20:
1653:
263:
254:. Literary sources also provide valuable information regarding not only the parasites present in historic societies, but also the knowledge and attitudes that the people had towards their parasitic infestations. However, specific parasitological diagnoses reported in ancient and medieval texts must always be read with some degree of skepticism.
354:
Archaeoparasitological studies have provided information on many fundamental archaeological, historical, and biogeographical questions. These questions may be grouped into the following broad categories: past dietary and farming practices, animal domestication, migration patterns, climate change,
163:
Most archaeoparasitology reports involve species which are considered to be true parasites of humans today. However, incidental parasitism (referred to by some authors as "pseudoparasitism", "false parasitism" or "accidental parasitism") occurs when a parasite which does not normally utilize a host
204:
Since 1910, parasite remains have been found in archaeological samples from Africa, the
Americas, Asia, Europe, the Middle East, and New Zealand. The age of archaeological sites yielding human parasite remains ranges from approx. 25,000-30,000 years ago to late 19th-early 20th century. Parasite
283:
Parasite remains in archaeological samples are identified by a variety of techniques. Very durable remains, such as eggs and cysts, may remain intact for many thousands of years. In some cases, relatively intact soft-bodied adult helminths and ectoparasitic arthropods have been found. All of
200:
was even retrieved from cemetery soil in Poland. Ectoparasites may be found on the skin or scalp, as well as wigs, clothing, or personal grooming accessories found in archaeological sites. Ectoparasite eggs may be found attached to individual hairs. The
International Ancient Egyptian Mummy
359:
practices, cultural contacts, ethnomedicine, and the overall health of various human societies. Archaeoparasitology data, combined with our knowledge of present host-parasite associations, also contributes to our understanding of the co-evolution of human host-parasite interactions. Our
816:
Gladykowska-Rzeczycka JJ, Wrzesinska A, Wrzesinski J (2003). "Rzadkie znalezisko torbieli pasozyta z wczesnosredniowiecznego cmentarzyska w dziekanowicach / A rare finding of a parasitic cyst from an early mediaeval cemetery in
Dziekanowice".
235:, required for life cycle completion by many parasites, is also useful in determining the likelihood that a parasite may have infected a particular ancient society. One example is the identification of molluscan intermediate hosts of
160:-specific, meaning that only one or a few species of hosts are capable of perpetuating their life cycle. Others are not host-specific, since many different hosts appear to harbor and pass on the infective stages of the parasite.
1056:
Reinhard KJ, Araújo A, Sianto L, Costello JG, Swope K (February 2008). "Chinese liver flukes in latrine sediments from Wong Nim's property, San
Bernardino, California: archaeoparasitology of the Caltrans District Headquarters".
1291:
Serarcangeli C, Pennica A (1996). "Testimonianze di una malattia autoctona nella ceramica del Perú precolombiano / Testimonies of an autochthonous illness on the anthropomorphic pottery in ancient Peru".
1002:
Lambert-Zazulak PI, Rutherford P, David AR (2003). "The
International Ancient Egyptian Mummy Tissue Bank at the Manchester Museum as a resource for the pelaeoepidemiological study of schistosomiasis".
172:. It is estimated that 70% of the "parasite" species reported from present-day humans are actually only incidental parasites. Some incidental parasites do cause harm to the infested pseudohosts.
57:' be applied to studies of nonhuman, paleontological material." (p. 233) Paleoparasitology includes all studies of ancient parasites outside of archaeological contexts, such as those found in
53:
Reinhard suggested that the term "archaeoparasitology" be applied to "... all parasitological remains excavated from archaeological contexts ... derived from human activity" and that "the term '
338:
In cases where the intact bodies of parasites are not found, protein or DNA from the parasite may still be present. Antigenic and immunological assays (including enzyme-linked immunoassay -
1037:
Bouchet F, Baffier D, Girard M, Morel P, Paicheler J, David F (1996). "Paléoparasitologie en contexte pléistocène premières observations à la Grande Grotte d'Arcy-sur-Cure (Yonne), France".
156:
often require that different developmental stages pass sequentially through multiple host species in order to successfully mature and reproduce. Some parasites are very
1918:
Loreille O, Roumat E, Verneau O, Bouchet F, Hänni C (August 2001). "Ancient DNA from
Ascaris: extraction amplification and sequences from eggs collected in coprolites".
110:
are organisms which live in close association with another organism, called the host, in which the parasite benefits from the association, to the detriment of the
1748:
Mitchell PD, Stern E, Tepper Y (2008). "Dysentery in the crusader kingdom of
Jerusalem: An ELISA analysis of two medieval latrines in the City of Acre (Israel)".
79:
from the kidneys of an ancient
Egyptian mummy. Since then, many fundamental archaeological questions have been answered by integrating our knowledge of the
1497:
Ferreira LF, Araújo A, Duarte AN (June 1993). "Nematode larvae in fossilized animal coprolites from lower and middle
Pleistocene sites, central Italy".
2191:
Montenegro A, Araújo A, Eby M (2006). "Parasites, paleoclimate, and the peopling of the
Americas: Using the hookworm to time the Clovis migration".
242:
Artifacts depicting the appearance of individuals may also indicate cases of parasitism. Examples include the characteristic facial deformities of
50:
parasites of humans in the past, as well as parasites which may have affected past human societies, such as those infesting domesticated animals.
2117:
Sadler JP (July 1990). "Records of ectoparasites on humans and sheep from Viking-age deposits in the former western settlement of Greenland".
2443:
1397:
663:
393:
1540:
Araújo A, Ferreira LF, Guidon N, Maues Da Serra Freire N, Reinhard KJ, Dittmar K (July 2000). "Ten thousand years of head lice infection".
368:
of the parasites themselves and human diseases associated with them has also benefitted tremendously from archaeoparasitological studies.
2153:
2402:
2628:
840:(Anoplura: Pediculidae) from hair combs excavated in Israel and dated from the first century B.C. to the eighth century A.D".
180:
In archaeological contexts, endoparasites (or their eggs or cysts) are usually found in (i) fossilized human or animal dung (
2363:
1880:
1710:
410:
228:
be a causal factor in observed cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis, though dietary factors may also lead to anemia.
1835:
1169:
Carlson D, Armelagos G, Van Gerven D (1974). "Factors influencing the etiology of cribra orbitalia in prehistoric Nubia".
1236:
1711:"Detection of Giardia duodenalis antigen in coprolites using a commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay"
1319:
Hoeppli R (1973). "Morphological changes in human schistosomiasis and certain analogies in ancient Egyptian sculpture".
2460:
1612:"Probable hepatic capillariosis and hydatidosis in an adolescent from the late Roman period buried in Amiens (France)"
201:
Tissue Bank in Manchester, England, provides tissue samples for a variety of uses, including parasitological studies.
2253:"Prehistoric diet and parasitic infection in Tennessee: Evidence from the analysis of desiccated human paleofeces"
1462:
Allison MJ, Pezzia A, Hasegawa I, Gerszten E (1974). "A case of hookworm infestation in a precolumbian American".
1106:(liver-fluke) in humans and cattle from a 4,500-year-old archaeological site in the Saale-Unstrut Valley, Germany"
2340:
164:
for the perpetuation of its lifecycle is found in that host incidentally. One example is finding the eggs of
69:
19:
1666:
Deelder AM, Miller RL, de Jonge N, Krijger FW (March 1990). "Detection of schistosome antigen in mummies".
1652:
1152:
Proceedings of the Section of Experimental and Applied Entomology of the Netherlands Entomological Society
2633:
2541:"The origin and dispersion of human parasitic diseases in the old world (Africa, Europe and Madagascar)"
1879:
Iñiguez AM, Reinhard K, Carvalho Gonçalves ML, Ferreira LF, Araújo A, Paulo Vicente AC (November 2006).
1354:
Moule, Léon (1911). "La parasitologie dans la littérature antique. II. Les parasites du tube digestif".
153:
84:
1788:
504:
221:
1610:
Mowlavi, G.; Kacki, S.; Dupouy-Camet, J.; Mobedi, I.; Makki, M.; Harandi, MF.; Naddaf, SR. (2014).
317:
295:
267:
119:
1881:"SL1 RNA gene recovery from Enterobius vermicularis ancient DNA in pre-Columbian human coprolites"
2383:
2272:
2064:
1691:
1514:
1259:
1217:
1082:
1019:
973:
941:
798:
575:
430:
679:
Ashford RW (February 1991). "The human parasite fauna: towards an analysis and interpretation".
655:
647:
493:"Spirochete and protist symbionts of a termite (Mastotermes electrodominicus) in Miocene amber"
2605:
2562:
2521:
2480:
2439:
2344:
2173:
2134:
2099:
2072:
2025:
1976:
1935:
1900:
1861:
1816:
1730:
1683:
1641:
1592:
1557:
1522:
1479:
1444:
1393:
1336:
1301:
1128:
1074:
933:
898:
857:
790:
751:
696:
659:
628:
567:
532:
469:
389:
54:
2597:
2552:
2511:
2472:
2414:
2375:
2336:
2303:
2264:
2231:
2200:
2165:
2126:
2056:
2015:
2007:
1966:
1927:
1892:
1851:
1806:
1796:
1757:
1722:
1675:
1631:
1623:
1584:
1549:
1506:
1471:
1434:
1426:
1328:
1251:
1209:
1178:
1120:
1066:
1011:
982:
925:
888:
849:
782:
741:
731:
688:
618:
610:
559:
522:
512:
461:
422:
284:
these forms can be identified to the family, genus or species level by compound or electron
114:. Many other kinds of associations may exist between two closely allied organisms, such as
262:
2323:
Bouchet F, Harter S, Paicheler JC, Aráujo A, Ferreira LF (April 2002). "First recovery of
1840:
sp., Pulicidae, Siphonaptera) from animal mummies of the Chiribaya culture, southern Peru"
247:
236:
1994:
Zink AR, Spigelman M, Schraut B, Greenblatt CL, Nerlich AG, Donoghue HD (October 2006).
1792:
508:
220:, and anemia is one factor associated with the skeletal changes of cribra orbitalia and
2020:
1995:
1636:
1611:
1439:
1414:
965:
en momias de la tradición Chinchorro, Camarones 15-D, norte de Chile / Head lice eggs,
623:
346:
are used to identify the source of these chemical remains, often to the species level.
343:
251:
232:
157:
133:
111:
80:
31:
1931:
1811:
1776:
1726:
1588:
1553:
929:
736:
715:
527:
492:
329:
changes and should be interpreted with caution due to morphological similarities with
2622:
1679:
1263:
1182:
1023:
773:. In a Natural Human Mummy (Third Century BC) from the Chehrabad Salt Mine in Iran".
769:
Nezamabadi M, Mashkour M, Aali A, Stöllner T, Le Bailly M (2013). "Identification of
488:
243:
2557:
2540:
2308:
2291:
2236:
2219:
1856:
1695:
1197:
1124:
1086:
987:
960:
945:
802:
579:
550:
Poinar G, Boucot AJ (August 2006). "Evidence of intestinal parasites of dinosaurs".
384:
Reinhard KJ, Araújo A (2008). "Archaeoparasitology". In Pearsall, Deborah M. (ed.).
1101:
692:
365:
304:
272:
115:
92:
2516:
2499:
208:
Human skeletal remains may exhibit indirect evidence of parasitism. For example,
2601:
2433:
2418:
2403:"Critical analysis of coprolite evidence of medicinal plant use in Piaui, Brazil"
2044:
1896:
1237:"The archaeology of disease: Molluscs as potential disease indicators in Bahrain"
916:
Capasso L, Di Tota G (March 1998). "Lice buried under the ashes of Herculaneum".
452:
n.gen., n.sp. (Trypanosomatidae: Kinetoplastida) from Cretaceous Burmese amber".
205:
remains have also been found in domestic animal remains at archaeological sites.
1198:"Parasites, porotic hyperostosis, and the implications of changing perspectives"
1015:
322:
290:
276:
88:
39:
2476:
2130:
1781:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1627:
1430:
1373:
Sandison AT (1967). "Parasitic diseases". In Brothwell DR, Sandison AT (eds.).
893:
876:
853:
497:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
315:). The authors stated that identification of tissue-dwelling parasites such as
2252:
1761:
1267:
1255:
563:
356:
285:
181:
137:
125:
107:
35:
2169:
2045:"Helminth remains from prehistoric Indian coprolites on the Colorado Plateau"
465:
1801:
1475:
614:
361:
331:
326:
2609:
2566:
2525:
2484:
2348:
2177:
2029:
2011:
1980:
1939:
1904:
1865:
1820:
1734:
1645:
1596:
1561:
1305:
1132:
1078:
969:, from mummies of the Chinchorro tradition, Mamarones 15-D, northern Chile"
902:
794:
755:
632:
571:
536:
517:
473:
2138:
2076:
1687:
1526:
1483:
1448:
1340:
937:
861:
700:
2103:
1834:
Dittmar K, Mamat U, Whiting M, Goldmann T, Reinhard K, Guillen S (2003).
1332:
209:
129:
62:
43:
2500:"Human enterobiasis in evolution: origin, specificity and transmission"
2068:
1518:
189:
185:
96:
2387:
2276:
1221:
1070:
746:
434:
786:
312:
308:
217:
193:
47:
2581:
2060:
1575:
Kenward H (April 2001). "Pubic lice in Roman and medieval Britain".
1510:
594:
2379:
2268:
2220:"Climatic change in northeastern Brazil: Paleoparasitological data"
2204:
1971:
1954:
1213:
426:
877:"Body louse remains found in textiles excavated at Masada, Israel"
339:
261:
169:
58:
18:
875:
Mumcuoglu KY, Zias J, Tarshis M, Lavi M, Stiebel GD (July 2003).
325:
remains is particularly dependent on preservation conditions and
250:
pottery, and morphological features of certain ancient Egyptian
68:
The first archaeoparasitology report described calcified eggs of
300:
149:
145:
141:
1775:
Aufderheide AC, Salo W, Madden M, et al. (February 2004).
2498:
Hugot JP, Reinhard KJ, Gardner SL, Morand S (September 1999).
2152:
Araujo A, Reinhard KJ, Ferreira LF, Gardner SL (March 2008).
1955:"Molecular identification of lice from pre-Columbian mummies"
599:
in Egyptian mummies of the Twentieth Dynasty (1250–1000 BC)"
2341:
10.1645/0022-3395(2002)088[0404:FROSME]2.0.CO;2
1953:
Raoult D, Reed DL, Dittmar K, et al. (February 2008).
1836:"Techniques of DNA-studies on prehispanic ectoparasites (
2461:"Parasites as indicators of human biology and evolution"
959:
Rivera MA, Mumcuoglu KY, Matheny RT, Matheny DG (2008).
388:. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. pp. 494–501.
2435:
Malaria and Rome: a history of malaria in ancient Italy
2290:
Araújo A, Ferreira LF, Confalonieri U, Chame M (1988).
2154:"Parasites as probes for prehistoric human migrations?"
1377:. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. pp. 178–183.
487:
Wier A, Dolan M, Grimaldi D, Guerrero R, Wagensberg J,
168:(a fish parasite) in the stomach contents of an Eskimo
1709:
Gonçalves ML, Araújo A, Duarte R, et al. (2002).
1390:
Insects and other invertebrates in classical antiquity
654:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp.
2586:: Species definitions and origins of human parasites"
411:"Parasitology as an interpretive tool in archaeology"
2327:
eggs from a latrine in Europe (15-16th centuries)".
1039:
Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Série III
271:
eggs from the corpse of an adolescent from the late
836:Mumcuoglu YK, Zias J (November 1988). "Head lice,
2407:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
2043:Reinhard KJ, Hevly RH, Anderson GA (June 1987).
1996:"Leishmaniasis in ancient Egypt and Upper nubia"
188:corpses, or (iii) soil samples from latrines,
184:), (ii) the tissues and digestive contents of
303:in the corpse of an adolescent from the late
16:Study of parasites in archaeological contexts
8:
650:. In Cockburn, Eve; Cockburn, Aidan (eds.).
2362:Reinhard KJ, Ambler JR, McGuffie M (1985).
1146:Schelvis J, Koot C (1995). "Sheep or goat?
136:), tend to be found inside the host, while
2401:Chaves S.A.; de M.; K.J. Reinhard (2006).
974:Chungará – Revista de Antropología Chilena
2556:
2515:
2307:
2235:
2019:
1970:
1855:
1810:
1800:
1635:
1464:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1438:
986:
892:
745:
735:
622:
526:
516:
360:understanding of the geographic origins,
152:) live on the outside of the host body.
87:and basic biology of parasites, with the
2364:"Diet and parasitism at Dust Devil Cave"
2218:Araújo A, Rangel A, Ferreira LF (1993).
2090:Nansen P, Jorgensen RJ (June 1977). "".
1777:"A 9,000-year record of Chagas' disease"
2292:"Hookworms and the peopling of America"
376:
196:(dumps for domestic waste). A cyst of
42:contexts. It includes studies of the
652:Mummies, disease, and ancient cultures
293:techniques have been used for eggs of
239:in an Islamic archaeological context.
448:Poinar G.O., Jr.; H. Poinar (2004). "
7:
2438:. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
30:, a multi-disciplinary field within
714:Sing A, Tybus K, Fackler I (2008).
2545:Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz
2224:Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz
1844:Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz
1113:Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz
99:contexts in which they are found.
14:
1750:Journal of Archaeological Science
716:"Acute urticaria associated with
1651:
1392:. Exeter: University of Exeter.
2558:10.1590/S0074-02762003000900004
2459:Ashford RW (1 September 2000).
2309:10.1590/S0102-311X1988000200006
2237:10.1590/S0074-02761993000400014
1857:10.1590/S0074-02762003000900010
1196:Holland TD, O'Brien MJ (1997).
1125:10.1590/S0074-02762003000900021
988:10.4067/s0717-73562008000100004
275:period in France, treated with
231:Information on the presence of
693:10.1080/00034983.1991.11812545
648:"Aleutian and Alaskan mummies"
1:
1932:10.1016/S0020-7519(01)00214-4
1727:10.1016/S0035-9203(02)90337-8
1715:Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg
1589:10.1016/S1471-4922(01)01890-6
1554:10.1016/S0169-4758(00)01694-X
1542:Parasitol. Today (Regul. Ed.)
1235:Insoll T, Hutchins E (2005).
1100:Dittmar K, Teegen WR (2003).
930:10.1016/s0140-6736(05)60665-4
737:10.1016/S0255-0857(21)02013-2
224:. Thus, hookworm parasitism
2602:10.1016/j.parint.2005.11.049
2419:10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.11.031
1897:10.1016/j.ijpara.2006.07.005
1680:10.1016/0140-6736(90)90838-V
1183:10.1016/0047-2484(74)90203-6
2517:10.1051/parasite/1999063201
1016:10.1080/0043824032000111399
775:The Journal of Parasitology
386:Encyclopedia of Archaeology
23:Schistosoma haematobium egg
2650:
2477:10.1099/0022-1317-49-9-771
1431:10.1177/014107689809100817
1413:Bondeson J (August 1998).
1171:Journal of Human Evolution
894:10.1603/0022-2585-40.4.585
2432:Sallares, Robert (2002).
2296:Cadernos de Saúde Pública
1762:10.1016/j.jas.2007.11.017
1356:Archives de Parasitologie
1256:10.1080/00438240500411230
1150:deals with the dilemma".
838:Pediculus humanus capitis
595:"Note on the presence of
564:10.1017/S0031182006000138
216:) parasitism may lead to
2170:10.1016/j.pt.2007.11.007
2131:10.1093/jmedent/27.4.628
1628:10.1051/parasite/2014010
967:Anthropophthirus capitis
963:Anthropophthirus capitis
854:10.1093/jmedent/25.6.545
718:Dicrocoelium dendriticum
466:10.1078/1434461041844259
450:Paleoleishmania proterus
1802:10.1073/pnas.0307312101
1476:10.1002/ajpa.1330410113
1388:Beavis, Ian C. (1988).
615:10.1136/bmj.1.2557.16-a
603:British Medical Journal
246:found on pre-Columbian
198:Echinococcus granulosus
75:Schistosoma haematobium
2629:Archaeological science
2012:10.3201/eid1210.060169
724:Indian J Med Microbiol
681:Ann Trop Med Parasitol
518:10.1073/pnas.022643899
280:
258:Techniques and methods
214:Ancyslostoma duodenale
24:
1375:Diseases in Antiquity
646:Zimmerman MR (1980).
350:Fundamental questions
265:
22:
2251:Faulkner CT (1991).
2193:Current Anthropology
2000:Emerging Infect. Dis
1333:10.5169/seals-311865
597:Bilharzia haematobia
409:Reinhard KJ (1992).
222:porotic hyperostosis
154:Parasite life cycles
71:Bilharzia haematobia
2325:Schistosoma mansoni
1793:2004PNAS..101.2034A
1415:"The bosom serpent"
1294:Medicina Nei Secoli
509:2002PNAS...99.1410W
318:Capillaria hepatica
296:Capillaria hepatica
268:Capillaria hepatica
176:Sources of material
166:Cryptocotyle lingua
103:Parasitology basics
28:Archaeoparasitology
2580:Hoberg EP (2006).
2539:Nozais JP (2003).
1119:(Suppl 1): 141–3.
819:Archeologia Polski
593:Ruffer MA (1910).
281:
233:intermediate hosts
34:, is the study of
25:
2596:(Suppl): S23–30.
2551:(Suppl 1): 13–9.
2465:J. Med. Microbiol
2445:978-0-19-924850-6
1920:Int. J. Parasitol
1885:Int. J. Parasitol
1850:(Suppl 1): 53–8.
1399:978-0-85989-284-1
1244:World Archaeology
1104:Fasciola hepatica
1102:"The presence of
1071:10.1645/GE-1049.1
1004:World Archaeology
665:978-0-521-23020-9
491:(February 2002).
395:978-0-12-548030-7
307:period buried in
55:paleoparasitology
2641:
2614:
2613:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2560:
2536:
2530:
2529:
2519:
2495:
2489:
2488:
2456:
2450:
2449:
2429:
2423:
2422:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2320:
2314:
2313:
2311:
2287:
2281:
2280:
2248:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2215:
2209:
2208:
2188:
2182:
2181:
2158:Trends Parasitol
2149:
2143:
2142:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2087:
2081:
2080:
2040:
2034:
2033:
2023:
1991:
1985:
1984:
1974:
1950:
1944:
1943:
1915:
1909:
1908:
1876:
1870:
1869:
1859:
1831:
1825:
1824:
1814:
1804:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1663:
1657:
1656:
1655:
1649:
1639:
1607:
1601:
1600:
1577:Trends Parasitol
1572:
1566:
1565:
1537:
1531:
1530:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1459:
1453:
1452:
1442:
1410:
1404:
1403:
1385:
1379:
1378:
1370:
1364:
1363:
1351:
1345:
1344:
1316:
1310:
1309:
1288:
1282:
1281:
1279:
1278:
1272:
1266:. Archived from
1241:
1232:
1226:
1225:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1166:
1160:
1159:
1143:
1137:
1136:
1110:
1097:
1091:
1090:
1053:
1047:
1046:
1034:
1028:
1027:
999:
993:
992:
990:
961:"Huevecillos de
956:
950:
949:
913:
907:
906:
896:
872:
866:
865:
833:
827:
826:
813:
807:
806:
787:10.1645/12-113.1
766:
760:
759:
749:
739:
711:
705:
704:
676:
670:
669:
643:
637:
636:
626:
590:
584:
583:
547:
541:
540:
530:
520:
484:
478:
477:
445:
439:
438:
406:
400:
399:
381:
2649:
2648:
2644:
2643:
2642:
2640:
2639:
2638:
2619:
2618:
2617:
2579:
2578:
2574:
2538:
2537:
2533:
2497:
2496:
2492:
2458:
2457:
2453:
2446:
2431:
2430:
2426:
2400:
2399:
2395:
2361:
2360:
2356:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2289:
2288:
2284:
2250:
2249:
2245:
2217:
2216:
2212:
2190:
2189:
2185:
2151:
2150:
2146:
2119:J. Med. Entomol
2116:
2115:
2111:
2089:
2088:
2084:
2061:10.2307/3282147
2042:
2041:
2037:
1993:
1992:
1988:
1952:
1951:
1947:
1917:
1916:
1912:
1891:(13): 1419–25.
1878:
1877:
1873:
1833:
1832:
1828:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1747:
1746:
1742:
1708:
1707:
1703:
1674:(8691): 724–5.
1665:
1664:
1660:
1650:
1609:
1608:
1604:
1574:
1573:
1569:
1539:
1538:
1534:
1511:10.2307/3283583
1496:
1495:
1491:
1461:
1460:
1456:
1412:
1411:
1407:
1400:
1387:
1386:
1382:
1372:
1371:
1367:
1353:
1352:
1348:
1318:
1317:
1313:
1290:
1289:
1285:
1276:
1274:
1270:
1239:
1234:
1233:
1229:
1195:
1194:
1190:
1168:
1167:
1163:
1145:
1144:
1140:
1108:
1099:
1098:
1094:
1055:
1054:
1050:
1036:
1035:
1031:
1001:
1000:
996:
958:
957:
953:
915:
914:
910:
881:J. Med. Entomol
874:
873:
869:
842:J. Med. Entomol
835:
834:
830:
815:
814:
810:
768:
767:
763:
713:
712:
708:
678:
677:
673:
666:
645:
644:
640:
592:
591:
587:
558:(Pt 2): 245–9.
549:
548:
544:
486:
485:
481:
447:
446:
442:
408:
407:
403:
396:
383:
382:
378:
374:
352:
289:
260:
237:schistosomiasis
178:
105:
93:anthropological
17:
12:
11:
5:
2647:
2645:
2637:
2636:
2631:
2621:
2620:
2616:
2615:
2590:Parasitol. Int
2582:"Phylogeny of
2572:
2531:
2490:
2451:
2444:
2424:
2393:
2380:10.2307/280170
2354:
2315:
2282:
2269:10.2307/281546
2263:(4): 687–700.
2243:
2210:
2205:10.1086/499553
2199:(1): 193–200.
2183:
2144:
2109:
2082:
2035:
2006:(10): 1616–7.
1986:
1972:10.1086/526520
1959:J. Infect. Dis
1945:
1926:(10): 1101–6.
1910:
1871:
1826:
1767:
1756:(7): 1849–53.
1740:
1701:
1658:
1602:
1567:
1532:
1489:
1454:
1405:
1398:
1380:
1365:
1346:
1311:
1283:
1227:
1214:10.2307/282505
1188:
1161:
1138:
1092:
1048:
1029:
994:
951:
908:
867:
828:
808:
781:(3): 570–572.
761:
706:
671:
664:
638:
585:
542:
479:
440:
427:10.2307/280729
401:
394:
375:
373:
370:
351:
348:
344:DNA sequencing
323:archaeological
259:
256:
252:figurative art
177:
174:
104:
101:
89:archaeological
40:archaeological
32:paleopathology
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2646:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2585:
2576:
2573:
2568:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2535:
2532:
2527:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2494:
2491:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2455:
2452:
2447:
2441:
2437:
2436:
2428:
2425:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2397:
2394:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2374:(4): 819–24.
2373:
2369:
2365:
2358:
2355:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2319:
2316:
2310:
2305:
2302:(2): 226–33.
2301:
2297:
2293:
2286:
2283:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2247:
2244:
2238:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2214:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2187:
2184:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2148:
2145:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2125:(4): 628–31.
2124:
2120:
2113:
2110:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2094:(in Danish).
2093:
2086:
2083:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2039:
2036:
2031:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1990:
1987:
1982:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1965:(4): 535–43.
1964:
1960:
1956:
1949:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1914:
1911:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1875:
1872:
1867:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1839:
1830:
1827:
1822:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1787:(7): 2034–9.
1786:
1782:
1778:
1771:
1768:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1744:
1741:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1705:
1702:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1662:
1659:
1654:
1647:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1606:
1603:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1571:
1568:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1536:
1533:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1493:
1490:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1458:
1455:
1450:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1409:
1406:
1401:
1395:
1391:
1384:
1381:
1376:
1369:
1366:
1361:
1357:
1350:
1347:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1315:
1312:
1307:
1303:
1300:(1): 125–41.
1299:
1295:
1287:
1284:
1273:on 2011-06-27
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1250:(4): 579–88.
1249:
1245:
1238:
1231:
1228:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1208:(2): 183–93.
1207:
1203:
1199:
1192:
1189:
1184:
1180:
1177:(5): 405–10.
1176:
1172:
1165:
1162:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1142:
1139:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1107:
1105:
1096:
1093:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1052:
1049:
1044:
1040:
1033:
1030:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1010:(2): 223–40.
1009:
1005:
998:
995:
989:
984:
980:
976:
975:
970:
968:
964:
955:
952:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
924:(9107): 992.
923:
919:
912:
909:
904:
900:
895:
890:
886:
882:
878:
871:
868:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
832:
829:
825:(1–2): 65–76.
824:
820:
812:
809:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
765:
762:
757:
753:
748:
743:
738:
733:
729:
725:
721:
719:
710:
707:
702:
698:
694:
690:
687:(1): 189–98.
686:
682:
675:
672:
667:
661:
657:
653:
649:
642:
639:
634:
630:
625:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
598:
589:
586:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
546:
543:
538:
534:
529:
524:
519:
514:
510:
506:
503:(3): 1410–3.
502:
498:
494:
490:
483:
480:
475:
471:
467:
463:
460:(3): 305–10.
459:
455:
451:
444:
441:
436:
432:
428:
424:
421:(2): 231–45.
420:
416:
412:
405:
402:
397:
391:
387:
380:
377:
371:
369:
367:
363:
358:
349:
347:
345:
341:
336:
334:
333:
328:
324:
320:
319:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
297:
292:
287:
278:
274:
270:
269:
264:
257:
255:
253:
249:
245:
244:leishmaniasis
240:
238:
234:
229:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
206:
202:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
175:
173:
171:
167:
161:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
138:ectoparasites
135:
131:
127:
126:Endoparasites
123:
121:
117:
113:
109:
102:
100:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
76:
72:
66:
64:
60:
56:
51:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
21:
2634:Parasitology
2593:
2589:
2583:
2575:
2548:
2544:
2534:
2510:(3): 201–8.
2507:
2503:
2493:
2471:(9): 771–2.
2468:
2464:
2454:
2434:
2427:
2413:(1): 110–8.
2410:
2406:
2396:
2371:
2367:
2357:
2335:(2): 404–5.
2332:
2329:J. Parasitol
2328:
2324:
2318:
2299:
2295:
2285:
2260:
2256:
2246:
2230:(4): 577–9.
2227:
2223:
2213:
2196:
2192:
2186:
2164:(3): 112–5.
2161:
2157:
2147:
2122:
2118:
2112:
2098:(6): 263–6.
2095:
2092:Nord Vet Med
2091:
2085:
2055:(3): 630–9.
2052:
2049:J. Parasitol
2048:
2038:
2003:
1999:
1989:
1962:
1958:
1948:
1923:
1919:
1913:
1888:
1884:
1874:
1847:
1843:
1837:
1829:
1784:
1780:
1770:
1753:
1749:
1743:
1721:(6): 640–3.
1718:
1714:
1704:
1671:
1667:
1661:
1619:
1615:
1605:
1583:(4): 167–8.
1580:
1576:
1570:
1545:
1541:
1535:
1505:(3): 440–2.
1502:
1499:J. Parasitol
1498:
1492:
1470:(1): 103–6.
1467:
1463:
1457:
1425:(8): 442–7.
1422:
1418:
1408:
1389:
1383:
1374:
1368:
1359:
1355:
1349:
1324:
1321:Acta Tropica
1320:
1314:
1297:
1293:
1286:
1275:. Retrieved
1268:the original
1247:
1243:
1230:
1205:
1201:
1191:
1174:
1170:
1164:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1141:
1116:
1112:
1103:
1095:
1065:(1): 300–3.
1062:
1059:J. Parasitol
1058:
1051:
1045:(2): 147–51.
1042:
1038:
1032:
1007:
1003:
997:
978:
972:
966:
962:
954:
921:
917:
911:
887:(4): 585–7.
884:
880:
870:
848:(6): 545–7.
845:
841:
837:
831:
822:
818:
811:
778:
774:
770:
764:
727:
723:
720:infestation"
717:
709:
684:
680:
674:
651:
641:
609:(2557): 16.
606:
602:
596:
588:
555:
552:Parasitology
551:
545:
500:
496:
482:
457:
453:
449:
443:
418:
414:
404:
385:
379:
366:biogeography
353:
337:
330:
316:
294:
291:Petrographic
282:
277:petrographic
266:
241:
230:
225:
213:
207:
203:
197:
179:
165:
162:
124:
116:commensalism
106:
74:
70:
67:
61:, and even
52:
27:
26:
1419:J R Soc Med
1327:(1): 1–11.
981:(1): 30–9.
730:(1): 97–8.
85:life cycles
65:parasites.
2623:Categories
1548:(7): 269.
1277:2008-11-07
747:1807/53557
489:Margulis L
372:References
327:taphonomic
286:microscopy
182:coprolites
130:protozoans
97:historical
2368:Am. Antiq
2257:Am. Antiq
1362:: 353–83.
1264:161727217
1202:Am. Antiq
1148:Dalaminia
1024:162867729
415:Am. Antiq
362:evolution
335:sp. eggs
332:Trichuris
299:found in
186:mummified
140:(such as
134:helminths
128:(such as
120:mutualism
108:Parasites
44:protozoan
36:parasites
2610:16371252
2567:12687757
2526:10511967
2504:Parasite
2485:10966223
2349:12054021
2178:18262843
2030:17176592
1981:18254682
1940:11429174
1905:16950265
1866:12687763
1821:14766963
1735:12625140
1696:12113260
1646:24572211
1616:Parasite
1597:11360885
1562:10858638
1306:11623468
1158:: 161–2.
1133:12687774
1087:12108882
1079:18372657
946:19628629
903:14680131
803:26253984
795:23240712
771:Taeniasp
756:18227619
633:20764829
580:41076534
572:16623965
537:11818534
474:15552057
357:sanitary
342:,), and
210:hookworm
190:cesspits
63:dinosaur
48:metazoan
2139:2201769
2077:3298603
2069:3282147
2021:3290941
1789:Bibcode
1688:1969079
1637:3936287
1527:8501604
1519:3283583
1484:4602000
1449:9816368
1440:1296852
1341:4144954
938:9734976
862:3060619
701:1888215
656:118–134
624:2330583
505:Bibcode
454:Protist
279:methods
248:Mochica
194:middens
2608:
2584:Taenia
2565:
2524:
2483:
2442:
2388:280170
2386:
2347:
2277:281546
2275:
2176:
2137:
2104:896405
2102:
2075:
2067:
2028:
2018:
1979:
1938:
1903:
1864:
1819:
1812:357047
1809:
1733:
1694:
1686:
1668:Lancet
1644:
1634:
1595:
1560:
1525:
1517:
1482:
1447:
1437:
1396:
1339:
1304:
1262:
1222:282505
1220:
1131:
1085:
1077:
1022:
944:
936:
918:Lancet
901:
860:
801:
793:
754:
699:
662:
631:
621:
578:
570:
535:
528:122204
525:
472:
435:280729
433:
392:
313:France
309:Amiens
218:anemia
2384:JSTOR
2273:JSTOR
2065:JSTOR
1838:Pulex
1692:S2CID
1622:: 9.
1515:JSTOR
1271:(PDF)
1260:S2CID
1240:(PDF)
1218:JSTOR
1109:(PDF)
1083:S2CID
1020:S2CID
942:S2CID
799:S2CID
576:S2CID
431:JSTOR
340:ELISA
305:Roman
301:cysts
273:Roman
192:, or
170:mummy
150:fleas
142:ticks
81:hosts
73:(now
59:amber
2606:PMID
2563:PMID
2522:PMID
2481:PMID
2440:ISBN
2345:PMID
2174:PMID
2135:PMID
2100:PMID
2073:PMID
2026:PMID
1977:PMID
1936:PMID
1901:PMID
1862:PMID
1817:PMID
1731:PMID
1684:PMID
1642:PMID
1593:PMID
1558:PMID
1523:PMID
1480:PMID
1445:PMID
1394:ISBN
1337:PMID
1302:PMID
1129:PMID
1075:PMID
934:PMID
899:PMID
858:PMID
791:PMID
752:PMID
697:PMID
660:ISBN
629:PMID
568:PMID
533:PMID
470:PMID
390:ISBN
364:and
158:host
148:and
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