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are diffused across an area by contacts among adults. Languages branch into dialects and thence into related languages through small changes in the course of children's learning processes which accumulate over generations, and when speech communities do not communicate (frequently) with each other, these cumulative changes diverge. Diffusion of areal features for the most part hinges on low-level phonetic shifts, whereas tree-model transmission includes in addition structural factors such as "grammatical conditioning, word boundaries, and the systemic relations that drive chain shifting".
251:
36:
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in 2007 reconciled the tree and wave models in a general framework based on differences between children and adults in their language learning ability. Adults do not preserve structural features with sufficient regularity to establish a norm in their community, but children do. Linguistic features
696:
using "be" + past participle for intransitive and reflexive verbs (with participle agreement), present in French, Italian, German, older
Spanish and Portuguese, and possibly even English, in phrases like "I am become death, destroyer of worlds" and "The kingdom of this world is
179:
Resemblances between two or more languages (whether in typology or in vocabulary) have been observed to result from several mechanisms, including lingual genealogical relation (descent from a common ancestor language, not principally related to biological genetics);
188:
when a population adopts a new language; and chance coincidence. When little or no direct documentation of ancestor languages is available, determining whether the similarity is genetic or merely areal can be difficult.
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notably used evidence of contact and diffusion as a negative tool for genetic reconstruction, treating it as a subject in its own right only at the end of his career (e.g., for the influence of
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Chappell, Hilary. (2001). Language contact and areal diffusion in
Sinitic languages. In A. Y. Aikhenvald & R. M. W. Dixon (Eds.),
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149:
955:
352:
290:
119:
1077:
1180:(pp. 3–31). Tokyo: Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa.
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The Munda
Languages. Edited by Gregory D. S. Anderson. London and New York: Routledge (Routledge Language Family Series), 2008.
843:
Drechsel, Emanuel J. (1988). "Wilhelm von
Humboldt and Edward Sapir: analogies and homologies in their linguistic thoughts", in
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944:"Archaeological-linguistic correlations in the formation of retroflex typologies and correlating areal features in South Asia"
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53:
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Proceedings of the symposium
Crosslinguistic studies of tonal phenomena: Tonogenesis, Japanese Accentology, and Other Topics
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In some areas with high linguistic diversity, a number of areal features have spread across a set of languages to form a
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Blevins, Juliette. (2017). Areal sound patterns: From perceptual magnets to stone soup. In R. Hickey (Ed.),
997:
574:
330:
261:
46:
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Kirby, James & Brunelle, Marc. (2017). Southeast Asian Tone in Areal
Perspective. In R. Hickey (Ed.),
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The tendency in much of Europe to use a transitive verb (e.g. "I have") for possession, rather than a
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Berger, H. Die
Burushaski-Sprache von Hunza und Nagar. Vols. I-III. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz 1988
681:
using "have" + past participle in many
European languages (Romance, Germanic, etc.). (The Latin
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Language, culture, and history, essays by Mary R. Haas, selected and introduced by Anwar S. Dil
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980:
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225:(also known as a linguistic area, convergence area or diffusion area). Some examples are the
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In Honor of Mary Haas: From the Haas
Festival Conference on Native American Linguistics
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Reduplication in South Asian
Languages: An Areal, Typological, and Historical Study
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156:. Features may diffuse from one dominant language to neighbouring languages (see "
670:(Latin: 'to me is') which is more likely the original possessive construction in
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148:, i.e. a common ancestor language. That is, an areal feature is contrasted with
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in a geographic area, particularly when such features are not descended from a
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Linguistic feature arising through language contact rather than common descent
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used for this and the previous point are not in fact etymologically related.)
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Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in Comparative Linguistics
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in several languages of Southern Africa, including a few Bantu languages
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Linguistic areas: Convergence in historical and typological perspective
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275: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
141:
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Enfield, N. J. (2005). Areal Linguistics and Mainland Southeast Asia.
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615:
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1100:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 1.455–460. Archived from
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from either German or French to several Northern European languages.
337:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
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in Europe cutting across the boundary between Romance and Germanic
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of language change, and areal relationships are represented in the
1076:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–31. Archived from
302:
244:
29:
1072:. In Matras, Yaron; McMahon, April; Vincent, Nigel (eds.).
1170:(pp. 703–731). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1176:. (1999). Tibeto-Burman tonology in an areal context. In
1061:(pp. 88–121). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
674:, considering the lack of a common root for "have" verbs.
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in Slavic, Baltic and Turkic languages of Central Asia.
326:
598:
The presence of a voicing contrast on fricatives e.g.
1119:(pp. 328–357). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
759:The use of the plural pronoun as a polite word for
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
998:"Vowel alternation in disyllabic reduplicatives"
970:G. Morgenstierne, Irano-Dardica. Wiesbaden 1973
413:, and many other phonetic similarities in the
1143:. The Hague: de Gruyter Mouton. p. 120.
946:. In Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew (eds.).
851:. the Hague: de Gruyter Mouton. p. 826.
745:A system of classifiers/measure words in the
647:Vowel alternation patterns in reduplicatives.
163:Genetic relationships are represented in the
8:
1168:The Cambridge Handbook of Areal Linguistics
1160:The Cambridge Handbook of Areal Linguistics
1059:The Cambridge Handbook of Areal Linguistics
629:between dialects with and without phonemic
495:in the Pacific Northwest of North America.
1013:
893:
397:system with no tones in words ending in -
353:Learn how and when to remove this message
291:Learn how and when to remove this message
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
1162:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1098:Encyclopedia of language and linguistics
1002:Eesti ja Soome-Ugri Keeleteaduse Ajakiri
1031:Historical Linguistics: An Introduction
845:Shipley, William, ed. (December 1988).
822:
747:Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area
415:Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area
231:Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area
1134:. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
1070:"Areal linguistics: A closer scrutiny"
152:determined similarity within the same
7:
273:adding citations to reliable sources
140:are elements shared by languages or
58:adding citations to reliable sources
723:formation in some languages of the
811:World Atlas of Language Structures
25:
1124:Annual Review of Anthropology, 34
307:
249:
34:
260:needs additional citations for
45:needs additional citations for
831:"etymonline.com: areal (adj.)"
1:
1158:Hickey, Raymond, ed. (2017).
875:"Transmission and diffusion"
1139:Haas, Mary R. (June 1978).
1054:. India: Allied Publishers.
333:the claims made and adding
233:, and the languages of the
1215:
1015:10.12697/jeful.2011.2.1.12
1096:. In Brown, Keith (ed.).
1033:, Routledge, 1992, p. 170
1029:Winfred Philipp Lehmann,
942:Tikkanen, Bertil (1999).
500:close front rounded vowel
478:languages of the Caucasus
948:Archaeology and language
1141:Prehistory of Languages
1092:Campbell, Lyle (2006).
873:Labov, William (2007).
763:in much of Europe (the
393:Development of a three-
366:Phonetics and phonology
1130:Haas, Mary R. (1978).
736:Austronesian languages
150:lingual-genealogically
950:. London: Routledge.
904:10.1353/lan.2007.0082
796:Linkage (linguistics)
732:verb-final word order
677:The development of a
666:construction such as
587:in many languages of
537:in many languages of
498:The development of a
186:retention of features
996:Ido, Shinji (2011).
552:in languages of the
463:Australian languages
421:Retroflex consonants
269:improve this article
54:improve this article
1094:"Areal linguistics"
791:Linguistic typology
704:, avoidance of the
672:Proto-Indo-European
235:Indian subcontinent
184:between languages;
1199:Language geography
781:Comparative method
489:lateral fricatives
483:The prevalence of
476:consonants in the
450:The occurrence of
386:) and palatalized
371:The spread of the
318:possibly contains
1150:978-90-279-0681-6
985:978-0-415-32890-6
858:978-3-11-011165-1
664:possessive dative
620:Southwestern Asia
593:Arabian Peninsula
558:Olympic Peninsula
378:Contrast between
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320:original research
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227:Balkan sprachbund
165:family tree model
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786:Language contact
754:Sociolinguistics
730:The spread of a
635:dialect continua
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571:but presence of
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550:nasal consonants
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529:and presence of
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512:Souletin dialect
504:Bearnese dialect
452:click consonants
409:, followed by a
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43:This article
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548:The lack of
457:The lack of
443:families of
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267:Please help
262:verification
259:
220:
208:
205:Major models
191:Edward Sapir
178:
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137:
131:
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76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
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768:distinction
718:superessive
554:Puget Sound
468:The use of
1194:Sprachbund
1188:Categories
1126:, 181–206.
1108:2010-09-25
1084:2016-10-17
1050:. (1992).
1042:References
806:Wave model
740:New Guinea
706:infinitive
700:Postposed
652:Morphology
493:affricates
459:fricatives
445:South Asia
441:Indo-Aryan
425:Burushaski
411:tone split
373:guttural R
327:improve it
281:April 2007
223:sprachbund
217:Sprachbund
169:wave model
158:sprachbund
80:newspapers
890:CiteSeerX
474:aspirated
433:Dravidian
429:Nuristani
331:verifying
199:Tocharian
182:borrowing
110:June 2013
1068:(2006).
882:Language
775:See also
710:genitive
697:become".
668:mihi est
627:isogloss
591:and the
556:and the
510:and the
485:ejective
470:ejective
241:Examples
142:dialects
863:p. 254.
766:tu-vous
734:to the
725:Balkans
702:article
539:Central
508:Occitan
502:in the
423:in the
325:Please
195:Tibetan
94:scholar
1147:
983:
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909:18 Aug
892:
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721:number
716:, and
714:dative
657:Syntax
616:Europe
516:Basque
439:, and
384:dark L
229:, the
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878:(PDF)
817:Notes
687:haben
683:habeo
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608:[
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600:[
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573:[
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565:[
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531:[
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101:JSTOR
87:books
1145:ISBN
981:ISBN
952:ISBN
911:2010
853:ISBN
712:and
618:and
579:and
541:and
491:and
487:and
472:and
395:tone
388:/lʲ/
160:").
73:news
1010:doi
900:doi
761:you
738:of
631:/y/
625:An
614:in
606:vs
514:of
506:of
461:in
405:, -
401:, -
380:/ɫ/
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271:by
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197:on
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