386:. English was allowed as an alternative and no deadline was set to shift to Assamese too. With the possibility of other universities taking a similar decision in the near future, political resentment got pronounced in Cachar through press statements, public meetings etc. In March 1972, the university released a circular that also allowed students to write answers in Bengali in examinations. A section of the Assamese students protested. While they had no objection to students from Cachar writing exams in Bengali, they opposed the application of this in the Brahmaputra Valley. The Assam Sahitya Sabha backed this position. The university in response, quickly changed its stand and declared that only Assamese and English shall be accepted in examination answer-scripts. This resulted in protests in Cachar again and the matter reached the
133:
There was no encouragement for the writing of school text books in
Assamese, and Assamese literature suffered. This was thought to be one of the core factors behind the community conflicts that emerged between the Assamese and Bengali communities in the following decades. Initially the imposition did not meet with any kind of protest. Rather, the Assamese elite used the language in their writings, and even in conversation, and the language policy of the government went unquestioned for almost a decade. The recruitment of Bengalis to government services increased abruptly, leading to greater unemployment among the Assamese. The increased number of Bengali "Amlas" in the districts of Assam was thought to be posing a challenge to the distinct identities of the
390:, where it was alleged that Article 30 of the Indian Constitution, providing certain rights to linguistic minorities, was violated. The court released a stay order while the Government of Assam supported the idea that a new university shall be set up for the Barak Valley. People in the Brahmaputra Valley opposed the government's stand, as they believed it would make the state, clearly bi-lingual. The people of Cachar also did not support the stand because it diluted their demand for making Bengali an option for colleges even in the Brahmaputra Valley. The
273:
unusual in the figures of 1951 census, so far as the
Assamese speaking and Bengali speaking populations are concerned. The increase or decrease in the number of people speaking a particular language between 1931-1951 Census is dependent not merely on natural growth and biological factors. Emigrations, immigration and natural absorption of immigrant groups are all relevant factors".
183:
the sole medium of instruction in the primary educational institutions throughout the province. However, Bengali continued to be used as the medium of instruction in middle and higher educational institutions till the end of the nineteenth century. In 1899, Manick
Chandra requested the British Government to set up a college in Guwahati- the Chief Commissioner
182:
In 1872, Lieutenant governor of Bengal, George
Campbell declared Assamese the language of education and administration for its native speakers. Two years later, in 1874, Assam acquired the status of a Chief Commissioner's Province. The Chief Commissioner declared that Assamese shall, from then on, be
293:
passed two resolutions, one in 1950 and another in 1959, stressing the need to make
Assamese the official language in Assam. The April 1959 resolution, demanding that Assamese be made the sole official language in Assam- sparked political reaction. During a visit by the then Prime Minister of India,
219:
were taken. Viceroy Curzon's decision to divide Bengal in two- the Hindu west and the Muslim east sparked protests- both from the
Bengali Hindus- because of their opposition to the division of Bengal, and the Assamese- because the Chief Commissioner's Province of Assam was proposed to be included in
309:
This move to make
Assamese the official language was however, protested against by a group of non-Assamese speakers in Assam. Following the APCC resolution, a procession was led out by non-Assamese students in Shillong to oppose the decision to make Assamese the sole official language in Assam. The
132:
as the language of the court and educational institutions exasperated the
Assamese intelligentsia and common society of Assam. As a result of this language imposition, the progress of education in Assam remained slow and deficient. Many Bengalis were brought in and employed in the schools of Assam.
357:
and the indigenous
Cacharis formed the 'Shanti Parishad' which in a memorandum to the Home Minister urged that Assamese should be the sole official language in Assam. Clashes between the two groups led to deaths and insecurity. A circular was released in 1961 stating that "without prejudice to the
75:
demanded the use of
Assamese as the official language in Assam. This was followed by political movements supporting it and also opposing it. The Assam Official Language Act was passed in 1960, recognizing Assamese as an official language in Assam, while also having provisions for the safeguard of
403:
town and other parts of the Brahmaputra Valley such as Dhing, Doboka, Laharighat and Moirabari, mostly between immigrant peasantry and Bengali Hindu refugees. Curfew was set up in parts of Guwahati, Dibrugarh and Nagaon. The clashes were finally tackled by the military. A total of 33 deaths was
272:
also reported their language to be Assamese, many because of prospective land grants and assimilation with the Assamese society. These are proposed to be reasons of the sharp rise in the population of Assamese speakers in the Census of India. The Government of Assam clarified, "there is nothing
358:
provisions contained in Section 3, the Bengali language shall be used for administrative and other official purposes up to and including district level" as the bill was amended on 7 October 1961. This move is associated with the 'Shastri Formula'- named after the then Union Home Minister
394:
in the Brahmaputra Valley opposed the stand believing that it was against the suggestion of the States Reorganization Commission, 1956, which suggested Assam as an Assamese speaking state. It called for Bandh on 5 October 1972. While it did not face much opposition initially, a clash in
140:
American Baptist Missionaries were one of the first to take up the cause of the Assamese language. With the desire to spread Christian values in the native language of the people, they started publishing texts in Assamese and initiated the publication of the first Assamese newspaper-
651:
655:
338:. The Silchar and Karimganj Bar Associations on the other hand passed resolutions demanding President's Rule in the state. On 4 July 1960, an Assamese student was killed and 6 others injured in police firing.
345:
proposed the Assamese Official Language Bill in the Assembly on 10 October 1960. The Bill provided for two official languages- Assamese and for an interim period, English. It was passed on 24 October 1960.
137:, because these immigrants had their own culture, language, and traditions, and their existence in the land was perceived as having an effect on Assam's language, culture, economy, and political status.
48:
The struggle for the use of Assamese for official purposes, in courts and as a medium of instruction in educational institutions began in the nineteenth century, when the region was under the
330:, where they supported the acceptance of Assamese as the official language. After a tenuous situation, as colleges and the university reopened, the agitation became pronounced in
370:
In 1970, the Gauhati University decided to introduce Assamese as the medium of instruction in all colleges under its jurisdiction, except a few, including colleges in Cachar,
962:
353:
region- including Cachar, Karimganj etc. against the bill on 19 May 1961 led to the death of a number of protesters. In Cachar itself, on the other hand, the Muslims, the
620:
125:. Bengali was also used as the medium of instruction in the educational institutions of Assam. Within decades, the Assamese began to resent the state of affairs.
1027:
Jitendranath Goswami, General Secretary of Assam Sahitya Sabha on the Gauhati University Academic Council's Decision quoted in Dainik Asom, Gauhati, 9 June 1972.
907:
232:
was 1.74 million- which constituted 31.42% of the total population while by 1951, it turned into 4.55 million, constituting 56.69% of the population. After the
286:
220:
the proposed Muslim majority eastern Bengal. The decision was annulled in 1912 and Assam was reinstated as a separate Chief Commissioner's Province.
281:
Although the demand for making Assamese the official language in Assam, after the independence of India had been raised since 1950, following the
718:
149:
wrote in the 'Orunodoi era'. He also wrote books such as 'Axomiya Lorar Mitro' (Assamese: āĻ
āĻ¸āĻŽā§āĻ¯āĻŧāĻž āĻ˛'ā§°āĻžā§° āĻŽāĻŋāĻ¤ā§ā§°, 'Friend of an Assamese Boy').
1136:
473:
560:
145:. They are believed to have inspired a younger generation of Assamese intellectuals to pursue the cause. Assamese intellectuals such as
195:
433:
970:
303:
846:
282:
68:
628:
460:
Cady, John F. (1968). "MAUNG HTIN AUNG. A History of Burma. Pp. x, 363. New York: Columbia University Press, 1967. $ 12.00".
676:
Kalita Ramesh C., Situating Assamese Middle Classes, the Colonial Period, Bhabani Prints and Publications, Guwahati, 2011.
256:
had a combined population of about 800 thousand, less than 5% of which spoke either Assamese or Bengali. Bengali majority
184:
362:. Provisions regarding the autonomous districts in the state were also made, where English is the official language.
198:
was formed to further the cause of the development of the Assamese language, by a group of students then studying in
1121:
1116:
216:
106:
161:
contributed to the development and modernization of the language through the publication of grammar texts such as
1126:
740:
469:
428:
61:
1055:
610:
Chattopadhay, D.K: History of the Assamese Movement since 1947, Minerva Association Publication, Calcutta, 1990.
391:
146:
306:(APCC) passed a resolution supporting it. Students organized processions, strikes and meetings for the cause.
1131:
188:
387:
730:
Barpujari H.K. ed: North-East India, Problem Prospect and Politics, Spectrum Publishers, Guwahati, 1998.
342:
1036:
Kamrupee, Cool Behind the Noise and Funny, Economic and Political Weekly, Special Number, August, 1972.
311:
423:
359:
290:
265:
249:
72:
299:
237:
122:
244:
of Assam province remained in the region. It had a population where most of them spoke Bengali.
37:
as the only sole official language and medium of instruction in the educational institutions of
767:
Sarma, S.C., On Language Statistic of Assam Censuses, Assam Govt. Press, Shillong, 1955, p. 61.
714:
586:
564:
418:
379:
233:
204:
118:
114:
110:
34:
26:
295:
158:
150:
129:
53:
269:
241:
134:
94:
57:
652:"The Growth of Print Nationalism and Assamese Identity in Two Early Assamese Magazines"
438:
413:
229:
102:
944:
1110:
354:
261:
117:. In April 1836, Bengali was declared the language of the courts in Assam, replacing
399:
turned violent, and one died. Over the days the clashes spread to the neighbouring
350:
253:
98:
90:
700:
Trivedi, V.R., Documents on Assam, Part- A, Omsons Publications, New Delhi, 1995.
529:
331:
67:
Following the agitations for linguistic states in various part of India and the
49:
396:
245:
33:) refers to a series of political activities demanding the recognition of the
400:
383:
319:
315:
688:
Chubbra K. M. L, Assam Challenge, Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd, Delhi, 1992.
550:
Neog D. , New Light in the History of Assamese Literature, Guwahati, 1962.
375:
335:
323:
142:
503:. New Delhi: Ashok Kumar Mittal Concept Publishing Company. p. 91.
371:
285:, the movement gained a new momentum. The inclusion of Assamese in the
199:
175:
1100:
Governorâs Address, Assam Legislative Assembly Debates, 16 March 1973.
785:"Explainer: The reorganization of states in India and why it happened"
327:
257:
489:. New Delhi: Ashok Kumar Mittal Concept Publishing Company. p. 91.
462:
The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
42:
38:
268:
people reported their first language to be Assamese. A lot of
202:. The members of this organization were associated with the
56:
in Assam as the language of the courts was resented by the
818:
Neog, M., Assam's Language Question, op. cit., pp. 12-13
776:
Citation missing (for demands, time, who demanded, etc.)
341:
The government of Assam, under the then Chief Minister
587:"Hemchandra Barua - First Assamese Dictionary Hemkosh"
302:, the students made the same demand. In 22 April, the
1045:
Assam Legislative Assembly Debates, 23 September 1972
310:
Shillong students' procession was in turn opposed in
866:
Chowdhury, Ranajit (19 May 2013). "āĻŦāĻŋāĻ¸ā§āĻŽā§āĻ¤ āĻŦāĻ˛āĻŋāĻĻāĻžāĻ¨".
621:"Assam's Cotton College becomes Cotton University"
60:and also by American Baptist Missionaries such as
248:, United Khasi-Jayantiya Hills, United Mikir and
169:(āĻ
āĻ¸āĻŽā§āĻ¯āĻŧāĻž āĻ˛'ā§°āĻžā§° āĻŦā§āĻ¯āĻžāĻā§°āĻŖ) and dictionaries such as
289:also helped increase a sense of confidence. The
228:In 1931, the population of Assamese speakers in
516:North-East India, Problem Prospect and Politics
113:. Assam was placed under the administration of
187:inaugurated it in 1901. The college was named
8:
1082:The Assam Tribune, Gauhati, 14 October 1972.
563:. Vedanti.com. 8 August 2011. Archived from
518:. Guwahati: Spectrum Publishers. p. 41.
287:Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India
934:The Assam Tribune, Gauhati, 8 October 1961.
836:Cottonian (editorial), Guwahati, July, 1960
1056:"LANGUAGE MOVEMENT â A CRISIS OF IDENTITY"
991:The Assam Tribune, Gauhati, 15 March 1971
897:The Assam Tribune, Gauhati, 21 June 1961.
888:The Assam Tribune, Gauhati, 16 June 1961.
827:The Assam Tribune, Gauhati, 20 June 1960.
809:The Assam Tribune, Gauhati, 26 April 1960
684:
682:
105:for centuries came into the hands of the
404:recorded, including 3 in police firing.
963:"THE ASSAM OFFICIAL LANGUAGE ACT, 1960"
741:"CAUSES OF LANGUAGE CONFLICTS IN ASSAM"
456:
454:
450:
1091:Dainik Asom, Gauhati, 23 October 1972.
847:"The Assam Official Language Act,1960"
215:In 1903â1905, decisions regarding the
1018:Dainik Asom (editorial), 7 June 1972.
862:
860:
696:
694:
7:
870:(in Bengali). Retrieved 22 May 2013.
606:
604:
1000:Desh (Bengali Journal), 1 Nov. 1972
879:Times of India, Delhi, 20 May 1961.
711:Minority Nationalisms in South Asia
260:on the other hand, was included in
654:. Sarai. p. 6. Archived from
208:magazine, in what is known as the
196:Asamiya Bhasa Unnati Sadhini Sabha
14:
434:Dark Age of the Assamese language
304:Assam Pradesh Congress Committee
69:States Reorganization Act (1956)
283:States Reorganization Act, 1956
366:Medium of Instruction Movement
89:Assam, which was ruled by the
1:
627:. 2 June 2017. Archived from
472::10.1177/000271626837800164.
908:"ASSAM ACT No .XXII OF 1961"
382:and the then newly proposed
1137:Official languages of Assam
224:Census data - 1931 and 1951
1153:
1063:shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in
748:shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in
561:"Anandaram Dhekial Phukan"
277:Official Language Movement
107:British East India Company
23:Assamese Language Movement
799:. Vikas Publishing House.
797:Student Movements inAssam
429:Bengali language movement
30:
1009:Dainik Asom, 31 May 1972
514:Barpujari, H.K. (1998).
392:All Assam Students Union
212:of Assamese Literature.
173:(āĻĒāĻĸāĻŧāĻžāĻļāĻ˛ā§āĻ¯āĻŧāĻž āĻ
āĻāĻŋāĻ§āĻžāĻ¨) and
147:Anandaram Dhekial Phukan
501:Social History of Assam
487:Social History of Assam
76:linguistic minorities.
709:Tanweer Fazal (2013).
388:Supreme Court of India
264:. The majority of the
167:Oxomiya Lorar Byakoron
153:was involved with the
109:in 1826 following the
31:/ÉxÉmia bĘąaxa andĘlÉn/
589:. Onlinesivasagar.com
532:. Onlinesivasagar.com
343:Bimala Prasad Chaliha
713:. Routledge. p. 53.
530:"Orunoidoi/Arunodoi"
16:Indian mass movement
973:on 26 February 2016
949:www.ciil-ebooks.net
945:"Untitled Document"
567:on 11 December 2015
499:Bose, M.L. (1989).
485:Bose, M.L. (1989).
424:Assamese literature
360:Lal Bahadur Shastri
314:- in areas such as
291:Assam Sahitya Sabha
217:Partition of Bengal
171:Porhaxolia Obhidhan
165:(āĻ
āĻ¸āĻŽā§āĻ¯āĻŧāĻž āĻŦā§āĻ¯āĻžāĻā§°āĻŖ),
73:Assam Sahitya Sabha
658:on 9 November 2013
625:The Shillong Times
300:Gauhati University
250:North-Cachar Hills
128:The imposition of
123:Brahmaputra valley
1122:Assamese language
1117:Politics of Assam
795:Deka, M. (1996).
719:978-1-317-96647-0
419:Assamese language
234:Sylhet referendum
115:Bengal Presidency
111:Treaty of Yandabo
35:Assamese language
1144:
1127:History of Assam
1101:
1098:
1092:
1089:
1083:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1060:
1052:
1046:
1043:
1037:
1034:
1028:
1025:
1019:
1016:
1010:
1007:
1001:
998:
992:
989:
983:
982:
980:
978:
969:. Archived from
967:www.neportal.org
959:
953:
952:
941:
935:
932:
926:
925:
923:
921:
915:indiacode.nic.in
912:
904:
898:
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855:
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837:
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828:
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792:
786:
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731:
728:
722:
707:
701:
698:
689:
686:
677:
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668:
667:
665:
663:
650:Dutta, Uddipan.
647:
641:
640:
638:
636:
617:
611:
608:
599:
598:
596:
594:
583:
577:
576:
574:
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557:
551:
548:
542:
541:
539:
537:
526:
520:
519:
511:
505:
504:
496:
490:
483:
477:
458:
349:Protests in the
296:Jawaharlal Nehru
163:Oxomiya Byakoron
159:Hemchandra Barua
151:Gunabhiram Barua
85:The Colonial Era
32:
1152:
1151:
1147:
1146:
1145:
1143:
1142:
1141:
1107:
1106:
1105:
1104:
1099:
1095:
1090:
1086:
1081:
1077:
1067:
1065:
1058:
1054:
1053:
1049:
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1040:
1035:
1031:
1026:
1022:
1017:
1013:
1008:
1004:
999:
995:
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986:
976:
974:
961:
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956:
943:
942:
938:
933:
929:
919:
917:
910:
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905:
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896:
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878:
874:
865:
858:
845:
844:
840:
835:
831:
826:
822:
817:
813:
808:
804:
794:
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789:
784:
780:
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771:
766:
762:
752:
750:
743:
739:
738:
734:
729:
725:
708:
704:
699:
692:
687:
680:
675:
671:
661:
659:
649:
648:
644:
634:
632:
631:on 18 June 2018
619:
618:
614:
609:
602:
592:
590:
585:
584:
580:
570:
568:
559:
558:
554:
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545:
535:
533:
528:
527:
523:
513:
512:
508:
498:
497:
493:
484:
480:
459:
452:
447:
410:
368:
279:
270:Bengali Muslims
242:Sylhet district
226:
135:People of Assam
95:Kachari kingdom
87:
82:
58:Assamese people
17:
12:
11:
5:
1150:
1148:
1140:
1139:
1134:
1132:Colonial India
1129:
1124:
1119:
1109:
1108:
1103:
1102:
1093:
1084:
1075:
1047:
1038:
1029:
1020:
1011:
1002:
993:
984:
954:
936:
927:
899:
890:
881:
872:
856:
838:
829:
820:
811:
802:
787:
778:
769:
760:
732:
723:
702:
690:
678:
669:
642:
612:
600:
578:
552:
543:
521:
506:
491:
478:
468:(1): 187â188.
449:
448:
446:
443:
442:
441:
439:Muzammil Haque
436:
431:
426:
421:
416:
414:Assam movement
409:
406:
367:
364:
278:
275:
236:in 1947, only
230:Assam Province
225:
222:
189:Cotton College
103:Chutia dynasty
86:
83:
81:
78:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1149:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1114:
1112:
1097:
1094:
1088:
1085:
1079:
1076:
1064:
1057:
1051:
1048:
1042:
1039:
1033:
1030:
1024:
1021:
1015:
1012:
1006:
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997:
994:
988:
985:
972:
968:
964:
958:
955:
950:
946:
940:
937:
931:
928:
916:
909:
903:
900:
894:
891:
885:
882:
876:
873:
869:
863:
861:
857:
852:
848:
842:
839:
833:
830:
824:
821:
815:
812:
806:
803:
798:
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788:
782:
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773:
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764:
761:
749:
742:
736:
733:
727:
724:
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712:
706:
703:
697:
695:
691:
685:
683:
679:
673:
670:
657:
653:
646:
643:
630:
626:
622:
616:
613:
607:
605:
601:
588:
582:
579:
566:
562:
556:
553:
547:
544:
531:
525:
522:
517:
510:
507:
502:
495:
492:
488:
482:
479:
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467:
463:
457:
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321:
317:
313:
307:
305:
301:
297:
292:
288:
284:
276:
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271:
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263:
262:East Pakistan
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
223:
221:
218:
213:
211:
207:
206:
201:
197:
194:In 1888, the
192:
190:
186:
180:
178:
177:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
138:
136:
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112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
84:
79:
77:
74:
70:
65:
63:
59:
55:
52:. The use of
51:
46:
44:
40:
36:
28:
24:
19:
1096:
1087:
1078:
1066:. Retrieved
1062:
1050:
1041:
1032:
1023:
1014:
1005:
996:
987:
975:. Retrieved
971:the original
966:
957:
948:
939:
930:
918:. Retrieved
914:
902:
893:
884:
875:
867:
850:
841:
832:
823:
814:
805:
796:
790:
781:
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629:the original
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565:the original
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546:
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351:Barak Valley
348:
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193:
185:Henry Cotton
181:
174:
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166:
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155:Assam-Bandhu
154:
139:
127:
99:Koch dynasty
91:Ahom dynasty
88:
66:
62:Nathan Brown
50:British rule
47:
22:
20:
18:
332:Lower Assam
312:Upper Assam
1111:Categories
851:India Code
476:0002-7162.
445:References
397:Kharupetia
254:Mizo Hills
246:Garo Hills
240:region of
210:Jonaki Era
179:(āĻšā§āĻŽāĻā§āĻˇ).
80:Background
1068:6 October
977:6 October
920:6 October
753:6 October
401:Mangaldoi
384:Meghalaya
355:Manipuris
320:Dibrugarh
316:Sivasagar
266:Tea Tribe
238:Karimganj
868:Ei Samay
536:28 March
408:See also
376:Nagaland
336:Guwahati
324:Golaghat
200:Calcutta
143:Orunodoi
119:Assamese
27:Assamese
662:4 April
571:23 June
372:Manipur
176:Hemkosh
130:Bengali
121:in the
54:Bengali
717:
635:6 June
378:, the
328:Jorhat
258:Sylhet
205:Jonaki
71:, the
1059:(PDF)
911:(PDF)
744:(PDF)
593:5 May
43:India
39:Assam
1070:2019
979:2019
922:2019
755:2019
715:ISBN
664:2010
637:2018
595:2013
573:2013
538:2010
474:ISSN
380:NEFA
334:and
326:and
252:and
101:and
21:The
470:doi
466:378
298:to
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