30:
17:
290:
401:
232:. One was a large congregational mosque while the other was a smaller mosque. According to oral history, the smaller mosque was built to honor a late ruler of the town. As the excavations took place, the number of important structures grew. In all, there were a total of four mosques, at least ten stone tombs, and one significant stone home over a 500-year period. Along with the stone structures, the homes found were mainly of earthen materials.
51:
370:
throughout the first millennium AD. The speed of this religious conversion has been thought to be the result of the building of trade relations with Muslim merchants. This center of religion in the towns may have been a large factor for the movement of the populace from rural areas to the towns. The
285:
The site where the coins were found was pointed out to the archaeological team by local people that had previously found coins in the area. The hoard of coins was found buried in the floor of a hut. Around eight hundred coins were found at the surface while six hundred and fifty-eight were found in
273:
is a site in northwest Pemba and features many stone structures including a town wall, a mosque, tombs, and homes. The earliest evidence of occupation is in the eleventh century and continued, prosperously and uninterrupted until the fifteenth century. In the nineteenth century it was reoccupied. An
244:
were sophisticated for a town of Chwaka’s size. Similar to the second mosque, the third was later renovated to include more prayer space and an additional wash area. The last mosque built on the site was small and was built in the fifteenth century. The dedication to building and improving upon the
220:
was established just south of Tumbe. Archaeological surveys show that the stonetown of Chwaka started as a small village and grew into a large, densely populated town. The patterns of population show that while Chwaka grew, the surrounding areas became less populated suggesting a movement of people
383:
arrived to Pemba Island in the sixteenth century. When they arrived the number of sites on the island began to decline sharply. There was tension on the island and throughout the East
African coast between the Portuguese and the indigenous populations causing both sides began to build fortresses.
203:
were another important export from Tumbe. Although the beads do not normally survive, the number of tools used to make the beads, bead grinders, can be used as a good estimation for bead production. In one excavation at the site, 3,600 bead grinders were found; far more than any other site on the
598:
The major challenges for surveying on Pemba are related mostly to the topography and vegetation of the island. It is a hilly island and has dense clove and coconut plantations as well as forests. Along with that there are many inlets that may be difficult to reach. These difficulties result in
248:
While the small number of stone homes suggests that Chwaka had a small number of mercantile elites, the large number of stone tombs suggests a large religious elite population. Another indicator of a larger class of religious elites is the dedication to the stone architecture and design of the
594:
has long been focused on sites with visible stone structures. This means that sites with earthen and less-permanent architecture get neglected from research. Based on new research, however, these first millennium sites are now understood as important to understanding the development of second
235:
The four mosques were all built at different times. The first was built in the eleventh century right around the time of the occupation of the site. The second stone mosque was built on a bluff in the thirteenth century. It was later enlarged and possibly remained standing until the site was
459:
banned the slave trade in the nineteenth century, the economies of the main slave trading ports of East Africa, Zanzibar and Pemba, suffered. While they could not trade slaves, they could trade and export the products of slave labor. This caused many to move from maritime industries to
133:
of the island. Linguistic and archaeological data suggest there is potential that the first inhabitants migrated from the mainland. Towns continued to be founded around the island after Tumbe, and agricultural and ceramic artifacts show the people were farmers.
72:
464:
and the development and growth of plantation farming. Due to this change, new infrastructure had to be built on the island including new roads and new small towns on the interior of the island. This success is the reason the Omani Sultan moved his capital to
387:
Upon their arrival, the
Portuguese noted that coastal towns were politically independent from each other. This caused them to wage an attack on one city at a time. While the Portuguese were attempting to unify the coast, the opposition from
168:
were an important part of the society at Tumbe. The pottery found at Tumbe is part of the Early Tana
Tradition (ETT). This pottery tradition is decorated with triangles and intersecting lines. This tradition is also found in southern
185:. This connects Pemba Island with civilizations all along the East African coast. The ceramics from Tumbe are also notable in the types of vessels that were found. Many of the ceramics that have been found are necked jars with
412:
took over the East
African coast, including Pemba Island. The eighteenth century brought an increase in the number of occupied sites and a returned political stability to the region. This stability was even greater when the
256:
Other towns throughout the island were established at this time as well. Mkia wa Ngombe, Mduuni, and
Mtambwe Mkuu were established around the same time as Chwaka. Mkia wa Ngombe was a town of similar size to Chwaka and had
261:
and elite homes as Chwaka did. Mkia wa Ngombe has some of the most extensive ruins on the Island. Mduuni was a smaller town among a set of eight others of similar size and composition around the island.
146:. Clustered around the main city were smaller sites dating to the 8th to 10th centuries AD. The archaeobotanical evidence from Tumbe and the surrounding areas point to an agriculture system focused on
208:
coast. The high concentration of the grinders likely indicates that the beads were used for trade. It also shows that bead making happened in households rather than solely by specialized craftsmen.
344:
Six hundred and fifty of the excavated coins were silver. Each of the coins had a name on one side and a religious motto on the reverse. This pattern is similar to that of the coins from
371:
large efforts to build the four mosques at Chwaka show the dedication to religion. The possible enticement of a cohesive religious community may have made towns like Chwaka ideal.
236:
abandoned. In the fourteenth century the first mosque was demolished and the third was built at the site. This mosque was much larger and more elegant than the first. An elaborate
309:
Eight of the excavated coins were gold. These coins determined an estimated date of 1066 AD for the hoard. All of the gold coins, except for one, originated from the
418:
282:
coins dating to the tenth and eleventh centuries below the floor of a home at the site proving Pemba was involved with the trade networks of the time.
440:. Because of the centralized trade, the prosperity of the towns on Pemba was declining. In the late eighteenth century many on the islands turned to
873:
754:
Fleisher, Jeffrey B. (2010-09-01). "Swahili
Synoecism: Rural Settlements and Town Formation on the Central East African Coast, A.D. 750–1500".
728:
LaViolette, Adria; Fleisher, Jeffrey (2009). "The urban history of a rural place: Swahili archaeology on Pemba Island, Tanzania, 700-1500 AD".
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mosques. While the mosques have been damaged and the stone tombs are all in different stages of disarray, there is one excellent example of a
142:
The main site on the island between 600 and 1000 AD was the city of Tumbe. There is ample evidence that this city was a trading center in the
664:
830:
Fleisher, Jeff; LaViolette, Adria (1999). "Elusive wattle-and-daub: Finding the hidden majority in the archaeology of the
Swahili".
655:
Kusimba, Chapurukha; Kusimba, Sibel, eds. (2003). "Iron age settlement patterns and economic change on
Zanzibar and Pemba Islands".
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Walshaw, Sarah C. (2010-03-01). "Converting to rice: urbanization, Islamization and crops on Pemba Island, Tanzania, ad 700–1500".
863:
498:
29:
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Fleisher, Jeffery; LaViolette, Adria. "The early
Swahili trade village of Tumbe, Pemba Island, Tanzania, AD 600-950".
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decoration. Many of the ceramic artifacts found at Tumbe were pieces of imported pottery. The pieces were mainly from
358:
as well. These similarities and the findings of similar coins to the
Mtambwe series in Kilwa link the two economies.
245:
mosques suggest the investment of the community as a whole, one, or many, wealthy patrons, or a combination of both.
298:
114:, the island has a rich trading, agricultural, and religious history that has contributed to the studies of the
16:
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market grew quickly throughout the East African coast and eventually Pemba Island made trading contracts with
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had an expanding international market and agriculture allowed them a different option of trade goods.
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39:
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and other tree nuts were found to have been important contributors to the agricultural economy.
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Under Omani rule, a system of taxation was established as well as a trading organization. The
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the leader of each town was also in charge of that town’s economic and trade system. The
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or were imitations of coins from the Fatimid Caliphate. The other gold coin was a
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The first evidence of inhabitation is in the seventh century AD at a site called
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228:. When archaeologists first arrived to the site there were two standing
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Other documents show Pemba was trading with multiple areas on mainland
556:
469:, bringing with him both economic and political success and stability.
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The town of Chwaka is thought to be the beginning of urban patterns on
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352:. The names on the coins are the same as those of rulers found in the
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659:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 117–132.
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East African archaeology: foragers, potters, smiths, and traders
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through trade as early as the first century. According to the
535:, and slaves. In return, the people on Pemba would receive
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After the failed Portuguese attempt at unification, the
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The International Journal of African Historical Studies
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Throughout the Swahili coast many people converted to
511:, and other traders, would trade with the island for
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After the apparent abandonment of Tumbe, the city of
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Archaeological research on Pemba and throughout the
341:demonstrating Pemba’s economic ties to the region.
321:. The coins were minted in cities throughout the
274:excavation revealed a hoard of over two-thousand
8:
570:. Artifacts that support this data include
484:were connected to many different areas of
392:and the local people caused them to fail.
832:Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa
802:Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa
348:, an island off the coast of modern day
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599:limited surveying done on the island.
297:coin from the reign of Fatimid caliph
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444:as a different economic strategy.
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221:from the countryside into towns.
768:10.1179/009346910X12707321358919
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425:during the nineteenth century.
325:in the modern day countries of
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874:Archaeology of Eastern Africa
800:(1986). "The Mtambwe hoard".
796:Horton, M. C.; Brown, H. M.;
756:Journal of Field Archaeology
669:– via ProQuest ebrary.
499:Periplus of the Erythean sea
582:linked to mainland Africa.
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404:Clove tree on Pemba Island
844:10.1080/00672709909511473
814:10.1080/00672708609511372
694:10.1080/00438240903430399
595:millennium stone towns.
98:island off the coast of
864:Archaeology of Tanzania
421:, moved the capital to
375:Portuguese colonization
578:and Europe as well as
405:
306:
21:
574:and glass from Asia,
403:
299:al-Moezz li-Din Allah
292:
118:trade throughout the
19:
507:also notes that the
82:Chake Chake District
40:Chake Chake District
586:Current archaeology
462:subsistence farming
436:countries and the
251:Swahili pillar tomb
406:
362:Influence of Islam
307:
131:Micheweni District
106:settlers from the
80:palace in Pujini,
61:Micheweni District
22:
682:World Archaeology
319:Abbasid Caliphate
311:Fatimid Caliphate
303:Fatimid Caliphate
197:storage vessels.
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473:Trading contacts
286:the excavation.
242:vaulted ceilings
191:Sasanian-Islamic
183:Lamu Archipelago
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355:Kilwa Chronicle
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102:. Inhabited by
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5:
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808:(1): 111–123.
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762:(3): 265–282.
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688:(1): 137–154.
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666:978-1931707619
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517:tortoise shell
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838:(1): 87–108.
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736:(3): 433–455.
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323:Mediterranean
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305:(953–975 AD).
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41:
37:
31:
18:
869:Pemba Island
835:
831:
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801:
759:
755:
733:
729:
685:
681:
675:
656:
626:
622:
597:
589:
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533:frankincense
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497:
476:
454:
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415:Omani Sultan
407:
386:
378:
365:
353:
343:
308:
284:
271:Mtambwe Mkuu
269:
266:Mtambwe Mkuu
255:
247:
234:
226:Pemba Island
223:
215:
212:1000–1300 AD
206:East African
199:
164:
148:pearl millet
144:Indian Ocean
141:
124:
120:Indian Ocean
110:coast since
92:Pemba Island
90:
36:Pujini Ruins
20:Pemba Island
798:Oddy, W. A.
442:agriculture
430:slave trade
201:Shell beads
177:, southern
173:, northern
138:600–1000 AD
94:is a large
78:Mkama Ndume
858:Categories
603:References
396:Omani rule
381:Portuguese
179:Mozambique
59:Mosque in
776:0093-4690
702:0043-8243
623:Antiquity
455:When the
317:from the
557:hatchets
529:cinnamon
525:palm oil
505:Periplus
482:Zanzibar
467:Zanzibar
438:Americas
434:European
423:Zanzibar
350:Tanzania
187:graphite
181:and the
171:Tanzania
166:Ceramics
100:Tanzania
572:pottery
566:and in
553:daggers
457:British
339:Lebanon
331:Tunisia
301:of the
259:mosques
230:mosques
160:coconut
156:legumes
774:
700:
663:
564:Africa
555:, and
509:Greeks
490:Africa
486:Europe
450:cloves
337:, and
280:silver
238:mihrab
218:Chwaka
112:600 AD
57:Chwaka
580:ochre
576:China
545:wheat
541:glass
513:ivory
478:Pemba
446:Sugar
410:Omani
390:Arabs
368:Islam
346:Kilwa
335:Syria
327:Egypt
315:dinar
295:dinar
293:Gold
195:Siraf
175:Kenya
127:Tumbe
108:Tanga
104:Bantu
96:coral
772:ISSN
698:ISSN
661:ISBN
568:Asia
549:wine
537:awls
494:Asia
492:and
480:and
448:and
379:The
278:and
276:gold
240:and
193:and
152:Rice
840:doi
810:doi
764:doi
690:doi
129:in
38:in
860::
836:34
834:.
822:^
806:21
804:.
784:^
770:.
760:35
758:.
742:^
734:43
732:.
710:^
696:.
686:42
684:.
635:^
627:87
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611:^
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551:,
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158:,
154:,
150:.
122:.
846:.
842::
816:.
812::
778:.
766::
704:.
692::
629:.
501:,
84:.
63:.
42:.
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