
2360:
2328:
2317:
2316:
2296:
2290:
2284:
2275:
2274:
2258:
2248:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2237:
2231:
2225:. Archived from
2184:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2141:10.2307/25066645
2124:
2118:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2093:
2084:
2083:
2047:
2041:
2040:
2012:
2006:
2005:
1982:Animal Behaviour
1977:
1971:
1970:
1952:
1937:Animal Behaviour
1932:
1926:
1925:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1859:Animal Behaviour
1851:
1845:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1728:
1722:
1716:
1710:
1704:
1698:
1692:
1686:
1680:
1674:
1668:
1659:
1658:
1635:Animal Behaviour
1630:
1621:
1620:
1618:
1586:
1577:
1576:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1547:
1538:
1537:
1527:
1483:
1463:
1152:Communal defence
1094:Nasutitermitinae
1040:from milkweeds (
920:American avocets
916:northern harrier
809:A newly emerged
604:Batesian mimicry
582:Müllerian mimics
322:A Mediterranean
21:
4502:
4501:
4497:
4496:
4495:
4493:
4492:
4491:
4462:
4461:
4460:
4455:
4385:
4337:
4332:
4295:
4275:
4262:
4248:
4236:
4233:
4228:
4179:(9): e3000818.
4166:
4165:
4161:
4146:
4145:
4141:
4133:
4129:
4121:
4110:
4101:. ABC Science.
4092:
4091:
4087:
4080:
4065:
4064:
4060:
4053:
4038:
4037:
4030:
3976:
3975:
3971:
3954:
3942:(3–4): 209–21.
3925:
3924:
3920:
3903:
3891:10.2307/1939211
3877:(5): 1268–272.
3868:
3867:
3863:
3809:
3808:
3804:
3770:
3769:
3765:
3729:
3728:
3724:
3679:Vulpes macrotis
3674:
3673:
3666:
3656:
3654:
3644:
3643:
3639:
3624:10.2307/1446212
3605:
3604:
3600:
3570:
3569:
3565:
3558:
3536:
3535:
3531:
3513:
3512:
3508:
3472:
3471:
3467:
3445:
3444:
3433:
3421:Wayback Machine
3412:
3408:
3385:
3384:
3380:
3372:
3365:
3352:
3342:
3338:
3325:
3324:
3317:
3285:
3280:
3279:
3270:
3254:
3249:
3248:
3237:
3215:
3214:
3207:
3199:
3190:
3144:
3143:
3139:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3066:
3065:
3061:
3053:
3049:
3042:
3026:
3025:
3021:
2995:
2990:
2989:
2985:
2948:Biology Letters
2941:
2940:
2936:
2895:
2894:
2890:
2852:
2851:
2847:
2817:
2816:
2812:
2804:
2800:
2762:
2761:
2757:
2750:
2735:
2734:
2730:
2708:
2707:
2698:
2689:
2685:
2660:
2659:
2655:
2611:
2610:
2606:
2568:
2567:
2563:
2527:
2526:
2522:
2478:
2477:
2473:
2463:
2462:
2458:
2429:
2428:
2424:
2374:
2373:
2366:
2330:
2329:
2320:
2298:
2297:
2293:
2285:
2278:
2271:
2255:Animal behavior
2250:
2249:
2245:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2182:
2177:
2176:
2172:
2126:
2125:
2121:
2111:
2109:
2095:
2094:
2087:
2049:
2048:
2044:
2014:
2013:
2009:
1979:
1978:
1974:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1853:
1852:
1848:
1838:
1836:
1830:
1829:
1825:
1815:
1813:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1763:Stevens, Martin
1761:
1760:
1756:
1746:
1744:
1730:
1729:
1725:
1717:
1713:
1705:
1701:
1693:
1689:
1681:
1677:
1669:
1662:
1632:
1631:
1624:
1588:
1587:
1580:
1564:
1563:
1559:
1549:
1548:
1541:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1461:
1454:
1409:
1383:later. Certain
1354:
1348:
1303:
1282:
1256:
1250:
1231:European roller
1216:northern fulmar
1204:northern fulmar
1196:
1160:
1154:
1110:alarm pheromone
1098:fontanellar gun
1090:Spitting cobras
1013:
989:
980:
958:
908:
879:
873:
850:have different
829:
821:Main articles:
803:
793:predation from
782:
776:
751:Camargue horses
735:
733:Dilution effect
727:
721:
652:
638:combines sharp
567:
559:Main articles:
557:
511:
503:Main articles:
485:
445:
439:
393:
387:
351:
345:
316:
292:
262:Kallima inachus
254:
225:
219:
144:
138:
133:
127:
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4500:
4498:
4490:
4489:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4464:
4463:
4457:
4456:
4454:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4431:
4430:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4417:Apparent death
4414:
4409:
4399:
4393:
4391:
4387:
4386:
4384:
4383:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4362:
4361:
4351:
4345:
4343:
4339:
4338:
4333:
4331:
4330:
4323:
4316:
4308:
4302:
4301:
4294:
4293:External links
4291:
4290:
4289:
4273:
4260:
4246:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4226:
4159:
4139:
4127:
4108:
4085:
4078:
4058:
4052:978-1444332551
4051:
4028:
3969:
3918:
3861:
3802:
3773:Turdus pilaris
3763:
3722:
3695:(3): 652–658.
3664:
3637:
3598:
3579:(1): 109–120.
3573:J Arid Environ
3563:
3556:
3529:
3506:
3465:
3431:
3406:
3378:
3363:
3336:
3315:
3268:
3235:
3224:(3): 577–587.
3205:
3188:
3137:
3118:(1): 278–286.
3102:
3069:J. Theor. Biol
3059:
3047:
3040:
3032:Animal Signals
3019:
2983:
2934:
2907:(2): 295–311.
2888:
2845:
2810:
2798:
2775:(1): 153–160.
2755:
2748:
2728:
2696:
2683:
2653:
2604:
2583:10.1086/424972
2577:(5): 598–613.
2561:
2520:
2471:
2456:
2445:(3): 495–566.
2422:
2387:(3): 327–336.
2364:
2343:(2): 145–158.
2318:
2291:
2289:, p. 198.
2276:
2269:
2243:
2170:
2135:(3): 274–289.
2119:
2102:Sciencemag.org
2085:
2042:
2007:
1988:(2): 397–402.
1972:
1943:(3): 535–543.
1927:
1906:10.1086/284096
1900:(5): 709–715.
1884:
1865:(3): 663–684.
1846:
1823:
1800:
1773:(4): 573–588.
1754:
1743:on 18 May 2018
1723:
1711:
1699:
1687:
1675:
1660:
1622:
1578:
1557:
1539:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1471:
1470:
1464:
1453:
1450:
1408:
1405:
1350:Main article:
1347:
1344:
1302:
1299:
1281:
1278:
1249:
1246:
1195:
1192:
1153:
1150:
1042:Asclepiadaceae
1017:seed predation
988:
985:
979:
976:
967:Martin Stevens
957:
954:
907:
904:
887:vervet monkeys
875:Main article:
872:
869:
848:Vervet monkeys
802:
799:
791:brown fur seal
778:Main article:
775:
772:
759:Water striders
734:
731:
720:
717:
651:
648:
632:The porcupine
556:
553:
484:
481:
443:apparent death
441:Main article:
438:
435:
431:honest signals
429:are similarly
386:
383:
347:Main article:
344:
341:
315:
312:
291:
288:
268:as a dead leaf
253:
250:
237:countershading
221:Main article:
218:
215:
169:, or by being
140:Main article:
137:
134:
131:Prey detection
126:
123:
39:Dalatias licha
28:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4499:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4469:
4467:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4404:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4394:
4392:
4388:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4360:
4357:
4356:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4346:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4329:
4324:
4322:
4317:
4315:
4310:
4309:
4306:
4300:
4297:
4296:
4292:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4269:
4268:
4261:
4257:
4256:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4234:
4230:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4205:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4187:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4163:
4160:
4155:
4154:
4149:
4143:
4140:
4136:
4131:
4128:
4124:
4119:
4117:
4115:
4113:
4109:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4089:
4086:
4081:
4075:
4071:
4070:
4062:
4059:
4054:
4048:
4044:
4043:
4035:
4033:
4029:
4024:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3973:
3970:
3965:
3959:
3950:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3931:
3922:
3919:
3914:
3908:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3865:
3862:
3857:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3822:(7): e68862.
3821:
3817:
3813:
3806:
3803:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3767:
3764:
3759:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3726:
3723:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3684:
3680:
3671:
3669:
3665:
3652:
3648:
3641:
3638:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3618:(2): 519–27.
3617:
3613:
3609:
3602:
3599:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3567:
3564:
3559:
3557:9780674000896
3553:
3549:
3545:
3544:
3539:
3533:
3530:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3510:
3507:
3502:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3469:
3466:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3442:
3440:
3438:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3427:
3422:
3418:
3415:
3410:
3407:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3382:
3379:
3375:
3370:
3368:
3364:
3359:
3347:
3339:
3333:
3329:
3322:
3320:
3316:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3284:
3277:
3275:
3273:
3269:
3264:
3260:
3253:
3246:
3244:
3242:
3240:
3236:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3212:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3197:
3195:
3193:
3189:
3184:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3141:
3138:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3106:
3103:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3075:(2): 419–22.
3074:
3070:
3063:
3060:
3056:
3051:
3048:
3043:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3023:
3020:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
3002:
2994:
2987:
2984:
2979:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2938:
2935:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2892:
2889:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2849:
2846:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2814:
2811:
2807:
2802:
2799:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2759:
2756:
2751:
2745:
2741:
2740:
2732:
2729:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2687:
2684:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2662:Müller, Fritz
2657:
2654:
2649:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2608:
2605:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2565:
2562:
2556:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2524:
2521:
2516:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2475:
2472:
2467:
2460:
2457:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2426:
2423:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2371:
2369:
2365:
2359:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2327:
2325:
2323:
2319:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2295:
2292:
2288:
2283:
2281:
2277:
2272:
2266:
2262:
2257:
2256:
2247:
2244:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2181:
2174:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2123:
2120:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2092:
2090:
2086:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2046:
2043:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2011:
2008:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1976:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1951:
1950:10.1.1.28.773
1946:
1942:
1938:
1931:
1928:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1888:
1885:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1850:
1847:
1834:
1827:
1824:
1811:
1804:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1758:
1755:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1727:
1724:
1720:
1715:
1712:
1708:
1703:
1700:
1696:
1691:
1688:
1684:
1679:
1676:
1672:
1667:
1665:
1661:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1629:
1627:
1623:
1617:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1574:
1570:
1569:
1561:
1558:
1553:
1546:
1544:
1540:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1482:
1479:
1473:
1468:
1465:
1459:
1456:
1455:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1443:
1438:
1436:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1423:
1422:
1417:
1413:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1353:
1345:
1343:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1300:
1295:
1291:
1286:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1255:
1247:
1245:
1243:
1239:
1234:
1232:
1228:
1226:
1221:
1217:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1141:
1139:
1134:
1129:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1086:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1074:
1069:
1068:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1050:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1018:
1012:
1008:
1000:
999:
993:
986:
984:
978:Fighting back
977:
975:
973:
972:motion dazzle
968:
964:
955:
950:
945:
941:
938:
934:
930:
921:
917:
912:
905:
903:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
878:
870:
865:
861:
857:
853:
852:alarm signals
849:
845:
841:
839:
835:
828:
824:
816:
812:
807:
800:
798:
796:
792:
787:
786:W.D. Hamilton
781:
773:
767:
763:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
743:W.D. Hamilton
740:
732:
730:
726:
725:Social animal
718:
716:
714:
710:
703:
699:
694:
690:
688:
684:
680:
676:
671:
669:
665:
661:
657:
649:
645:
641:
637:
636:
630:
626:
624:
620:
616:
611:
609:
605:
600:
598:
595:
590:
583:
579:
575:
571:
566:
562:
554:
552:
550:
546:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
510:
506:
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4173:PLOS Biology
4172:
4162:
4152:
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4135:Edmunds 1974
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4123:Edmunds 1974
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3655:. Retrieved
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3509:
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2954:(1): 48–50.
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2897:Hamilton, W.
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2234:. Retrieved
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2101:
2058:(4): 170–8.
2055:
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1741:the original
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1446:domesticated
1439:
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1242:noctuid moth
1235:
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1038:cardenolides
1033:
1030:burnet moths
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914:A raptor, a
880:
877:Alarm signal
830:
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774:Selfish herd
736:
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706:
702:caterpillars
672:
653:
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612:
601:
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512:
505:phagomimicry
470:
459:
455:playing dead
437:Playing dead
427:Eurasian jay
413:
352:
338:
327:
293:
281:
274:masquerading
271:
266:masquerading
260:
226:
160:
142:Nocturnality
92:
88:nocturnality
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63:that assist
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4412:Aposematism
3657:18 November
3354:|work=
3008:: 269–295.
2826:: 623–625.
2540:(1): 1–22.
2023:: 169–199.
1855:Caro, T. M.
1816:31 December
1416:cephalopods
1393:vertebrates
1381:regenerated
1336:stickleback
1264:hymenoptera
1225:hypothermia
1220:stomach oil
1208:stomach oil
1184:chimpanzees
1180:red colobus
1114:amino acids
1062:grasshopper
1022:puffer fish
929:wood pigeon
883:alarm calls
871:Alarm calls
709:Limacodidae
698:Limacodidae
565:aposematism
483:Distraction
477:bradycardia
371:cephalopods
359:butterflies
188:bat falcons
111:distraction
95:aposematism
4466:Categories
4441:Camouflage
4271:. Longman.
4250:Cott, Hugh
3979:Camponotus
1812:. Springer
1747:23 October
1474:References
1399:and other
1377:appendages
1294:partridges
1254:Autothysis
1188:Fieldfares
1064:including
713:paper wasp
700:slug moth
668:arthropods
597:coloration
594:aposematic
535:mimic food
523:cuttlefish
252:Masquerade
228:Camouflage
223:Camouflage
217:Camouflage
202:Camouflage
151:Fruit bats
80:masquerade
76:camouflage
4482:Predation
4477:Evolution
4287:. Oxford.
4238:Caro, Tim
4221:221864354
4195:1545-7885
4150:(1910) .
4148:Aristotle
3454:: 65–69.
3356:ignored (
3346:cite book
3328:Granivory
3055:Caro 2005
2717:: 55–75.
2664:(1879). "
2381:Oecologia
2307:: 25–31.
1945:CiteSeerX
1839:1 January
1719:Caro 2005
1707:Cott 1940
1695:Caro 2005
1683:Caro 2005
1671:Cott 1940
1595:Ecography
1448:animals.
1429:Hugh Cott
1427:In 1940,
1412:Aristotle
1385:sea slugs
1340:merganser
1319:ptarmigan
1307:burrowing
1290:pheasants
1288:Startled
1262:. Social
1166:Group of
947:A single
937:ostriches
755:horse-fly
696:Stinging
683:Porcupine
531:octopuses
519:sea hares
184:bat hawks
171:nocturnal
103:startling
99:mimicking
69:predators
61:evolution
50:hagfishes
4472:Ethology
4359:examples
4252:(1940).
4240:(2005).
4213:32960897
4103:Archived
4023:23756265
4015:15537154
3856:23874791
3816:PLOS ONE
3797:53195968
3758:16449564
3717:55365586
3540:(2000).
3501:15339944
3417:Archived
3310:13257903
3296:: 1–10.
3265:: 84–93.
3183:22117898
3151:BMC Biol
3132:53144763
2978:19793737
2840:53154054
2739:Hedgehog
2680:: 20–29.
2670:Thyridia
2648:11522192
2591:15540150
2515:11522192
2433:(1961).
2417:13436225
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2215:17393278
2157:18083967
2149:25066645
2106:Archived
2072:18592129
2002:53164940
1922:83504795
1879:53155678
1795:24868603
1787:16221330
1534:22355648
1502:: 2011.
1452:See also
1373:autotomy
1365:autotomy
1352:Autotomy
1346:Autotomy
1280:Escaping
1268:altruism
1266:rely on
1168:muskoxen
1122:protease
1102:terpenes
933:goshawks
860:leopards
747:shoaling
687:hedgehog
664:reptiles
656:molluscs
517:such as
515:molluscs
495:plover,
493:killdeer
466:feigning
416:gazelles
404:stotting
379:eyespots
367:phasmids
363:mantises
163:in caves
155:by night
4446:Mimicry
4436:Crypsis
4390:Signals
4231:Sources
4204:7508406
3995:Bibcode
3899:1939211
3879:Bibcode
3871:Ecology
3847:3707886
3824:Bibcode
3709:1448486
3632:1446212
3581:Bibcode
3174:3257203
3097:4734745
3077:Bibcode
2969:2817263
2929:5104951
2909:Bibcode
2883:4365789
2863:Bibcode
2639:1088805
2599:8153271
2542:Bibcode
2506:1088805
2389:Bibcode
2345:Bibcode
2195:Bibcode
2165:9539618
2080:7739227
2037:2097066
1967:2295026
1914:2460873
1655:4077513
1641:: 1–9.
1603:Bibcode
1573:330–335
1525:3216612
1504:Bibcode
1418:in his
1401:lizards
1395:, many
1311:rolling
1176:Mobbing
1145:hagfish
1138:Canidae
1096:have a
895:leopard
660:turtles
619:viceroy
608:insects
589:Mimicry
578:monarch
574:Viceroy
561:mimicry
543:opaline
513:Marine
283:Kallima
175:crypsis
167:burrows
153:forage
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1361:Lizard
1342:duck.
1301:Flight
1106:pinene
1082:, and
1034:Danaus
899:python
864:snakes
856:eagles
640:spines
401:impala
369:, and
324:mantis
4217:S2CID
4019:S2CID
3895:JSTOR
3793:S2CID
3713:S2CID
3705:JSTOR
3628:JSTOR
3306:S2CID
3286:(PDF)
3255:(PDF)
3128:S2CID
2996:(PDF)
2879:S2CID
2836:S2CID
2666:Ituna
2595:S2CID
2413:S2CID
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2219:S2CID
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2161:S2CID
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2076:S2CID
2033:JSTOR
1998:S2CID
1963:S2CID
1918:S2CID
1910:JSTOR
1875:S2CID
1791:S2CID
1651:S2CID
1389:crabs
1363:tail
1315:snipe
963:zebra
949:zebra
891:eagle
675:spine
642:with
527:squid
355:moths
278:potoo
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2238:2015
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