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568:) earned terracotta a reputation for being a fireproof, lightweight cladding material that could protect metal from melting. Holes were bored in the hollow blocks in choice locations to allow for metal 'J' or 'Z' hooks to connect the blocks to the load bearing steel frame and/or masonry walls. The metal could be hung vertically or anchored horizontally. Pins, clamps, clips, plates, and a variety of other devices were used to help secure the blocks. The joints would then be mortared and the block would be partially backfilled.
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512:. True glazes are made from various salts but prior to the 1890s most blocks were slip glazed or coated with a watered-down version of the clay mix. Liquefying the clay increased the amount of small silica particles that would be deposited on the surface of the block. These would melt during firing and harden. By 1900 almost all colors could be achieved with the addition of salt glazes. Black or brown were made by adding manganese oxide.
572:
425:
desired green-ware, or air dried, shape is created it is fired in a kiln for several days where it shrinks even further. The hot clay is slowly cooled then hand finished. The ceramics are shipped to the project site where they are installed by local contractors. The hollow pieces are partially backfilled with mortar then placed into the wall, suspended from metal anchors, or hung on metal shelf angles.
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536:
melt together or sinter. If the kiln reaches 1000°C then the clay particles will vitrtify and become glass like. After the maximum temperature was reached then the clay was slowly cooled over a few days. During firing a fireskin is created. A fireskin is the glass-like "bread crust" that covers the biscuit or interior body.
437:
617:
The porosity of terracotta greatly impacts its performance. The ability or inability for water and pollutants to enter into the material is directly correlated to its structural capacity. Terracotta is very strong in compression but weak in tension and shear strength. Any anomalous material expanding
552:
The earliest terracotta elements were laid directly into the masonry but as structural metal became more popular terracotta was suspended by metal anchors. The development of cast and later wrought iron as a structural material was closely linked to the rise of terracotta. Cast iron was first used as
539:
Various kilns were used as technology developed and capital was available for investment. Muffle kilns were the most common kiln. They were used as early as 1870. The kilns burned gas, coal, or oil that heated an interior chamber from an exterior chamber. The walls "muffled" the heat so the greenware
535:
firing process could take days, up to two weeks. The clay is heated slowly to around 500°C to sweat off the loose or macroscopic water between the molecules. Then the temperature is increased to close to 900°C to release the chemically bonded water in gaseous form and the clay particles will begin to
466:
Weathering the clay allowed pyrites to chemically change to hydrated ferric oxide and reduced alkali content. This aging minimizes the potential chemical changes during the rest of the manufacturing process. The weathered raw clay was dried, ground, and screened. Later, it would have been pugged in a
424:
Terracotta can be made by pouring or pressing the mix into a plaster or sandstone mold, clay can be hand carved, or mix can be extruded into a mold using specialized machines. Clay shrinks as it dries from water loss therefore all molds are made slightly larger than the required dimensions. After the
226:
Richard Holt and Thomas Ripley patented an artificial stone recipe in 1722. The business was fairly successful at making small architectural ornaments. Their company was taken over by George and
Eleanor Coade in 1769. George died a year later, leaving the company to his wife and daughter, both named
661:
The environment also plays a large role in the survival of terracotta. Different types of air pollution can cause different types of surface problems. When it rains, water and salts get sucked into the voids in and around the terracotta through capillary action. If it freezes then ice forms, putting
634:
Inherent faults can severely impact the performance of the material. Improper molding can cause air pockets to form that increase the rate of deterioration. If the block is not fired or cooled properly then the fireskin will not be uniformly adhered to the substrate and can flake off. Likewise, if a
171:
Greeks used terracotta for capitals, friezes, and other elements of their temples like at
Olympia or Selenius. Domestically they used it for statuary and roof tiles. The Etruscans used terracotta for roof tiles, encased beams, and enclosed brick walls with it. The Roman terracotta innovation was the
652:
Imperfect repair work often exacerbates the underlying problems, speeding up the decay of surrounding elements as well. Making penetrations in terracotta units to attach objects to the outside walls also allows moisture to enter the system, and often crack the terracotta as well. Installing sealant
643:
A fair amount of damage comes from clumsy transportation, storage, or installation of the material. If the mortar used around and inside the blocks is too strong then the stress will be translated to the terracotta block which will fail over time. Corroding interior metal anchors expand at a faster
600:
Fluxes add oxygen when they burn to create more uniform melting of the silica particles throughout the body of the ceramic. This increases the strength of the material. Common fluxing materials are calcium carbonate, alkaline feldspars, manganese, and iron oxides. Grog is used to prevent shrinking
596:
Terracotta is made of a clay or silt matrix, a fluxing agent, and grog or bits of previously fired clay. Clays are the remnants of weathered rocks that are smaller than 2 microns. They are composed of silica and alumina. Kaolinite, halloysite, montmorillonite, illite and mica are all good types of
433:
Academically trained artists were often the designers of the terracotta forms. Their drawings would be interpreted by the manufacturer who would plan out the joint locations and anchoring system. Once finalized, the drawings were turned into a plaster reality by sculptors who would create the mold
379:
Structural problems of earlier terracotta resulting from incomplete waterproofing, improper installation, poor maintenance, and interior corroding mild steel provided bad publicity for terracotta and further harmed its reputation for architects. For much of the 20th century the
American terracotta
488:
was used for the mass-production of terracotta blocks, popular in the 1920s. Prepared clay was fed into a machine that would then push the mix through a mold. The technique required the blocks to be made with simple shapes, so this process was often used for flooring, roofing, cladding, and later
462:
Clay selection was very important to manufacture of terracotta. Homogenous, finer grain sizes were preferred. The color of the clay body was determined by the types of deposits that were locally available to the manufacture. Sand was added to temper the process. Crushed ceramic scraps called grog
475:
An artist makes a negative plaster mold based on a clay positive prototype. 1–1¼" of the clay/water mixture is pressed into the mold. Wire mesh or other stiffeners are added to create the web, or clay body that surrounds the hollow cell. The product is air dried to allow the plaster to suck the
146:
Indian terracotta manufacturers hand pressed, poured, and double-molded the clay mix. Plaster casts have been found in several ancient sites in
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. Similarities in motifs and manufacturing processes have caused scholars to note cross cultural pollination
662:
internal stress on the material, causing it to crack from inside. A similar problem happens with atmospheric pollutants that are carried into the gaps by rains water. The pollution creates a mildly acidic solution that eats at the clay body or a salt crust forms, causing similar issues as ice.
383:
Detailed architectural terracotta remained in use through the 1950s and 1960s, however it was often overlooked or misidentified. Architects during this time period did not embrace terracotta's natural properties and instead tended to use it to imitate other materials.
392:
Terracotta experienced a growth in popularity beginning in the 1980s when a resurgence in interest in historic preservation led to demand for architectural terracotta for restoration purposes. Historic manufacturers of terracotta such as
543:
Down-draught kilns were also widely used. The interior chamber radiated heat around the terracotta by pulling in hot air from behind an exterior cavity wall. Like the muffle wall, the cavity wall protected the greenware from burning.
364:
further harmed the industry: the number of terracotta companies dropped from eighteen in 1929 to eleven in 1933. This was largely attributed to architect's increasing preference for building with cheaper metal, glass, and cement.
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86:
Terracotta can be used together with brick, for ornamental areas; if the source of the clay is the same they can be made to harmonize, or if different to contrast. It is often a cladding over a different structural material.
176:
heating system that they used for their bath houses. Medieval
European architecture did not expand terracotta use beyond the ancients. The manufacture of tile roofs diminished with low cost thatch roofing widely available.
311:
by allowing for more lightweight construction on top of tall metal-framed structures. The fire-resistance of terracotta protected structural steel on many buildings constructed during this period, such as New York City's
674:. Regular inspections and maintenance and repair programs are required by law, but nonetheless well-publicized incidents such as the death of Erica Tishman after a piece of terracotta fell from a 105-year old building.
300:, played a key role in establishing effective widespread terracotta production in the United States through his work for various firms such as the Chicago Terra Cotta Company, the Boston Terra Cotta Company, and the
1350:
Didden, Amanda. "Standardization of terracotta anchorage: an analysis of shop drawings from the
Northwestern Terra Cotta Company and the O.W. Ketcham Terra Cotta Works." Masters Thesis, University of Pennsylvania,
78:
Usually solid in earlier uses, in most cases from the 19th century onwards each piece of terracotta is composed of a hollow clay web enclosing a void space or cell. The cell can be installed in compression with
597:
clays for ceramic production. When mixed with water they create hydrous aluminum silica that is plastic and moldable. During the firing process the clays lose their water and become a hardened ceramic body.
323:
during the first decade of the 1900s. Architects began to employ combinations of colors to achieve dynamic designs and appearances. This usage diminished as time went on, especially after the success of
158:
Chinese, Korean, and
Japanese terracotta making traditions were focused on non-architectural uses such as statuary or cookware but various forms of terracotta tiles were popular roofing materials.
553:
columns in the 1820s by
William Strickland. Over the course of the 19th century metal became more incorporated into construction but it was not widely used structurally until the late 1890s.
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264:
used it on some of their projects, but the material failed to gain widespread popularity and many
American architects falsely believed it couldn't endure the North American climate.
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The most common reasons for terracotta to fail are: poor manufacturing, improper installation, weathering, freeze/thaw cycling, and salt formation from atmospheric pollution.
576:
368:
The time-intensive process of terracotta manufacture put it at a disadvantage compared to newer products. Changing fashions towards more minimalist, modern styles such as the
380:
industry was a fraction of its earlier scale and the few surviving companies largely subsisted on jobs producing less complex products like machine-produced ceramic veneers.
683:
332:
increased demand for monochromatic terracotta. Trends in the 1920s favored setbacks in skyscraper towers, leading to increasing demand for sculpted forms in low relief.
55:
refers to a fired mixture of clay and water that can be used in a non-structural, semi-structural, or structural capacity on the exterior or interior of a building.
644:
rate than the surrounding ceramic body causing it to fail from the inside out. Improper loading of the hollow terracotta blocks can create stress cracks.
761:
301:
272:
1399:
Gerns, Edward and Joshua
Freedland. "Understanding terra-cotta distress: Evaluation and repair approaches." Journal of Building Appraisal. October 2006.
635:
glaze is not fired properly it will crack, flake, and fall off. Discolorations can result from mineral impurities such as pyrites or barium carbonates.
1167:
Standardization of terracotta anchorage: an analysis of shop drawings from the Northwestern Terra Cotta Company and the O.W. Ketcham Terra Cotta Works
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1622:
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and Sir John Soane. Georgian architectural style was in vogue and demand for repetitive, classically inspired décor was very fashionable. The
41:
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to allow for dynamic installations that retained terracotta's unique and distinct qualities while working with modern architectural styles.
670:
With the majority of terracotta buildings being over one-hundred years old, failing terracotta has become a problem in many cities such as
1340:
Barr, Emily. "PRESSING ISSUES IN-KIND TERRA COTTA REPLACEMENT IN THE 21ST CENTURY." Masters of Science Thesis. Columbia University. 2014
788:
120:
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Eleanor Coade. The Coade ladies popularized the grey mix of terracotta as an alternative to stone with the help of architects like
509:
236:
72:
812:
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446:
320:
197:
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Searls, Carolyn L.; Louie, Cece (2001). "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly: Twenty Years of Terra-Cotta Repairs Reexamined".
565:
1268:
803:
292:, and spurred greater interest in fireproof building materials that could enable the elaborate construction of the era.
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776:
770:
345:
1051:
Shockley, Jay; Tunick, Susan (2012). "A Capital Idea: Philadelphia and the Promotion of 1850s American Terra Cotta".
1482:
The Terracotta Revival : Building Innovation and the Image of the Industrial City in Britain and North America
519:
232:
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The American architectural terracotta industry peaked during the late 1800s and helped enable the construction of
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between the Hellenic and Indus River Valley sculptural terracotta traditions. Famous early examples include the
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402:
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was one of many manufacturers of architectural terracotta in the United States between the late 1800s and 1920s
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The earliest manufacturer of architectural terracotta in the United States was started by Henry Tolman Jr. in
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cultures. It was used for roof tiles, medallions, statues, capitals and other small architectural details.
580:
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further harmed the industry, despite attempts by manufacturers to create products suited to these styles.
209:
1369:
Friedman, Donald (2001). "Anchoring Systems for Architectural Terra Cotta in Curtain-Wall Construction".
140:
700:
340:
1219:
Mack, Robert C. (1983). "The Manufacture and Use of Architectural Terra Cotta in the United States".
1185:
Mack, Robert C. (1983). "The Manufacture and Use of Architectural Terra Cotta in the United States".
360:
Usage of terracotta in architecture had diminished through the end of the 1920s and the onset of the
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152:
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mill that would mix the clay with water using rotating blades and force the blend through a sieve.
408:
Architects became interested in newer uses for terracotta and companies developed products such as
373:
297:
1423:, edited by H. Ward Jandl, 117–51. Washington, D.C.: Foundation for Preservation Technology, 1983.
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There was an increase in popularity of architectural terracotta made with colored, or polychrome,
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36:
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557:
329:
1419:
Mack, Robert C. "The Manufacture and Use of Architectural Terra Cotta in the United States." In
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1627:
1407:
1345:
Bricks, Tiles and Terracotta, An Exhibition on one of the major industries of the Wrexham area
1092:
910:
Brancaccio, Pia (2005). "Sātavāhana Terracottas: Connections with the Hellenistic Tradition".
712:
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rather than mortar, or applying impervious coating, will trap moisture within the terracotta.
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60:
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112:
80:
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724:
1502:
Tindall, Susan M. (1989). "How to Prepare Project-Specific Terra-Cotta Specifications".
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96:
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17:
1616:
1356:
Transactions of the Association for Studies in the Conservation of Historic Buildings
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694:
671:
619:
413:
1112:
1371:
1113:"130 Years of Terra Cotta Production & The Growth of Boston Valley Terra Cotta"
515:
450:
325:
239:(1879–1880) buildings ushered in an era of mass-produced architectural terracotta.
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83:
or hung with metal anchors; such cells are often partially backfilled with mortar.
618:(ice, salts, incompatible fill material, or corroding metal anchors which cause
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64:
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A downdraft kiln designed for the Pomona Terra Cotta Manufacturing Company in
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136:
56:
45:
31:
1575:
Wells, Jeremy C. History of Structural Hollow Clay Tile in the United States
1416:
Jenkins, Moses. "Terracotta and Faience." Historic Scotland, Longmore House.
485:
173:
68:
998:
Koçyiğit, Oğuz (2006). "Terracotta Spacers from the Bathhouse at Amorium".
353:
1354:
Fidler, John. The Conservation of Architectural Terracotta and Faience.
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moisture out of the green clay product. It is fired then slowly cooled.
1552:
1523:
1473:
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950:
442:
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842:"Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Structural Clay Products".
48:
is a late 19th-century red brick and architectural terracotta building
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1384:
942:
858:
1539:(3). Association for Preservation Technology International: 12–14.
1510:(1). Association for Preservation Technology International: 26–36.
1363:
Architectural Ceramics: their History, Manufacture and Conservation
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were also added to stiffen the product and help reduce shrinkage.
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339:
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191:
130:
35:
1141:
Gerns, Edward; Will, Rachel (2016). "Architectural Terra Cotta".
1253:. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry. pp. Chapter 7.
859:"Architectural Terra-Cottas from Two Temples at Falerii Veteres"
532:
1295:"The Preservation of Historic Glazed Architectural Terra-cotta"
405:
all manufactured pieces used in the restoration of landmarks.
288:
destroyed many of the wood and stone-constructed buildings of
622:) inside the clay body will cause it to crack and eventually
1136:
1134:
256:, around 1849. In the 1850s, New York City architects like
1494:
Taylor, James. "History of Terra Cotta in New York City."
1442:
History of the Clay Working Industry in the United States.
818:
Federal Seaboard Terra Cotta Corporation (1928 to 1968)
1236:
Terra-Cotta Skyline: New York's Architectural Ornament
1088:
Terra-Cotta Skyline: New York's Architectural Ornament
1531:
Tindall, Susan M. (1988). "Terra Cotta Replacement".
1458:
Association for Preservation Technology International
1238:. Princeton Architectural Press. pp. Chapter 6.
964:"On the Older Forms of Terra-Cotta Roofing Tiles".
212:– the carvings represent the contents of the museum
67:". Some architectural terracotta is stronger than
1314:"Woman Killed by Falling Debris Near Times Square"
575:Cracking caused by corroding metal anchors at the
1347:, (Held at the Grosvenor Museum, Chester), 24pp.
684:Category:Manufacturer of architectural terracotta
767:Los Angeles Pressed Brick Company (1887 to 1916)
601:and provide structure for the fine clay matrix.
71:. It can be unglazed, painted, slip glazed, or
1169:. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania.
522:'s terracotta pediment using polychrome glazing
352:features glazed architectural terracotta in an
1312:Otterman, Sharon; Haag, Matthew (2019-12-17).
785:South Amboy Terra Cotta Company (1903 to 1928)
508:The last step before firing the greenware was
1421:The Technology of Historic American Buildings
1269:"Caring for Glazed Architectural Terra Cotta"
1267:Sanders, Arthur L.; Shypula, Kara L. (2015).
1221:The Technology of Historic American Buildings
1187:The Technology of Historic American Buildings
1091:(1 ed.). Princeton Architectural Press.
794:O.W. Ketcham Terra Cotta Works (1906 to 1995)
782:New Jersey Terra Cotta Company (1888 to 1928)
8:
1594:Victorian and Edwardian Terracotta Buildings
1402:James W P Campbell & Will Pryce, (2003)
1031:
1029:
1040:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 52–64.
453:to refine the clay used for tile production
809:Federal Terra Cotta Company (1909 to 1928)
762:New York Architectural Terra-Cotta Company
758:A. Hall Terra Cotta Company (1883 to 1887)
302:New York Architectural Terra-Cotta Company
273:New York Architectural Terra-Cotta Company
755:Boston Terra Cotta Company (1880 to 1893)
966:The American Architect and Building News
740:Chicago Terra Cotta Works (1868 to 1880)
540:was not directly exposed to the flames.
1601:Understanding and Conserving Terracotta
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1078:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
834:
189:city states kept the tradition alive.
153:Jain temple in the Mahbubnagar district
1562:"Repairing Architectural Terra Cotta"
1427:National Terra Cotta Society (1927).
1180:
1178:
1176:
1160:
1158:
1156:
857:Taylor, Mary; Bradshaw, H.C. (1916).
7:
929:"Graeco-Buddhist Terra Cotta Head".
863:Papers of the British School at Rome
1440:Ries, Heinrich and Henry Leighton.
1249:Pollard, A.M.; Heron, Carl (2008).
931:Bulletin of the Pennsylvania Museum
1491:Vol. 1(July 1891-July 1892):63-68.
1293:Patterson Tiller, de Teel (1979).
789:Denny-Renton Clay and Coal Company
25:
1430:Terra Cotta Standard Construction
1560:Turner, Susan D. (Summer 2005).
1365:. London: James and James, 1996.
771:Northwestern Terra Cotta Company
737:Henry Tolman, Jr. (1848 to 1855)
237:Natural History Museum of London
27:Fired clay construction material
1361:Fidler, John. Fragile Remains.
813:Moravian Pottery and Tile Works
750:Perth Amboy Terra Cotta Company
498:Guilford County, North Carolina
447:Moravian Pottery and Tile Works
321:glazed architectural terracotta
63:that translates from Latin as "
1498:2 July 1892-July 1893:136-148.
897:"Terracotta Art - Banglapedia"
556:A series of disastrous fires (
401:, and newer companies such as
42:Bell Edison Telephone Building
1:
1623:Soil-based building materials
1487:Taylor, James. Terra Cotta.
804:Atlantic Terra Cotta Company
1444:New York: John Wiley, 1909.
1276:Hoffmann Architects Journal
1119:. Boston Valley Terra Cotta
972:(848): 197. March 26, 1892.
777:Celadon Terra Cotta Company
577:First Congregational Church
346:Carbide and Carbon Building
95:Terracotta was made by the
1649:
1036:Elliott, Cecil D. (1992).
985:Terr-Cotta in Architecture
681:
233:Victoria and Albert Museum
127:Ancient Eastern terracotta
29:
1592:Article on terracotta in
1484:. London : Gollancz.
1012:10.1017/s006615460000079x
875:10.1017/s0068246200005407
822:Boston Valley Terra Cotta
403:Boston Valley Terra Cotta
798:Ludowici-Celadon Company
707:John Marriott Blashfield
471:Hand pressing terracotta
254:Worcester, Massachusetts
53:Architectural terracotta
1581:, Vol. 22 (2007):27-46.
1251:Archeological Chemistry
1165:Didden, Amanda (2003).
666:Consequences of failure
520:Philadelphia Art Museum
208:facade typical of high
1404:Brick: A World History
1234:Tunick, Susan (1997).
1085:Tunick, Susan (1997).
701:Fambrini & Daniels
583:
581:Long Beach, California
523:
500:
454:
357:
276:
213:
210:Victorian architecture
198:Natural History Museum
143:
49:
18:Architectural ceramics
1603:- Dr Michael Stratton
1489:Architectural Record,
1299:National Park Service
983:Geer, Walter (1891).
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518:
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420:Manufacturing process
343:
296:, an English-trained
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195:
134:
39:
1579:Construction History
1496:Architectural Record
1480:Stratton, M. (1993)
286:Chicago Fire of 1871
235:(1867–1880) and the
1436:(Revised ed.).
1358:, no. 6(1981):3-16.
1282:(1). Hamden, CT: 3.
1202:Scientific American
987:. New York: Gazley.
719:Burmantofts Pottery
566:San Francisco, 1906
489:hollow clay tiles.
434:for the craftsmen.
374:International Style
1318:The New York Times
846:. Designation C43.
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455:
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330:Woolworth Building
277:
214:
162:Western terracotta
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117:Indus River Valley
50:
1343:Dillon M. (1985)
1000:Anatolian Studies
824:(1981 to present)
815:(1912 to present)
800:(1906 to present)
746:(1879 to present)
727:(1897 to present)
713:Gibbs and Canning
697:(1815 to present)
605:Causes of failure
350:Chicago, Illinois
314:Flatiron Building
290:Chicago, Illinois
248:Early manufacture
149:Bhitargaon temple
105:ancient Egyptians
61:building material
16:(Redirected from
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1569:Heritage Matters
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1208:(14): 209. 1872.
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744:Gladding, McBean
639:Handling defects
630:Improper molding
458:Clay preparation
399:Ludowici-Celadon
395:Gladding, McBean
362:Great Depression
135:Brick temple in
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1450:APT Bulletin
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1379:(4): 17–21.
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1335:Bibliography
1321:. Retrieved
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445:used by the
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52:
51:
1149:(2/3): 1–8.
1006:: 113–125.
869:(1): 1–34.
592:Composition
484:Mechanized
372:School and
336:1930s–1980s
309:skyscrapers
280:1870s–1930s
217:1700s–1880s
101:Babylonians
65:baked earth
1633:Terracotta
1617:Categories
1323:2021-04-29
1223:: 117–151.
1189:: 117–151.
1038:Terracotta
829:References
682:See also:
410:rainscreen
298:ceramicist
206:terracotta
137:Bhitargaon
115:, and the
57:Terracotta
46:Birmingham
32:Roof tiles
30:See also:
1460:: 29–36.
1020:114377247
883:130444171
587:Chemistry
486:extrusion
480:Extrusion
441:Vertical
174:hypocaust
69:stoneware
1628:Building
672:New York
613:Porosity
354:art deco
151:and the
1553:1504198
1524:1504220
1474:1504770
1393:1504768
951:3794024
689:Britain
510:glazing
504:Glazing
443:pugmill
370:Bauhaus
187:Spanish
183:Italian
113:Chinese
91:History
1551:
1522:
1472:
1410:
1391:
1123:29 May
1095:
1018:
949:
881:
564:; and
527:Firing
429:Design
202:London
141:Kanpur
109:Romans
81:mortar
73:glazed
1565:(PDF)
1549:JSTOR
1520:JSTOR
1470:JSTOR
1456:(4).
1434:(PDF)
1389:JSTOR
1351:2003.
1272:(PDF)
1016:S2CID
947:JSTOR
879:S2CID
624:spall
356:style
1408:ISBN
1125:2024
1093:ISBN
844:ASTM
533:kiln
531:The
412:and
344:The
284:The
271:The
260:and
196:The
185:and
119:and
40:The
1541:doi
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1462:doi
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1008:doi
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871:doi
579:of
449:in
348:in
328:'s
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44:in
1619::
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1259:^
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1028:^
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873::
867:8
20:)
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