482:
used for internal security and legitimate self-defense, and that their use does not lead to an escalation of conflict. However, the AECA does not define "internal security" or "legitimate self-defense." Kucinich said that Israel's actions in Gaza killed nearly 600 and injured over 2,500, including innocent civilians and children in residential areas and civilian institutions like schools. Kucinich said that this may have violated the AECA because they didn't further Israel's internal security or legitimate self-defense, but increased the possibility of an outbreak or escalation of conflict. The charges were denied by the IDF and no action has been taken under the act.
366:, then a foreign policy aide to Senator Gaylord Nelson of Wisconsin, later the Chairwoman of the U.S. International Trade Commission (1984-1986). Nelson approved the idea and introduced an amendment for a one-house veto over significant arms sales. Stern and Nelson settled on a reporting "tripwire" of $ 25 million, the cost of a squadron of F-5E's. Nelson has credited Stern with conceiving the amendment and supplying the persistence needed to steer the attention of the Senate to arms sales. Nelson's proposed floor measure passed 44 to 43 in the Senate but a like House measure introduced by Representative Jonathan Bingham of New York was defeated.
29:
406:, for allegedly violating the Arms Export Control Act. The US Government had long regarded cryptographic software as a munition, and thus subject to arms trafficking export controls. At that time, the boundary between permitted ("low-strength") cryptography and impermissible ("high-strength") cryptography placed PGP well on the too-strong-to-export side (this boundary has since been relaxed). The investigation lasted three years, but was finally dropped without filing charges.
493:(drones). Roth was accused of violating the law by sharing technical (not classified) data with Chinese and Iranian graduate students, and of having technical data on his laptop during a trip to China. Roth and others said that the AECA, as applied in his case, would violate academic freedom and force professors to discriminate against students on the basis of nationality.
373:
In 1975, President Gerald Ford's arms sale to Jordan led
Congress to examine how to strengthen the Nelson-Bingham Amendment. A significant number of sale notifications had been allowed to be kept classified by the executive. The time period of Congressional review had been found to be deficient and
369:
In 1974, a renewed attempt passed as the Nelson-Bingham Act of 1974. It provided that when the U.S. government offered to sell any defense article or service costing $ 25 million or more, the
President must inform both Houses of Congress of the details, giving Congress twenty days to adopt a "veto"
357:
From 1963 to 1973, 128 nations received $ 2.5 trillion in weapons and services, the majority from the United States. Law only required that the
Secretary of State report “significant” arms sales to Congress, semi-annually. In the early 1970s, legislators moved to become involved in deciding to whom
481:
sent a notice to
Secretary of State, Dr. Condoleezza Rice, that Israel's actions in Gaza since December 27, 2008 may constitute a violation of the requirements of the AECA. The AECA requires that each nation that receives a shipment of arms from the United States must certify that the weapons are
374:
the dollar level of $ 25 million as a tripwire had prevented a number of smaller sales from avoiding scrutiny. Members of
Congress also sought to expand the scope of their review beyond government-to-government sales. The 1976 Arms Control Act incorporated these and other changes.
361:
In 1973, Norvill Jones, a staffer of the
Committee of Senate Foreign Relations, tried to interest members in establishing a procedure by which Congress could review large arms sales. Finding no takers, Jones mentioned the idea to
358:
arm sales could be made and under what circumstances. Concern over arms sales increased significantly in the summer of 1973, when news surfaced of a potential Nixon
Administration sale of F-4 fighter-bombers to Saudi Arabia.
420:. The study noted that the system itself had not been changed since 9/11 since the system was already designed to counter such threats. The study did report that the processing time for arms cases increased starting in 2003.
288:
the authority to control the import and export of defense articles and defense services. The H.R. 13680 legislation was passed by the 94th
Congressional session and enacted into law by the 38th President of the United States
370:
resolution. The Nelson-Bingham initiative worked "a profound transformation in arms export policy" and had a "significant impact on U.S. government policy, both on long-range planning and on several major individual sales."
377:
The scope of the act was challenged by professors and universities, who felt that restrictions placed on foreign nationals, including international students and visiting professors, were excessive. In the 1980s, Professor
402:
In the 1990s, after a report from RSA Data
Security, Inc., who were in a licensing dispute with regard to use of the RSA algorithm in PGP, the Customs Service started a criminal investigation of
980:
503:
merger settled a $ 13 million export violation to Canada of unauthorized transfers of software, military radios and other military gear after a report of 131 alleged violations by the
1109:
336:
and manufacturers, prohibiting them from the sale of certain sensitive technologies to certain parties and requiring thorough documentation of such trades to trusted parties.
1104:
1099:
1040:
184:
1114:
485:
In July 2009 John Reece Roth, a former
University of Tennessee professor, was convicted of violating the AECA and sentenced to 48 months in prison. Roth had a
947:
963:
750:
1021:
598:
539:
301:
893:"Former University of Tennessee Professor John Reece Roth Sentenced to 48 Months in Prison for Illegally Exporting Military Research Technical Data"
524:
342:
918:
865:
720:
339:
When the President is aware of the possibility of violations of the AECA, the law requires a report to Congress on the potential violations.
504:
1119:
896:
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646:
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529:
277:
134:
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of new night vision technology. The United States government will assume rights to the resulting created intellectual property.
565:"Gerald R. Ford: "Statement on Signing the International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act of 1976" July 1, 1976"
265:
102:
94:
427:
was fined $ 15 million for unlicensed foreign sales involving a gyroscopic microchip or gyrochip with military applications.
285:
679:
1124:
463:
349:
to prevent foreign adversaries, terrorists, and criminal networks from obtaining U.S. munitions and strategic technology.
413:
313:
64:
783:
409:
From FY 2004 to FY 2006 there had been 283 arrests, 198 indictments, and 166 convictions based on AECA violations.
252:
831:
754:
28:
471:
992:
Marjorie Censer. (26 September 2019). "L3Harris agrees to $ 13 million settlement following ITAR violations".
979:
Freightwaves. Benzinga.com. (26 September 2019). "L3Harris Will Pay $ 13 Million Fine For Export Violations".
47:
An Act to amend the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 and the Foreign Military Sales Act, and for other purposes.
606:
1051:
486:
391:
317:
848:
512:
447:
882:"Israel May Be in Violation of Arms Export Control Act" Tuesday January 6, Press Release; Dennis Kucinich
869:
808:
1089:
728:
508:
490:
926:
489:(USAF) contract to develop plasma technology to reduce drag on airplane wings. One application was for
1009:
443:
417:
1069:"Gerald R. Ford: "Executive Order 11958 – Administration of Arms Export Controls," January 18, 1977"
1013:
564:
87:
544:
515:
had been temporarily transferred to Thailand, Singapore and Germany without proper authorizations.
383:
321:
892:
496:
128:
1029:
207:
162:
147:
753:. Office of Research Integrity, Florida International University. May 23, 2007. Archived from
642:
919:"University professor and Tennessee company indicted for Arms Export Control Act violations"
835:
387:
329:
305:
166:
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500:
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agreements or other arrangements." The Act also places certain restrictions on American
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451:
379:
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221:
203:
193:
1083:
635:
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both openly violated the arms export control act with support of their institutions.
333:
1046:
Details from the Bureau of Industry and Security, part of the Department of Commerce
852:
455:
325:
261:
174:
1017:
964:
From Ivory Tower to Iron Bars: Scientists Risk Jail Time for Violating Export Laws
585:
439:
363:
235:
680:"The Arms Export Control Act and Congressional Codetermination over Arms Sales"
1068:
467:
459:
309:
308:. Consideration is given as to whether the exports "would contribute to an
470:, although they were also given the option of spending half of that sum on
776:
849:
https://www.theregister.co.uk/2007/03/27/itt_fined_for_illegal_exports/
571:. U.S. National Archives and Records. July 1, 1976. pp. 1936–1938.
269:
106:
1024:
424:
809:"Boeing Company Arms Export Control Act Violation (QRS-11 Gyrochip)"
304:
receiving weapons from the United States to use the armaments for
55:
International Security Assistance and Arms Exports Control Act
324:, or prejudice the development of bilateral or multilateral
777:"Arms Export Control System in the Post-9/11 Environment"
605:. US Immigration and Customs Enforcement. Archived from
505:
State Department's Directorate of Defense Trade Controls
466:, and the United Kingdom. They were fined $ 100 million
458:, including light interference filters to engineers in
345:(ICE) conducts an industry outreach program called the
438:
violation of the act. The fines resulted from ITT's
145:
127:
117:
112:
93:
83:
78:
70:
59:
51:
43:
35:
851:"ITT Fined for Illegal Exports" Tuesday March 27,
634:
253:
1041:United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement
1052:"Bureau of Nonproliferation – Export Controls"
8:
684:American University International Law Review
122:22 U.S.C.: Foreign Relations and Intercourse
21:
1110:United States foreign relations legislation
1075:. University of California – Santa Barbara.
832:"ITT Fined $ 100M for Illegal Tech Exports"
1105:United States federal firearms legislation
1100:United States federal criminal legislation
633:Thomas M. Franck; Edward Weisband (1979).
320:, increase the possibility of outbreak or
214:Reported by the joint conference committee
540:International Traffic in Arms Regulations
811:. Federal Contractor Misconduct Database
525:Arms Control and Disarmament Act of 1961
416:(GAO) did a study on arms exports since
343:U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
923:US Immigrations and Customs Enforcement
556:
20:
7:
1115:United States Department of Commerce
899:from the original on August 22, 2010
701:Owen, Robert C. (January 13, 1982).
664:“Congressional Role in Arms Sales,”
660:
658:
628:
626:
624:
789:from the original on August 8, 2010
442:program, in which they transferred
535:Foreign Military Sales Act of 1971
530:Foreign Military Sales Act of 1968
258:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
14:
1067:Peters,Gerhard; Woolley, John T.
1030:Information on Illegal Arms trade
948:Why the Professor Went to Prison
782:. Government Accounting Office.
27:
1073:The American Presidency Project
1025:Statute Compilations collection
830:Lindsey, Sue (March 27, 2007).
751:"Registration & Compliance"
39:Arms Export Control Act of 1976
703:"Police state for scientists?"
599:"About Project Shield America"
286:President of the United States
228:on June 25, 1976 (agreed)
1:
866:"Congressman Dennis Kucinich"
477:In January 2009, Congressman
185:House International Relations
723:U.S. News & World Report
414:Government Accounting Office
312:, aid in the development of
1120:94th United States Congress
721:"Lost in Kafka Territory –
641:. Oxford University Press.
314:weapons of mass destruction
65:94th United States Congress
1141:
1054:. U.S. Department of State
637:Foreign Policy by Congress
464:People's Republic of China
1095:Export and import control
302:international governments
154:
26:
966:, by Sharon Weinberger,
678:Tompa, Peter K. (1986).
668:, April 10, 1982, p. 798
472:research and development
1035:March 28, 2007, at the
1010:Arms Export Control Act
996:Retrieved 5 March 2022.
983:Retrieved 5 March 2022.
666:Congressional Quarterly
487:United States Air Force
392:University of Minnesota
318:international terrorism
306:legitimate self-defense
249:Arms Export Control Act
220:on June 22, 1976 (
202:on June 14, 1976 (
181:Committee consideration
22:Arms Export Control Act
994:Inside Defense website
448:classified information
347:Project Shield America
322:escalation of conflict
218:agreed to by the House
192:on June 2, 1976 (
895:. FBI. July 1, 2009.
509:L3Harris Technologies
491:unmanned air vehicles
251:of 1976 (Title II of
1125:1976 in American law
444:night vision goggles
970:, 17 September 2009
954:, November 01, 2012
872:on January 19, 2009
545:Symington Amendment
511:also admitted that
384:Stanford University
148:Legislative history
23:
981:Yahoo News website
950:by Daniel Golden,
499:prior to its 2019
497:Harris Corporation
293:on June 30, 1976.
216:on June 16, 1976;
36:Other short titles
245:
244:
200:Passed the Senate
177:) on May 11, 1976
96:Statutes at Large
16:United States law
1132:
1076:
1063:
1061:
1059:
997:
990:
984:
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925:. Archived from
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868:. Archived from
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727:. Archived from
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569:Internet Archive
561:
388:C. Peter Magrath
330:nonproliferation
275:
259:
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238:on June 30, 1976
190:Passed the House
167:Thomas E. Morgan
161:in the House as
150:
131:sections created
97:
31:
24:
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1037:Wayback Machine
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834:. FOXNews.com.
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501:L3 Technologies
479:Dennis Kucinich
452:countermeasures
432:ITT Corporation
430:In March 2007,
404:Phil Zimmermann
400:
355:
298:Act of Congress
273:
257:
241:
232:Signed into law
163:H.R. 13680
146:
95:
60:Enacted by
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582:22 U.S.C.
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434:was fined for
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386:and President
380:Bruce Lusignan
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291:Gerald R. Ford
276:, codified at
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234:by President
233:
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224:) and by the
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38:
34:
30:
25:
19:
1090:Arms control
1072:
1056:. Retrieved
1012:as amended (
988:
975:
967:
959:
952:BusinessWeek
951:
943:
931:. Retrieved
927:the original
922:
913:
901:. Retrieved
887:
874:. Retrieved
870:the original
860:
853:The Register
844:
825:
813:. Retrieved
803:
791:. Retrieved
771:
759:. Retrieved
755:the original
745:
733:. Retrieved
729:the original
722:
715:
706:
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673:
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636:
611:. Retrieved
607:the original
603:ICE web site
602:
593:
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429:
422:
412:In 2005 the
411:
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346:
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334:arms traders
326:arms control
295:
284:) gives the
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189:
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158:
113:Codification
18:
876:January 15,
586:§ 2778
440:outsourcing
398:Application
364:Paula Stern
236:Gerald Ford
141:§ 2751
1084:Categories
735:August 24,
551:References
468:US dollars
316:, support
272:, enacted
264:, 90
159:Introduced
84:Public law
44:Long title
1020:) in the
513:T7 robots
460:Singapore
310:arms race
300:requires
278:22 U.S.C.
135:22 U.S.C.
79:Citations
71:Effective
52:Nicknames
1033:Archived
897:Archived
784:Archived
519:See also
454:against
436:criminal
423:In 2006
101:90
1018:details
588:(a)(2).
390:of the
353:History
254:Pub. L.
222:258–146
208:S. 3439
194:255–140
645:
584:
462:, the
450:about
425:Boeing
282:ch. 39
268:
262:94–329
260:
226:Senate
139:ch. 39
129:U.S.C.
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88:94-329
1039:from
968:Wired
787:(PDF)
780:(PDF)
280:
266:Stat.
204:62–18
137:
103:Stat.
1060:2013
935:2010
905:2010
878:2009
817:2010
795:2010
763:2010
737:2017
690:(1).
643:ISBN
615:2010
446:and
418:9/11
296:The
247:The
63:the
1022:GPO
1014:PDF
382:of
328:or
270:729
183:by
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