Architecture of Madagascar - Knowledge (XXG)

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materials imported from China and elsewhere has further reinforced a growing trend in urban areas away from traditional architectural styles in favor of more durable but generic structures using industrially produced materials such as concrete and sheet metal. Certain modern innovations may be more highly esteemed than others. In the Manambondro region, for instance, corrugated sheet metal roofing was typically the least expensive and prestigious and most common addition to a traditional house. The replacement of locally sourced wood frames with factory-milled lumber was the next most common house modification, followed by the laying of a concrete foundation. Houses built entirely of concrete with glass windows and imported decorative balcony railings and window bars implied great wealth and the highest social status. Although low income levels have served to preserve traditional construction among the majority of the population of Madagascar, due to the prestige associated with modern architectural innovations, traditional construction is often abandoned as income increases.

825:– "Malagasy house") underwent constant evolution. The simplest form of earthen house is one or more stories tall, rectangular, and features a thatched roof with slightly overhanging eaves to direct rain away from the foundation and thereby prevent its erosion. Wealthier families replace the thatch with clay roofing tiles and construct a veranda on the west face of the building supported by four slender equidistant columns; this design is even more effective at protecting the building's foundations from the eroding effects of rainfall. Further expansion often entails the enclosure of the western veranda in wood and the construction of an open veranda on the eastern face of the building, and so forth, leading to wrap-around verandas, the connection of two separate buildings with a covered passage, the incorporation of French wrought-iron grills or glass panels into verandas, the application of painted concrete over the brick surface and other innovations. In suburban and rural zones, the ground floor of the 586:) that supported the roof beam and a smaller upright beam at each corner extending into the ground to stabilize the structure. Unlike most coastal houses, Highland homes have never been raised on stilts but have always sat flush to the ground. To the south of the central pillar, in the area designated for sleeping and cooking, wooden or bamboo planks were occasionally installed for flooring, or woven mats were laid on the packed earth floor, which extended north past the pillar. Traditionally, the bed of the head of the family was in the southeast corner of the house. The northern area was distinguished by the hearth, delineated by three oblong stones set vertically into the ground. Houses and tombs were aligned on a north-south axis with the entrance on the west face. The north portion of the house was reserved for males and guests, while the south was for women, children and those of inferior rank. The northeast corner was sacred, reserved for prayer and offerings of tribute to the ancestors. 839:

inhabitants utilize locally available materials to construct dwellings that bear features of both regions. Most often houses are small – one room and only one story high – constructed of a skeleton of horizontally arranged sticks affixed to the wooden house frame as pictured in the preceding section on wooden construction. But unlike coastal homes where this stick skeleton would serve as a base for affixing plant material to form walls, earthen cob may be packed into the framework instead. The roof is thatched to complete the dwelling. These intermediary houses are also often distinguished by the presence of shortened Highlands-style wooden columns on the western face to support the elongated eave of the peaked roof, much as they support the verandas of the larger homes of Imerina. The floor is typically packed dirt and may be covered with woven mats of grasses or raffia.

795:, who had already commissioned Jean Laborde in 1860 to encase the exterior of her wooden palace at the Rova in stone. The building took its final form in 1872 after James Cameron added stone towers to each corner of the palace. The queen converted to Christianity in 1869 and that same year the London Missionary Society commissioned James Cameron to construct a private home for its missionaries. He drew his inspiration from the work of Gros and Laborde to develop a multi-story wooden house with veranda and columns. This model exploded in popularity throughout Antananarivo and surrounding areas as an architectural style for the aristocracy, who had to that point continued to inhabit simple homes similar to the wooden palace of Andrianampoinimerina at 752: 563: 868: 948: 1035: 908:, the earliest inhabitants of Madagascar, submerged their dead in the waters of a designated bog, river, lake or estuary, which was thereby considered sacred for that purpose. The practice also existed among the earliest Merina, who submerged their dead chiefs in canoes into Highland bogs or other designated waters. Where tombs were built, minor variation in form and placement from one ethnic group to the next is overshadowed by common features: the structure is partially or fully subterranean, typically rectangular in design and made of stone that is either stacked loosely or cemented with masonry. Among the Merina and 673:, an extremely dry and hot region in the south of Madagascar where unique forms of drought-resistant plants have evolved and thrived. Their homes are traditionally square (not rectangular), raised on low stilts, topped with a peaked roof and constructed of vertically-hung planks of wood affixed to a wooden frame. These homes traditionally had no windows and featured three wooden doors: the front door was the women's entrance, the door at the rear of the house was for children, and the third door was used by the men. Fences are often constructed around Antandroy houses using 472: 389: 637: 225: 694: 807: 19: 925:, Mahafaly) and highlands (i.e. Merina, Betsileo) peoples, first using unhewn stones and heaped or packed earth before transitioning toward masonry. In the Highlands, the transition to masonry was preceded by the construction of tombs from massive stone slabs collectively hauled by community members to the tomb site. Late 18th century Merina king Andrianampoinimerina is said to have encouraged the construction of such tombs, observing "A house is for a lifetime but a tomb is for eternity." 336: 505: 2728: 939: 47: 877: 179: 368:). In the southeast of Madagascar, actual zebu horns were traditionally affixed to the gable peak. Throughout Madagascar, houses are rectangular with a gabled roof as in Kalimantan, central pillars are widespread, and in all but a handful of regions, traditional homes are built on piles in a manner handed down from generation to generation, regardless of whether the feature is suited to local conditions. 854:(taboos) the ancestors may have established in life. Gestures of respect, such as throwing the first capful of a new bottle of rum into the northeast corner of the room to share it with the ancestors, are practiced throughout the island. The most visible emblem of the respect due to ancestors is the construction of the elaborate family tombs that dot the countryside in much of Madagascar. 1031:, a celebration in honor of the ancestors, wherein the remains are re-wrapped in fresh shrouds amid extravagant communal festivities before being once again laid to rest in the tomb. The significant expense associated with tomb construction, funerals and reburial ceremonies honors the ancestors even as it counters the emergence of unequal wealth distribution in traditional communities. 372:

the building or its dimensions (length, size, and particularly the height) are often symbolically indicative of the status of its occupants or the importance of its purpose on both islands. Likewise, both Madagascar and Borneo have a tradition of partially above-ground tomb construction and the inhabitants of both islands practice the carving of decorative wooden funerary posts, called

360:. The roof, which is supported by a central pillar, is steeply sloped; the gable beams cross to form roof horns that may be decoratively carved. The central Highlands of Madagascar are populated by the Merina, peoples who bear strong physiological and cultural resemblance to their Kalimantan ancestors; here, the traditional wooden houses of the aristocracy feature a central pillar ( 653:

in this region are considered to be representative of the architectural style that predominated throughout the Highlands prior to deforestation, and as such, they represent the last vestiges of a historic tradition and a significant element of Malagasy cultural heritage. For this reason, the woodcrafting knowledge of the Zafimaniry was added in 2003 to the

648:. Their homes are rectangular and large (15' long, 12' wide and 18' high) with a peaked roof, overhanging eaves, and wooden windows and doors. Many of the same standards found in the aristocratic architectural traditions of Imerina are present in the Zafimaniry structures, including the central wooden pillar supporting the roof beam, exclusive use of a 1056:—wooden funerary posts carved with symbolic patterns or images representing events in the life of the deceased—may be planted on top. The tombs of the Mahafaly people are especially famed for this type of construction. Among the Sakalava of the western coast, aloalo may be topped with erotic carvings evocative of the cycle of birth, life and death. 296:. The use of stone as a building material was traditionally limited to the construction of tombs, a significant feature of the cultural landscape in Madagascar due to the prominent position occupied by ancestors in Malagasy cosmology. The island has produced several distinct traditions in tomb architecture: among the 484:

be shut by a woven screen held closed with a leather strap; today the entryway is frequently hung with a fabric curtain. Variations on this basic template can be found in all coastal regions using locally available material. The largest of the traditional coastal houses are found in the southeast among the

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joining technique and the orientation of building features such as windows, doors and the interior layout. Zafimaniry houses are often elaborately decorated with carved, symmetrical, abstract patterns that are rich in complex spiritual and mythological symbolism. The architecture of the houses found

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According to the traditional beliefs of many Malagasy ethnic groups, one attains the status of "ancestor" after death. It is often believed that ancestors continue to watch over and shape events on Earth and can intervene on behalf of (or interfere with) the living. As a consequence, ancestors are

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The stilts, floor and walls are commonly made of the trunk of this same plant, typically after pounding it flat to make wide planks (for floors and roofing) or narrow strips (for walls). These strips are affixed vertically to the frame; the raffia plant is often used in the same way, in place of the

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Certain cosmological and symbolic elements are common across Indonesian and Malagasy architecture as well. The central house pillar is sacred in Kalimantan and Madagascar alike, and in both places, upon constructing a new house this pillar was often traditionally anointed with blood. The features of

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Differences in the predominant traditional construction materials used serve as the basis for much of the diversity in Malagasy architecture. Locally available plant materials were the earliest materials used and remain the most common among traditional communities. In intermediary zones between the

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On the eastern side of Madagascar, there is virtually no zone of transition between the earthen houses of the Highlands and the dwellings made of plant materials common to the coastal regions. In the vast and sparsely populated expanses between the Highlands and the western coastal areas, however,

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These traditional homes have no chimney. Their floor is covered in a woven mat with stones heaped in one corner where wood fires can be burnt to cook food; the smoke that accumulates blackens the ceiling and interior walls over time. The doorways of these homes were traditionally left open or could

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Foreign architectural influences, having arisen through increased European contact over the course of the 19th century, intensified dramatically with the advent of French colonization in 1896. Over the past several decades, the increasing availability of relatively inexpensive modern construction

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horns were gradually replaced by a simple decorative finial installed at the two ends of the roof peak. Other architectural norms such as the north-south orientation, central pillar and interior layout of homes were abandoned, and the presence of finials on roof peaks is no longer indicative of a

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The tombs found in the southwest of Madagascar are among the most striking and distinctive. Like those in the Highlands they are generally rectangular and partially subterranean; modern tombs may incorporate concrete in addition to (or in place of) traditional stone. They are distinguished from

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is often reserved as a pen for livestock, while the family inhabits the upper floors. The entrance typically faces west; the kitchen is often to the south, while the family sleeps in the northern part of the building. This configuration is consistent with that seen in the traditional Zafimaniry

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of the island in 1896. Modernization over the past several decades has increasingly led to the abandonment of certain traditional norms related to the external orientation and internal layout of houses and the use of certain customary building materials, particularly in the Highlands. Among those

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and codifying a tradition in which only the houses of nobles were constructed from wood, while those of peasants were made from local plant materials. This tradition historically existed among a number of ethnic groups in Madagascar, particularly along the eastern coast where the preservation of

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Today, tombs may be constructed using traditional methods and materials or incorporate modern innovations such as concrete. Inside, superimposed slabs of stone or concrete line the walls. The bodies of the ancestors of an individual family are wrapped in silk shrouds and laid to sleep on these

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A limited number of recently constructed homes in Antananarivo attempt to blend Malagasy architectural traditions with the comforts of modern house construction. These hybrids resemble traditional brick Highlands houses from the exterior, but use modern materials and construction techniques to

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Dwellings made of plant material are common in the coastal regions and were once commonly used throughout the Highlands as well. The types of plants available in a given locality determine the building material and style of construction. The vast majority of homes made of plant material are

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in the Rova complex, introducing the wraparound veranda supported by exterior columns. Jean Laborde designed the Queen's Palace in the Rova (built 1839–1841) using this same model on an even grander scale by enlarging the building and adding a third-story veranda. The new wooden buildings

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due to its increasing rarity, leaving the lower classes to construct in other locally available materials such as reeds and grasses; sticks and branches are occasionally used where available, creating sporadic villages of wood typically within proximity to forest reserves. While the wooden

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was indicative of rank: the longer the length, the higher the status of the noble family that lived within. The interior of the building was also somewhat modified, often featuring three central pillars rather than one and occasionally a wooden platform bed raised high off the ground.

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efficiently incorporate electricity, plumbing, air conditioning and current kitchen features in a fully contemporary interior. This innovation is exemplified in the recent residential development at "Tana Water Front" in the Ambodivona district of downtown Antananarivo.

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This house in South Kalimantan bears many of the iconic construction features brought from Borneo to Madagascar two thousand years ago: wood plank walls, piles to raise the house from the ground and a steeply sloping roof topped with crossed gable beams to form "roof

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of the southern arid plains, for instance, tombs may be built into natural features such as rock outcroppings or hillsides by placing the bodies within and partially or entirely sealing the space with stacked stones or zebu skulls. Alternately, among the

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It is believed that wood construction was formerly common in many parts of Madagascar but it has all but disappeared due to deforestation. This is especially true in the Highlands where, until recently, wood had been a building material reserved for the

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After Andrianampoinimerina's edicts regarding construction materials in the capital were revoked in the late 1860s, wooden construction was all but abandoned in Imerina and older wooden houses were rapidly replaced with new brick homes inspired by

979:, or "male stone") was sometimes traditionally erected in memory of the deceased. Andrianampoinimerina promoted more elaborate and costly tomb construction as a worthy expense for honoring one's ancestors. He also declared that the highest Merina 456:(especially in the north and northeast). For much of the length of the eastern coast of Madagascar bordering the Indian Ocean, architecture is highly uniform: nearly all traditional homes in this region are built on low stilts and are roofed with 228:

The distribution of traditional construction materials in Madagascar presents a predominance of earthen dwellings in the central Highlands and largely plant-based construction along the coasts, with intermediary zones making use of both material

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away from the entryway each morning and back into place again in the evening, a task that required a team of men to accomplish it. This fortified town model was adopted throughout Imerina and is well represented at the historic village of

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principalities and later amongst Merina principalities over the centuries inspired the development of the fortified town in Imerina, the central region of the Highlands of Madagascar. The first of these, the ancient Imerina capital of

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In the Highlands of Imerina, the above-ground entrances of ancient tombs were originally marked by standing stones and the walls were formed of loosely stacked flat stones. Examples of these ancient tombs can be found at some of the

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Traditional styles of architecture in Madagascar have been impacted over the past two hundred years by the increasing influence of European styles. A shift toward brick construction in the Highlands began during the reign of Queen

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The houses of the nobles were constructed according to these same cultural norms, with several additions. They were distinguishable from the outside by their walls made of upright wooden planks and the long wooden horns

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The earliest known rectangular stone tombs on Madagascar were most likely built by Arab settlers around the 14th century in the northwestern part of the island. Similar models emerged later among western (i.e.

904:, the deceased may be placed in coffins made from hollowed-out logs and left in caves or a sacred grove of trees, sometimes covered over by wooden planks held down by small piles of stones. It is said the 1011:-wrapped remains were laid to rest on stone slabs in the tomb below, the deceased's valuable possessions such as gold and silver coins, elegant silk lambas, decorative objects and more were placed in the 895:

Traditionally, the majority of Malagasy ethnic groups did not construct solid tombs for their dead. Rather, the bodies of the deceased were left in a designated natural area to decompose. Among the

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Foreigners were responsible for several architectural innovations that blended the traditions of Highlands architecture with European sensibilities. In 1819, Louis Gros designed the Tranovola for

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Highlands tombs by their elaborate decoration: images may be painted on the exterior of the tomb, recalling events in an ancestor's life. The roof of the tomb may be stacked with the horns of

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with means, foreign construction materials and techniques – namely imported concrete, glass and wrought iron features – have gained in popularity, to the detriment of traditional practices.

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region, and several other ethnic groups, deforestation rendered wood a valuable construction material only to be used by aristocrats. Indeed, its traditional association with the royal

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As wood became scarce over time, wooden houses became the privilege of the noble class in certain communities, as exemplified by the homes of the Merina nobility in the 19th century

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introduced brick roof tiles that soon began replacing rice stalk thatch in Antananarivo and the surrounding areas, and disseminated the technique of using a kiln to bake bricks.

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and elaborately carved verandas. These homes can naturally range in color from deep red to almost white depending on the characteristics of the earth used in its construction.

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In 1867, restrictions were relaxed on the aristocracy's use of stone and brick as building materials, before all restrictions on construction were abolished in 1869 by Queen

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rectangular, low (one-story) houses with a peaked roof and are often built on low stilts. These architectural features are nearly identical to those found in parts of

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traveler's palm, in the north. When bamboo is used in place of ravinala, the long pounded sheets are often woven together to create walls with a checker-like pattern.

3594: 209: 983:(noble) sub-castes would enjoy the privilege of constructing a small house on top of a tomb to distinguish them from the tombs of lower castes. The two highest 1019:, which was often decorated much like a regular room with comfortable furniture and refreshments such as rum and water for the deceased's spirit to enjoy. The 3616: 1572:

Frémigacci, Jean (1999). "Le Rova de Tananarive: Destruction d'un lieu saint ou constitution d'une référence identitaire?". In Chrétien, Jean-Pierre (ed.).

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peoples, where homes can reach 18' long, 9' wide and 15' high. Elsewhere along the coast homes are much smaller, averaging 10' long, 8' wide and 9' high.

306:, decoratively carved tomb posts, while among the Merina, aristocrats historically constructed a small wooden house on top of the tomb to symbolize their 3809: 3333: 763:

of the London Missionary Society is believed to have been the first in Madagascar to demonstrate how local cob building material could be used to create

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and sticks. Wood construction, once common across the island, declined as a growing human population destroyed greater swaths of virgin rainforest for

2644: 624:. Ambohimanga, arguably the most culturally significant remaining example of the wooden architecture of the Highlands aristocracy, was named a UNESCO 1023:

of King Radama I, which burned with other structures in the 1995 fire at the Rova palace compound in Antananarivo, was said to be the richest known.

3246: 1007:("cold house"). These houses were identical to standard wooden nobles' houses except for the fact that they had no windows and no hearth. While the 3589: 2954: 2942: 2901: 257:, most traditional houses follow a rectangular rather than round form, and feature a steeply sloped, peaked roof supported by a central pillar. 3509: 3338: 3231: 2232: 1607: 3275: 2113: 2014: 1944: 1820: 1790: 1755: 1649: 1583: 1544: 1425: 1350: 1318: 1291: 1133: 1638:

Bloch, Maurice (1995). "The Resurrection of the House Amongst the Zafimaniry of Madagascar". In Carsten, Janet; Hugh-Jones, Stephen (eds.).

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Thomas, Philip (September 1998). "Conspicuous Construction: Houses, Consumption and 'Relocalization' in Manambondro, Southeast Madagascar".

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particular social class. Classic examples of Highland wooden architecture of the aristocratic class were preserved in the buildings of the

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from which the earliest inhabitants of Madagascar are believed to have emigrated. Traditional construction in this part of

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of traditional aristocratic Merina homes into the a decoratively carved post affixed at each end of the gable peak.

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has died out, at least two ethnic groups can be said to have a continuing tradition of plank wood architecture: the

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Kus, Susan; Raharijaona, Victor (2000). "House to Palace, Village to State: Scaling up Architecture and Ideology".

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to be revered: prayers and sacrifices to honor or appease them are common, as well as the observation of the local

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and contacts with other foreigners. Foreign influence further expanded following the collapse of the monarchy and

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Pre-Christian and 19th century Betsileo standing stone grave markers (left) and a traditional Bara cave tomb in

3652: 3422: 3358: 3190: 3028: 3011: 2802: 2520: 2345: 1848: 726:) to protect the dwellings inside. The entryway through the town wall was protected by an enormous stone disk ( 2495: 2340: 2320: 2285: 2270: 975:. Where a body was not able to be retrieved for burial (as in times of war), a tall, unmarked standing stone ( 2596: 2592: 2583: 2460: 2435: 2390: 2385: 2335: 2280: 3417: 3412: 3302: 3097: 2858: 2835: 2574: 2515: 2510: 2505: 2475: 2450: 2445: 2425: 2405: 2365: 2255: 73: 2570: 2440: 2380: 2360: 2350: 2265: 300:

of the southwest coast, the top of tombs may be stacked with the skulls of sacrificed zebu and spiked with

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The Zafimaniry inhabit the heavily forested, rainy and temperate region of the Highlands to the east of

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who have preserved the island's original wooden architectural traditions; their craft was added to the

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Madagascar: an historical and descriptive account of the island and its former dependencies, Volume 2

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Lateral branches form the walls of traditional wooden Mahafaly houses in the southwest of Madagascar.

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Bird, Randall (Winter 2005). "The Merina landscape in early 19th century highlands Madagascar".

636: 461: 393: 912:, some early stone tombs and burial sites were indicated by upright, unmarked standing stones. 3750: 3567: 3452: 3373: 3316: 2996: 2964: 2922: 2744: 2109: 2077: 2010: 1940: 1816: 1786: 1751: 1645: 1579: 1540: 1421: 1346: 1314: 1287: 1129: 1027:

slabs. Among the Merina, Betsileo and Tsihanaka, the remains are periodically removed for the

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from which the earliest inhabitants of Madagascar are believed to have immigrated. Throughout

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Early state formation in central Madagascar: an archaeological survey of western Avaradrano

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made from the mud and dry rice stalks gathered from nearby paddies) and deep trenches (

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Les quatre-mères d'Ambohibaho: étude d'une population régionale d'Imerina (Madagascar)

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The architecture of Madagascar is unique in Africa, bearing strong resemblance to the

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Domestic architecture and the use of space: an interdisciplinary cross-cultural study

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central highlands and humid coastal areas, hybrid variations have developed that use

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Placing the dead: tombs, ancestral villages and kinship organization in Madagascar

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Brick house with arches and dormers inspired by the Queen's Palace in Antananarivo

616:(destroyed in a fire in 1995 but under reconstruction) and the walled compound at 504: 2629: 2071: 1934: 1903: 1810: 1745: 1639: 1573: 1534: 1490: 1308: 1089: 582:

Traditional peasants' houses throughout Imerina featured a thick central pillar (

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Gade, Daniel W. (1996). "Deforestation and its effects in Highland Madagascar".

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Kaufmann, J.C. (2000). "Forget the Numbers: The Case of a Madagascar Famine".

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The Zafimaniry construct wooden houses with solid doors and shuttered windows.

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Typical brick houses with columns and west-facing veranda, near Antananarivo

734:) symbolic of royalty. The town gate was opened by laboriously rolling the 693: 1970:

Campbell, Gwyn (1993). "The Structure of Trade in Madagascar, 1750–1810".

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Town gates in the Highlands were traditionally protected by stone disks (

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status and provide an earthly space to house their ancestors' spirits.

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rainforests continues to facilitate access to wood for construction.

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in the far south. Each of these three traditions is described below.

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The most traditional coastal style: houses with thatched roofing of

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sacrificed in the ancestor's honor at their funeral, and numerous

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In the central Highlands, power struggles between the Merina and

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communities of the central highland montane forests are the only

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Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar: étude descriptive et théorique

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Among the Merina of the central Highlands, the Temanambondro (

364:) supporting a steeply sloped roof decorated with roof horns ( 318:(1868–1883) based on models introduced by missionaries of the 1313:. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. p. 198. 799:. These newly favored brick houses often featured shortened 424:(as fencing in the south), wood (in the south and among the 45: 1933:

Mouchet, Jean; Carnevale, Pierre; Manguin, Sylvie (2008).

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Chapman, Olive (1940). "Primitive tribes in Madagascar".

730:) – five feet in diameter or more – shaded by fig trees ( 1972:

The International Journal of African Historical Studies

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is unique in Africa, bearing strong resemblance to the

2076:(in French). Ernest Leroux Editeur. pp. 126–127. 1277: 1275: 1273: 1271: 1269: 1267: 1265: 1263: 1261: 1259: 1257: 1255: 1253: 1251: 1249: 1247: 1245: 1243: 1241: 1239: 1237: 1235: 1083: 1081: 518:

architectural tradition among the aristocracy of the

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Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century

356:, is distinguished by rectangular houses raised on 1578:(in French). Editions Karthala. pp. 421–444. 1206:The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 1038:Mahafaly tomb with traditional painted decoration 239:construction norms and methods of Southern Borneo 1536:Maisons royales, demures des grands à Madagascar 779:constructed by Gros and Laborde transformed the 718:, who surrounded the town with thick cob walls ( 2007:The history of civilisation in North Madagascar 1567: 1565: 1563: 1094:The Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine 999:("sacred house"), while the tomb houses of the 1897: 1895: 1893: 1891: 1644:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 69–83. 1368: 1366: 1364: 1362: 821:by the French, these earthen houses (known as 2895: 2645: 2226: 1902:Andriamihaja, Nasolo Valiavo (July 5, 2006). 1776: 1774: 1633: 1631: 1629: 448:(ubiquitous but prevalent in the west around 203: 8: 1441: 1439: 1437: 1128:. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. 1126:The architecture of life and death in Borneo 607:missionaries' British-style dwellings. The 2127: 2125: 1965: 1963: 830:houses and reflects traditional cosmology. 3457: 3400: 3321: 3209: 3126: 2927: 2902: 2888: 2880: 2652: 2638: 2630: 2233: 2219: 2211: 1608:"Woodcrafting Knowledge of the Zafimaniry" 1528: 1526: 1524: 1522: 1520: 1518: 1516: 1514: 1512: 1510: 408:. Materials used for construction include 210: 196: 25: 1714: 1712: 1710: 1708: 1706: 1704: 1692: 1670: 1668: 1481: 1479: 1477: 428:, and formerly common in the Highlands), 2207:. UNESCO World Heritage YouTube channel. 2205:Woodcrafting Knowledge of the Zafimaniry 1804: 1802: 1641:About the House: Lévi-Strauss and Beyond 1199: 1197: 1195: 1193: 1191: 1189: 1161: 1159: 1157: 1155: 1153: 1151: 1149: 1147: 1145: 1119: 1117: 1115: 1033: 964:(left) and a modern Merina tomb (right). 805: 692: 659:Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity 470: 223: 2030: 2028: 2026: 1077: 669:By contrast, the Antandroy inhabit the 137: 91: 55: 37: 1809:Bradt, Hilary; Austin, Daniel (2007). 1286:(in French). Berlin: Berger-Levrault. 1090:"Notes on the origins of the Malagasy" 1939:. John Libbey Eurotext. p. 174. 817:Over time, and particularly with the 714:, was fortified by 16th-century king 7: 1936:Biodiversity of malaria in the world 916:Islamic origins of tomb construction 685:from the surrounding spiny forests. 2183:from the original on April 28, 2011 1914:from the original on July 14, 2011 526:in the central Highlands, and the 440:(formerly in the Highlands around 14: 3810:African architecture by ethnicity 3548:Confederation of African Football 1851:from the original on May 24, 2011 1448:Mountain Research and Development 1345:. London: Berkeley Square House. 475:Woven bamboo walls, plank roofing 380:in the Kajang dialect of Borneo. 2726: 2541:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic 2311:Democratic Republic of the Congo 1870:Cousins, William Edward (1895). 1785:. University of Michigan Press. 1539:(in French). Karthala Editions. 946: 937: 875: 866: 177: 1781:Tutwiler Wright, Henry (2007). 1418:Madagascar: Society and History 1043:Southern and western traditions 346:architecture of southern Borneo 1722:Madagascar before the conquest 973:twelve sacred hills of Imerina 1: 1876:. The Religious Tract Society 1694:10.1525/aa.1928.30.3.02a00010 1677:"Culture Areas in Madagascar" 614:Rova compound of Antananarivo 542:) people of the southeastern 534:Merina aristocratic tradition 1282:Acquier, Jean-Louis (1997). 1124:Winzeler, Robert L. (2004). 578:extending past the roofline. 287:Intangible Cultural Heritage 3276:International organisations 2070:Van Gennep, Arnold (1904). 1910:(in French). Antananarivo. 1845:"Royal hill of Ambohimanga" 1420:. Carolina Academic Press. 1284:Architectures de Madagascar 1088:Wake, C. Staniland (1882). 995:, built tomb houses called 432:(especially in the eastern 376:in western Madagascar and 3826: 3795:Architecture in Madagascar 3528:Africa Cricket Association 3334:Countries by GDP (nominal) 819:colonization of Madagascar 701:) and shaded by fig trees. 460:made of the fronds of the 235:architecture of Madagascar 3744: 3543:Australian-rules football 3460: 3403: 3324: 3212: 3134:Countries and territories 3129: 2724: 2049:10.1162/afar.2005.38.4.18 960:(aristocratic) tomb with 858:Earliest burial practices 671:Madagascar spiny thickets 466:ravinala madagascariensis 444:), grasses (ubiquitous), 416:(in the southwest around 320:London Missionary Society 2296:Central African Republic 1533:Nativel, Didier (2005). 1375:The Geographical Journal 1180:10.1525/aa.2000.102.1.98 689:Earth-based construction 384:Plant-based construction 3805:Vernacular architecture 3590:Countries by population 3303:United States of Africa 2242:Architecture of Africa 1908:L'Express de Madagascar 1744:Ogot, Bethwell (1992). 1681:American Anthropologist 1487:Oliver, Samuel Pasfield 1416:Kottak, Conrad (1986). 1341:Bloch, Maurice (1971). 1168:American Anthropologist 500:Wood-based construction 3339:Countries by GDP (PPP) 3281:Pan-African Parliament 3072:Science and technology 2104:Vogel, Claude (1982). 2005:Vérin, Pierre (1986). 1719:Sibree, James (1896). 1675:Linton, Ralph (1928). 1039: 834:Mixed cob construction 814: 759:Protestant Missionary 756: 702: 641: 579: 509: 476: 400: 352:, also known as South 341: 230: 50: 23: 3800:Culture of Madagascar 2992:European colonisation 2955:Pre-colonial kingdoms 2456:São Tomé and Príncipe 2316:Republic of the Congo 2177:"Burial – Madagascar" 1037: 809: 754: 696: 683:indigenous succulents 639: 632:Zafimaniry traditions 570:, a structure in the 565: 507: 474: 391: 338: 294:Kingdom of Madagascar 279:Malagasy ethnic group 227: 184:Madagascar portal 49: 39:Culture of Madagascar 21: 3563:Stadiums by capacity 3510:World Heritage Sites 2987:European exploration 2662:African architecture 2108:(in French). Selaf. 1873:Madagascar of to-day 1307:Kent, Susan (1993). 929:Highlands traditions 665:Antandroy traditions 552:Andrianampoinimerina 273:cattle pasture. The 166:World Heritage Sites 3247:Freedom of religion 3232:Heads of government 3024:Scramble for Africa 2531:States with limited 2175:Australian Museum. 2043:(4): 18–23, 91–92. 1387:1940GeogJ..96...14C 1060:Modern architecture 887:Isalo National Park 767:in 1826. In 1831, 675:prickly-pear cactus 626:World Heritage Site 572:Rova palace complex 324:French colonization 2972:Indian Ocean trade 1614:on August 28, 2010 1575:Histoire d'Afrique 1040: 1001:Andriamasinavalona 956:A historic Merina 815: 757: 747:Foreign influences 703: 642: 622:Queen Ranavalona I 580: 515:aristocratic class 510: 477: 422:endemic succulents 401: 342: 231: 51: 24: 3780: 3779: 3647: 3646: 3576: 3575: 3392: 3391: 3369:Natural resources 3311: 3310: 3257:Linguistic rights 3199: 3198: 3116: 3115: 2877: 2876: 2627: 2626: 2558:other territories 2331:Equatorial Guinea 2134:History in Africa 2115:978-2-85297-074-8 2016:978-90-6191-021-3 1946:978-2-7420-0616-8 1822:978-1-84162-197-5 1792:978-0-915703-63-0 1757:978-92-3-101711-7 1725:. T. Fisher Unwin 1651:978-0-521-47953-0 1585:978-2-86537-904-0 1546:978-2-84586-539-6 1427:978-0-89089-252-7 1352:978-0-12-809150-0 1320:978-0-521-44577-1 1293:978-2-7003-1169-3 1135:978-0-8248-2632-1 843:Tomb construction 787:Local innovations 650:tongue and groove 220: 219: 3817: 3760: 3753: 3538:Afro-Asian Games 3458: 3401: 3379:Renewable energy 3344:Countries by HDI 3322: 3210: 3127: 2928: 2904: 2897: 2890: 2881: 2730: 2687:Egyptian Revival 2683:Ancient Egyptian 2654: 2647: 2640: 2631: 2619: 2618:(United Kingdom) 2614:Tristan da Cunha 2610:Ascension Island 2602: 2589: 2580: 2556:Dependencies and 2249:Sovereign states 2235: 2228: 2221: 2212: 2193: 2192: 2190: 2188: 2172: 2166: 2165: 2129: 2120: 2119: 2101: 2095: 2094: 2092: 2090: 2067: 2061: 2060: 2032: 2021: 2020: 2009:. A.A. Balkema. 2002: 1996: 1995: 1967: 1958: 1957: 1955: 1953: 1930: 1924: 1923: 1921: 1919: 1899: 1886: 1885: 1883: 1881: 1867: 1861: 1860: 1858: 1856: 1840: 1834: 1833: 1831: 1829: 1806: 1797: 1796: 1778: 1769: 1768: 1766: 1764: 1741: 1735: 1734: 1732: 1730: 1716: 1699: 1698: 1696: 1672: 1663: 1662: 1660: 1658: 1635: 1624: 1623: 1621: 1619: 1610:. Archived from 1603: 1597: 1596: 1594: 1592: 1569: 1558: 1557: 1555: 1553: 1530: 1505: 1504: 1502: 1500: 1483: 1472: 1471: 1443: 1432: 1431: 1413: 1407: 1406: 1370: 1357: 1356: 1338: 1332: 1331: 1329: 1327: 1304: 1298: 1297: 1279: 1230: 1229: 1201: 1184: 1183: 1163: 1140: 1139: 1121: 1110: 1109: 1107: 1105: 1085: 987:sub-castes, the 950: 941: 879: 870: 765:sun-dried bricks 681:) or lengths of 396:on low piles in 269:agriculture and 212: 205: 198: 182: 181: 180: 48: 26: 3825: 3824: 3820: 3819: 3818: 3816: 3815: 3814: 3785: 3784: 3781: 3776: 3763: 3756: 3749: 3740: 3643: 3639:Youth in Africa 3617:Life expectancy 3572: 3514: 3490:Africanfuturism 3447: 3388: 3384:Stock exchanges 3307: 3195: 3154:Natural history 3112: 3076: 3033: 2982:Muslim conquest 2977:Bantu expansion 2917: 2908: 2878: 2873: 2845: 2822: 2789: 2771: 2750:Sudano-Sahelian 2731: 2722: 2712:Moorish Revival 2664: 2658: 2628: 2623: 2622: 2617: 2600: 2587: 2578: 2559: 2557: 2550: 2534: 2532: 2525: 2244: 2239: 2201: 2196: 2186: 2184: 2174: 2173: 2169: 2146:10.2307/3172111 2131: 2130: 2123: 2116: 2103: 2102: 2098: 2088: 2086: 2084: 2069: 2068: 2064: 2034: 2033: 2024: 2017: 2004: 2003: 1999: 1978:(26): 111–148. 1969: 1968: 1961: 1951: 1949: 1947: 1932: 1931: 1927: 1917: 1915: 1901: 1900: 1889: 1879: 1877: 1869: 1868: 1864: 1854: 1852: 1842: 1841: 1837: 1827: 1825: 1823: 1808: 1807: 1800: 1793: 1780: 1779: 1772: 1762: 1760: 1758: 1743: 1742: 1738: 1728: 1726: 1718: 1717: 1702: 1674: 1673: 1666: 1656: 1654: 1652: 1637: 1636: 1627: 1617: 1615: 1605: 1604: 1600: 1590: 1588: 1586: 1571: 1570: 1561: 1551: 1549: 1547: 1532: 1531: 1508: 1498: 1496: 1485: 1484: 1475: 1460:10.2307/3674005 1445: 1444: 1435: 1428: 1415: 1414: 1410: 1395:10.2307/1788495 1372: 1371: 1360: 1353: 1340: 1339: 1335: 1325: 1323: 1321: 1306: 1305: 1301: 1294: 1281: 1280: 1233: 1218:10.2307/3034155 1203: 1202: 1187: 1174:(102): 98–113. 1165: 1164: 1143: 1136: 1123: 1122: 1113: 1103: 1101: 1087: 1086: 1079: 1075: 1062: 1045: 968: 967: 966: 965: 953: 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3359:Infrastructure 3356: 3351: 3346: 3341: 3336: 3331: 3325: 3319: 3313: 3312: 3309: 3308: 3306: 3305: 3300: 3299: 3298: 3288: 3286:Pan-Africanism 3283: 3278: 3273: 3272: 3271: 3270: 3269: 3262:Women's rights 3259: 3254: 3249: 3239: 3237:Heads of state 3234: 3229: 3224: 3219: 3213: 3207: 3201: 3200: 3197: 3196: 3194: 3193: 3188: 3187: 3186: 3181: 3176: 3171: 3166: 3156: 3151: 3146: 3144:Impact craters 3141: 3139:Highest points 3136: 3130: 3124: 3118: 3117: 3114: 3113: 3111: 3110: 3105: 3100: 3095: 3090: 3084: 3082: 3078: 3077: 3075: 3074: 3069: 3068: 3067: 3057: 3055:Historiography 3052: 3047: 3041: 3039: 3035: 3034: 3032: 3031: 3029:Decolonisation 3026: 3021: 3020: 3019: 3014: 3009: 3004: 2994: 2989: 2984: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2968: 2967: 2962: 2952: 2947: 2946: 2945: 2934: 2932: 2925: 2919: 2918: 2909: 2907: 2906: 2899: 2892: 2884: 2875: 2874: 2872: 2871: 2866: 2861: 2855: 2853: 2847: 2846: 2844: 2843: 2838: 2832: 2830: 2824: 2823: 2821: 2820: 2815: 2810: 2805: 2799: 2797: 2791: 2790: 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3214: 3211: 3208: 3206: 3202: 3192: 3189: 3185: 3182: 3180: 3177: 3175: 3172: 3170: 3167: 3165: 3162: 3161: 3160: 3157: 3155: 3152: 3150: 3147: 3145: 3142: 3140: 3137: 3135: 3132: 3131: 3128: 3125: 3123: 3119: 3109: 3106: 3104: 3101: 3099: 3096: 3094: 3091: 3089: 3086: 3085: 3083: 3079: 3073: 3070: 3066: 3063: 3062: 3061: 3058: 3056: 3053: 3051: 3048: 3046: 3043: 3042: 3040: 3036: 3030: 3027: 3025: 3022: 3018: 3017:Trans-Saharan 3015: 3013: 3010: 3008: 3005: 3003: 3000: 2999: 2998: 2995: 2993: 2990: 2988: 2985: 2983: 2980: 2978: 2975: 2973: 2970: 2966: 2963: 2961: 2958: 2957: 2956: 2953: 2951: 2948: 2944: 2941: 2940: 2939: 2936: 2935: 2933: 2929: 2926: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2905: 2900: 2898: 2893: 2891: 2886: 2885: 2882: 2870: 2867: 2865: 2862: 2860: 2857: 2856: 2854: 2852: 2848: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2834: 2833: 2831: 2829: 2825: 2819: 2816: 2814: 2811: 2809: 2806: 2804: 2801: 2800: 2798: 2796: 2792: 2786: 2783: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2774: 2768: 2765: 2761: 2758: 2756: 2753: 2752: 2751: 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UNESCO. 1029:famadihana 827:trano gasy 823:trano gasy 811:Trano gasy 524:Zafimaniry 426:Zafimaniry 354:Kalimantan 275:Zafimaniry 249:region of 247:Kalimantan 243:Madagascar 115:Literature 3438:Languages 3428:Etiquette 3354:Education 3227:Democracy 3222:Elections 3122:Geography 3081:By region 3065:conflicts 2938:Antiquity 2803:Ethiopian 2421:Mauritius 2162:161545904 646:Ambositra 628:in 2001. 540:Antaisaka 528:Antandroy 450:Mahajanga 406:Indonesia 289:in 2003. 74:Languages 3767:Category 3612:HIV/AIDS 3443:Religion 3408:Abortion 3364:Internet 3291:Politics 3267:feminism 3205:Politics 3060:Military 3038:By topic 3002:Atlantic 2965:Sahelian 2915:articles 2851:Colonial 2828:Southern 2808:Malagasy 2670:Northern 2612: / 2608: / 2601:(France) 2595: / 2573: / 2569: / 2521:Zimbabwe 2496:Tanzania 2346:Ethiopia 2341:Eswatini 2321:Djibouti 2286:Cameroon 2271:Botswana 2181:Archived 2057:20447730 1912:Archived 1849:Archived 1843:UNESCO. 1606:UNESCO. 1489:(1886). 991:and the 985:andriana 981:andriana 977:vatolahy 958:andriana 923:Sakalava 910:Betsileo 889:(right). 776:Radama I 736:vavahady 728:vavahady 724:hadivory 720:tamboho, 699:vavahady 657:list of 568:Besakana 548:andriana 494:Antefasy 486:Antemoro 394:ravinala 378:klirieng 308:andriana 298:Mahafaly 285:list of 84:Religion 79:Holidays 31:a series 29:Part of 3751:Outline 3653:By year 3595:density 3480:Cuisine 3453:Culture 3397:Society 3374:Poverty 3317:Economy 3296:parties 3164:Central 3159:Regions 3149:Islands 3088:Central 3050:Empires 3045:Economy 3007:Barbary 2997:Slavery 2960:Empires 2923:History 2841:Ndebele 2818:Swahili 2795:Eastern 2777:Central 2760:Songhai 2737:Western 2708:Moorish 2693:Fatimid 2597:Réunion 2593:Mayotte 2584:Madeira 2579:(Spain) 2575:Melilla 2506:Tunisia 2476:Somalia 2461:Senegal 2446:Nigeria 2436:Namibia 2426:Morocco 2391:Liberia 2386:Lesotho 2336:Eritrea 2306:Comoros 2281:Burundi 2256:Algeria 2154:3172111 1468:3674005 1403:1788495 1383:Bibcode 1226:3034155 1100:: 21–33 906:Vazimba 712:Alasora 707:vazimba 438:papyrus 418:Toliara 398:Sambava 340:horns." 331:Origins 255:Oceania 138:Symbols 110:Cuisine 69:History 56:Society 3772:Portal 3627:cities 3475:Cinema 3433:Health 3191:Rivers 2913: 2911:Africa 2864:French 2813:Somali 2785:Musgum 2767:Yoruba 2718:Nubian 2703:Mamluk 2678:Coptic 2616: 2599: 2586: 2516:Zambia 2511:Uganda 2451:Rwanda 2406:Malawi 2366:Guinea 2261:Angola 2160: 2152: 2112: 2080: 2055: 2013: 1992:219188 1990: 1943: 1819: 1789: 1754: 1648: 1582: 1543: 1466: 1424: 1401: 1349: 1317: 1290: 1224: 1132: 1054:aloalo 902:Tanala 732:aviavy 679:raketa 655:UNESCO 520:Merina 490:Tanala 458:thatch 454:raffia 452:) and 430:bamboo 414:rushes 374:aloalo 350:Borneo 303:aloalo 283:UNESCO 251:Borneo 245:, the 229:types. 156:Anthem 130:Sports 105:Cinema 92:Topics 33:on the 3758:Index 3520:Sport 3500:Music 3495:Media 3179:South 3174:North 3103:South 3098:North 2755:Hausa 2571:Ceuta 2491:Sudan 2441:Niger 2396:Libya 2381:Kenya 2361:Ghana 2351:Gabon 2326:Egypt 2266:Benin 2158:S2CID 2150:JSTOR 2053:JSTOR 1988:JSTOR 1464:JSTOR 1399:JSTOR 1222:JSTOR 1073:Notes 1009:lamba 584:andry 446:palms 410:reeds 362:andry 358:piles 125:Music 120:Media 3736:2020 3731:2019 3726:2018 3721:2017 3716:2016 3711:2015 3706:2014 3701:2013 3696:2012 3691:2011 3686:2010 3681:2009 3676:2008 3671:2007 3666:2006 3661:2005 3184:West 3169:East 3108:West 3093:East 2745:Igbo 2501:Togo 2411:Mali 2301:Chad 2189:2010 2110:ISBN 2091:2010 2078:ISBN 2011:ISBN 1954:2010 1941:ISBN 1920:2010 1882:2010 1857:2010 1830:2010 1817:ISBN 1787:ISBN 1765:2010 1752:ISBN 1731:2010 1659:2010 1646:ISBN 1620:2010 1593:2010 1580:ISBN 1554:2010 1541:ISBN 1501:2010 1422:ISBN 1347:ISBN 1328:2011 1315:ISBN 1288:ISBN 1130:ISBN 1106:2010 1050:zebu 851:fady 566:The 492:and 271:zebu 253:and 233:The 146:Flag 3470:Art 2142:doi 2045:doi 1980:doi 1689:doi 1456:doi 1391:doi 1214:doi 1176:doi 1015:or 605:LMS 468:). 436:), 420:), 263:cob 3791:: 2179:. 2156:. 2148:. 2138:27 2136:. 2124:^ 2051:. 2041:38 2039:. 2025:^ 1986:. 1974:. 1962:^ 1906:. 1890:^ 1847:. 1801:^ 1773:^ 1703:^ 1685:30 1683:. 1679:. 1667:^ 1628:^ 1562:^ 1509:^ 1476:^ 1462:. 1452:16 1450:. 1436:^ 1397:. 1389:. 1379:96 1377:. 1361:^ 1234:^ 1220:. 1208:. 1188:^ 1144:^ 1114:^ 1096:. 1092:. 1080:^ 743:. 661:. 488:, 2903:e 2896:t 2889:v 2714:) 2710:( 2689:) 2685:( 2653:e 2646:t 2639:v 2234:e 2227:t 2220:v 2191:. 2164:. 2144:: 2118:. 2093:. 2059:. 2047:: 2019:. 1994:. 1982:: 1976:1 1956:. 1922:. 1884:. 1859:. 1832:. 1795:. 1767:. 1733:. 1697:. 1691:: 1661:. 1622:. 1595:. 1556:. 1503:. 1470:. 1458:: 1430:. 1405:. 1393:: 1385:: 1355:. 1330:. 1296:. 1228:. 1216:: 1210:4 1182:. 1178:: 1172:1 1138:. 1108:. 1098:6 677:( 590:( 464:( 211:e 204:t 197:v

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