975:
1597:
1625:
925:
1508:
945:
893:
1354:
881:
201:
833:
1198:
47:
726:
869:
213:
their use, astrology was widely considered as much of a serious science as astronomy, and study of the two went hand-in-hand. The astronomical interest varied between folk astronomy (of the pre-Islamic tradition in Arabia) which was concerned with celestial and seasonal observations, and mathematical astronomy, which would inform intellectual practices and precise calculations based on astronomical observations. In regard to the astrolabe's religious function, the demands of
Islamic prayer times were to be astronomically determined to ensure precise daily timings, and the
1178:
1257:
1214:
665:
1163:
appear inscribed in this place. The date of the astrolabe's construction was often also signed, which has allowed historians to determine that these devices are the second oldest scientific instrument in the world. The inscriptions on astrolabes also allowed historians to conclude that astronomers tended to make their own astrolabes, but that many were also made to order and kept in stock to sell, suggesting there was some contemporary market for the devices.
853:
817:
58:
1103:, is free to rotate. These pointers are often just simple points, but depending on the skill of the craftsman can be very elaborate and artistic. There are examples of astrolabes with artistic pointers in the shape of balls, stars, snakes, hands, dogs' heads, and leaves, among others. The names of the indicated stars were often engraved on the pointers in Arabic or Latin. Some astrolabes have a narrow
5415:
5439:
5391:
551:
5427:
892:
5403:
212:
wrote a massive text of 386 chapters on the astrolabe, which reportedly described more than 1000 applications for the astrolabe's various functions. These ranged from the astrological, the astronomical and the religious, to navigation, seasonal and daily time-keeping, and tide tables. At the time of
1158:
A shadow square also appears on the back of some astrolabes, developed by Muslim astrologists in the 9th
Century, whereas devices of the Ancient Greek tradition featured only altitude scales on the back of the devices. This was used to convert shadow lengths and the altitude of the sun, the uses of
1162:
Devices were usually signed by their maker with an inscription appearing on the back of the astrolabe, and if there was a patron of the object, their name would appear inscribed on the front, or in some cases, the name of the reigning sultan or the teacher of the astrolabist has also been found to
597:
The first known metal astrolabe in
Western Europe is the Destombes astrolabe made from brass in the eleventh century in Portugal. Metal astrolabes avoided the warping that large wooden ones were prone to, allowing the construction of larger and therefore more accurate instruments. Metal astrolabes
590:, sometimes called the "staff of al-Tusi", which was "a simple wooden rod with graduated markings but without sights. It was furnished with a plumb line and a double chord for making angular measurements and bore a perforated pointer". The geared mechanical astrolabe was invented by Abi Bakr of
1588:
onto the celestial equatorial plane, it transforms into an ellipse upward-shifted relatively to the center of the tympanum (both the observer and the projection of the north-south axis). This implies that a portion of the celestial sphere will fall outside the outer circle of the tympanum (the
1150:
is attached to the back face. An alidade can be seen in the lower right illustration of the
Persian astrolabe above. When the astrolabe is held vertically, the alidade can be rotated and the sun or a star sighted along its length, so that its altitude in degrees can be read ("taken") from the
1944:(d. 666–7), Bishop of Kennesrin. In addition to these works he also wrote on astronomical subjects (Brit. Mus. Add. 14538), and composed a treatise on the astronomical instrument known as the astrolabe, which has been edited and published by F. Nau (Paris, 1899)."
944:
1760:
If successive meridians that divide the celestial sphere into equal sectors (like "orange slices" radiating from the zenith) are projected, a family of curves passing through the zenith projection on the tympanum is obtained. These curves, once overlaid with the
448:
during the mid-7th century. Sebokht refers to the astrolabe as being made of brass in the introduction of his treatise, indicating that metal astrolabes were known in the
Christian East well before they were developed in the Islamic world or in the Latin West.
1151:
graduated edge of the astrolabe; hence the word's Greek roots: "astron" (ἄστρον) = star + "lab-" (λαβ-) = to take. The alidade had vertical and horizontal cross-hairs which plots locations on an azimuthal ring called an almucantar (altitude-distance circle).
1695:
opposite the zenith with respect to the observer), their projections on the celestial equatorial plane, and the center (with no physical meaning attached) of the circle obtained by projecting the secondary meridian (see below) on the celestial equatorial
924:
1756:
of the segment connecting both points. In deed, the projection of the celestial meridian can be considered as a circle with an infinite radius (a straight line) whose center is on this bisection and at an infinite distance from these two points.
148:
capable of working out several kinds of problems in astronomy. In its simplest form it is a metal disc with a pattern of wires, cutouts, and perforations that allows a user to calculate astronomical positions precisely. It is able to measure the
802:(Saturn). The device also featured celestial spheres following the Ptolemaic model and Earth was depicted as a blue sphere with circles of geographic coordinates. A complex line representing the axis of the Earth covered the entire instrument.
1197:
1490:
for an observer at the Tropic of
Capricorn, meaning summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the northern hemisphere). If, on the other hand, its altitude coincides with the inner circle (Tropic of Cancer), it indicates the
985:
by looking over the top of an
Armillary Sphere bizarrely held from the top like it's an astrolabe, however an astrolabe cannot be used by looking over the top of it. The page inexplicably contains the word "Astrolabium," by
1154:
An arm called a radius connects from the center of the astrolabe to the optical axis which is parallel with another arm also called a radius. The other radius contains graduations of altitude and distance measurements.
740:
Thirteen of his astrolabes survive to this day. One more special example of craftsmanship in early 15th-century Europe is the astrolabe designed by
Antonius de Pacento and made by Dominicus de Lanzano, dated 1420.
1139:
On the back of the mater, there is often engraved a number of scales that are useful in the astrolabe's various applications. These vary from designer to designer, but might include curves for time conversions, a
717:
at the school in Reims, France, sometime before the turn of the 11th century. In the 15th century, French instrument maker Jean
Fusoris (c. 1365–1436) also started remaking and selling astrolabes in his shop in
1006:
were initially influenced by the astrolabe; they could be seen in many ways as clockwork astrolabes designed to produce a continual display of the current position of the sun, stars, and planets. For example,
2755:
Paul
Kunitzsch has recently established that the Latin treatise on the astrolabe long ascribed to Ma'sh'allah and translated by John of Seville is in fact by Ibn al-Saffar, a disciple of Maslama al-Majriti.
974:
1981:
There is no evidence for the Hellenistic origin of the spherical astrolabe, but rather evidence so far available suggests that it may have been an early but distinctly Islamic development with no Greek
2006:"HISTORIANS' HOME YIELDS RICH LODE; New York Society Searches Its Own Building for Items to Mark Anniversary; SHOW OPENS THURSDAY; Portrait of Stuyvesant and Champlain's Astrolabe Will Be on Display"
832:
1716:
of 40° East relative to the observer's horizon (which, like all secondary meridians, intersects the principal meridian at the zenith and nadir), and its projection on the celestial equatorial plane.
628:. Universal astrolabes can be found at the History of Science Museum in Oxford. David A. King, historian of Islamic instrumentation, describes the universal astrolobe designed by Ibn al-Sarraj of
1459:, defines the size of the astrolabe's tympanum. The center of the tympanum (and the center of the three circles) is actually the north-south axis around which Earth rotates, and therefore, the
1596:
1752:
are located. However, when projecting the 40° E meridian, another circle is obtained that passes through both the zenith and nadir projections, so its center is located on the perpendicular
1624:
1177:
880:
225:
that was informed by the calculations of the astrolabe was of great significance to the religion of Islam, given that it determines the dates of important religious observances such as
496:
2953:
3495:
816:
1507:
1313:(north-south meridian, passing through the zenith) and secondary meridians (circles intersecting the north-south meridian at the zenith), which will enable the measurement of
1132:
move over the projection of the coordinates on the tympan. One complete rotation corresponds to the passage of a day. The astrolabe is, therefore, a predecessor of the modern
3829:
5519:
4893:
5484:
393:; died AD 415), but it's known to have been used much earlier. The misattribution comes from a misinterpretation of a statement in a letter written by Hypatia's pupil
3647:
1608:), and projecting them on the celestial equatorial plane, as in the image above, a grid of consecutive ellipses is constructed, allowing for the determination of a
1353:
3556:
200:
1018:, adopting a stereographic projection (see below) of the ecliptic plane. In recent times, astrolabe watches have become popular. For example, Swiss watchmaker
3622:
3448:
515:
315 (AD 927–928). In the Islamic world, astrolabes were used to find the times of sunrise and the rising of fixed stars, to help schedule morning prayers (
209:
5494:
1144:
for converting the day of the month to the sun's position on the ecliptic, trigonometric scales, and graduation of 360 degrees around the back edge. The
2086:
868:
4773:
3488:
3398:
2005:
5164:
5368:
4767:
4546:
4397:
3504:
2498:
1787:
4301:
653:. The same source was translated by French astronomer and astrologer Pélerin de Prusse and others. The first printed book on the astrolabe was
4886:
4322:
4072:
3346:
3328:
3307:
3289:
3240:
3222:
3191:
2894:
2863:
2836:
2748:
2583:
2472:
2407:
2244:
2210:
2050:
602:
188:, is effective for determining latitude on land or calm seas. Although it is less reliable on the heaving deck of a ship in rough seas, the
3481:
411:), which mentions that Hypatia had taught him how to construct a plane astrolabe, but does not say that she invented it. Lewis argues that
4143:
4026:
2961:
1213:
632:(aka Ahmad bin Abi Bakr; fl. 1328) as "the most sophisticated astronomical instrument from the entire Medieval and Renaissance periods".
5358:
5154:
4847:
3971:
3442:
774:
and featured a device called the System of the Universe (Σύστημα τοῦ Παντός). The device featured the planets with the names in Greek:
382:) wrote a detailed treatise on the astrolabe. The invention of the plane astrolabe is sometimes wrongly attributed to Theon's daughter
4209:
3385:
3040:
Some Medieval Astronomical Instruments and Their Secrets, in Mazzolini, R. G. (ed.), Non-Verbal Communication in Science prior to 1900
2808:
2638:
770:
729:
5479:
5469:
4910:
3271:
3166:
3001:
2778:
2696:
2606:
2278:
935:
2712:
Kunitzsch, Paul (1981). "On the authenticity of the treatise on the composition and use of the astrolabe ascribed to Messahalla".
5464:
4879:
1807:
4173:
4163:
1706:(or meridian that goes, for the observer, from the north of the horizon to the south of the horizon passing through the zenith).
852:
5514:
5509:
725:
4031:
2315:
571:
3966:
3249:
Laird, Edgar (1997), Carol Poster and Richard Utz (ed.), "Astrolabes and the Construction of Time in the Late Middle Ages",
2182:
Michael Deakin (August 3, 1997). "Ockham's Razor: Hypatia of Alexandria". ABC Radio. Retrieved July 10, 2014.
583:
3986:
3571:
5524:
5291:
4082:
2090:
486:
5381:
3561:
1887:(or id. Rheinisches Museum für Philologie 6 (1839): 127–71); repr. and translated into French by Alain Philippe Segonds,
1451:
When projecting onto the celestial equatorial plane, three concentric circles correspond to the celestial sphere's three
4107:
1609:
1303:
1069:
903:
4199:
1268:
will rotate. It is the component that will enable the precise determination of a star's position at a specific time of
425:
notes "there is no convincing evidence that Ptolemy or any of his predecessors knew about the planispheric astrolabe".
4762:
4641:
4515:
2558:
1011:'s clock (c. 1330) consisted essentially of a star map rotating behind a fixed rete, similar to that of an astrolabe.
899:
673:
641:
474:
462:
3748:
3637:
3103:
153:
above the horizon of a celestial body, day or night; it can be used to identify stars or planets, to determine local
3258:
Laird, Edgar; Fischer, Robert, eds. (1995), "Critical edition of Pélerin de Prusse on the Astrolabe (translation of
768:
incorporated a sophisticated astrolabe in his painting depicting Catherine of Alexandria. The painting was entitled
624:
wrote a treatise on the construction and use of a universal astrolabe in the last half of the 13th century entitled
46:
5504:
4016:
4006:
3627:
3517:
2399:
703:
32:
1455:(left side of the image). The largest of these, the projection on the celestial equatorial plane of the celestial
5489:
5459:
5088:
4283:
4087:
3864:
3457:
2071:
1847:
239:
3371:
2298:
4097:
3991:
3632:
2907:
2503:
1723:
1567:
1395:
1233:
1057:
956:
907:
3869:
3592:
2307:
The History of Cartography, Volume 2, Book 1: Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies
436:
wrote a treatise (c. 550) on the astrolabe in Greek, which is the earliest extant treatise on the instrument.
5083:
4902:
4816:
4102:
4051:
3713:
3703:
3642:
1796:
658:
3395:
2332:
5499:
5230:
5103:
5038:
4520:
4480:
4294:
4235:
4194:
4021:
4001:
3920:
3798:
1822:
1812:
1008:
991:
532:
189:
3450:
A Beginner's Guide to Basic Construction and Use of the Astrolabe (using ruler, protractor and compasses)
2094:
1628:
Stereographic projection of the north-south meridian and a meridian 40° E on the tympanum of an astrolabe
5266:
5195:
4933:
4787:
4581:
4495:
4168:
3981:
3950:
3895:
3683:
3416:
2493:
951:
752:, a manual of the construction and use of the astrolabe. Four identical 16th-century astrolabes made by
1256:
709:
The astrolabe was almost certainly first brought north of the Pyrenees by Gerbert of Aurillac (future
598:
were heavier than wooden instruments of the same size, making it difficult to use them in navigation.
5337:
5078:
5028:
4948:
4923:
4806:
4780:
4621:
4591:
3996:
3976:
3667:
3566:
3551:
3175:
3084:
2800:
2794:
2356:
1741:
1703:
1673:
surrounding the observer, which is perpendicular to the zenith vector and defines the portion of the
1556:
surrounding the observer, which is perpendicular to the zenith vector and defines the portion of the
1482:
is known and coincides with the outer circle of the tympanum (Tropic of Capricorn), it signifies the
1310:
931:
823:
745:
646:
345:
150:
2849:
2630:
2624:
2305:
5474:
5443:
5108:
5013:
4963:
4938:
4747:
4586:
4566:
4500:
4485:
4356:
4315:
4036:
4011:
3698:
3662:
3617:
3426:
3421:
2855:
2489:
2421:
2294:
1960:
1827:
1590:
1464:
1456:
1442:
1325:
1269:
911:
559:
422:
365:
221:
towards which Muslims must pray, could also be determined by this device. In addition to this, the
166:
137:
51:
5431:
5419:
5342:
5256:
4811:
4752:
4430:
4240:
3793:
3587:
3316:
3135:
2540:
2010:
1832:
1452:
1412:
1321:
1302:
or circles parallel to the horizon, which will allow for the determination of a celestial body's
1003:
621:
489:
458:
170:
4382:
4041:
2740:
1929:
1744:, it results in a straight line that overlaps with the vertical axis of the tympanum, where the
664:
2467:. Translated by Joe Laredo. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 74.
2347:
Martin, L. C. (1923), "Surveying and navigational instruments from the historical standpoint",
5251:
5098:
5003:
4958:
4842:
4837:
4711:
4571:
4230:
4112:
4046:
3758:
3342:
3324:
3303:
3285:
3267:
3236:
3218:
3187:
3162:
2997:
2908:"The Astronomical Instruments in Saint Catherine's Iconography at the Holy Monastery of Sinai
2890:
2859:
2832:
2814:
2804:
2774:
2768:
2744:
2692:
2644:
2634:
2602:
2596:
2579:
2468:
2403:
2391:
2372:
2311:
2274:
2240:
2234:
2206:
2200:
2046:
1892:
1880:
1749:
1688:
1026:
in 1985. Dutch watchmaker Christaan van der Klauuw also manufactures astrolabe watches today.
765:
761:
733:
710:
609:
528:
319:
4133:
3200:
King, D. A. (1981), "The Origin of the Astrolabe According to the Medieval Islamic Sources",
2034:
1470:
The three concentric circles on the tympanum are useful for determining the exact moments of
5395:
5363:
5316:
5286:
5276:
5225:
5200:
4852:
4821:
4696:
4686:
4616:
4475:
4435:
4420:
4343:
4308:
4288:
4153:
4138:
3859:
3708:
3597:
3125:
3115:
2923:
2732:
2532:
2520:
2364:
1972:
1792:
1782:
1733:
1692:
1674:
1577:
1557:
1422:
1405:
1369:
1333:
1273:
1237:
1073:
978:
757:
669:
636:
563:
512:
504:
429:
282:(i.e., astrolabe) was given various etymologies. In Arabic texts, the word is translated as
178:
112:
2310:. The History of Cartography. Vol. 2. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
5311:
5246:
5215:
5113:
5043:
4757:
4691:
4455:
4410:
3940:
3814:
3783:
3718:
3546:
3473:
3402:
1941:
1912:
1904:
1872:
1492:
1483:
1188:
1019:
987:
698:, was used by sailors to get an accurate reading of latitude while at sea. The use of the
613:
445:
441:
433:
337:
289:
145:
99:
3773:
3733:
2735:
Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures
1879:(On the Use and Construction of the Astrolabe), ed. Heinrich Hase, Bonn: E. Weber, 1839,
3088:
2360:
1411:
Three parallel circles represent the projection on the celestial sphere of Earth's main
5174:
5053:
4988:
4968:
4601:
4576:
4362:
4225:
3879:
3854:
3839:
3824:
3788:
3657:
3366:
3233:
Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Ancient World
1184:
1081:
753:
333:
329:
248:
222:
74:
1495:. If its altitude is on the middle circle (equator), it corresponds to one of the two
5453:
5296:
5281:
5261:
4721:
4631:
4505:
4375:
4368:
4067:
3935:
3910:
3849:
3215:
Geared to the Stars: the Evolution of Planetariums, Orreries, and Astronomical Clocks
3139:
3017:
2733:
2516:
2368:
2108:
2038:
1204:
1096:
1023:
684:
650:
162:
1946:
Severus' treatise was translated by Jessie Payne Smith Margoliouth in R.T. Gunther,
1463:
of the astrolabe will rotate around this point as the hours of the day pass (due to
57:
5407:
5144:
4993:
4551:
4445:
4158:
4092:
3945:
3688:
3652:
1015:
839:
601:
574:
in the Islamic world. The earliest description of the spherical astrolabe dates to
437:
349:
141:
523:
first described over 1,000 different uses of an astrolabe, in areas as diverse as
3376:
2439:
2268:
4983:
4928:
4726:
4716:
4681:
4490:
4470:
4349:
4189:
3925:
3874:
3834:
3602:
2927:
1842:
1133:
1114:
915:
567:
417:
174:
3120:
2066:
722:, along with portable sundials and other popular scientific devices of the day.
492:
is the first person credited with building the astrolabe in the Islamic world.
5301:
5118:
5063:
5023:
4953:
4671:
4661:
4651:
4556:
4536:
4460:
4128:
4077:
3915:
3905:
3743:
3738:
3723:
3432:
Fully illustrated online catalogue of world's largest collection of astrolabes
3422:
A working model of the Dr. Ludwig Oechslin's Astrolabium Galileo Galilei watch
3381:
1817:
1802:
1677:
visible to the observer, and its projection on the celestial equatorial plane.
1605:
1560:
visible to the observer, and its projection on the celestial equatorial plane.
1299:
1241:
1232:
The construction and design of astrolabes are based on the application of the
1125:
714:
575:
158:
129:
2818:
2648:
2376:
1604:
Additionally, when drawing circles parallel to the horizon up to the zenith (
5058:
5048:
5033:
4978:
4973:
4918:
4706:
4646:
4204:
4148:
3819:
3753:
3728:
3612:
3406:
3062:
2578:
Nancy Marie Brown (2010), "The Abacus and the Cross". p. 140. Basic Books.
2396:
The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: a Sourcebook
1916:
1908:
1753:
1357:
Stereographic projection of Earth's tropics and equator from the South Pole.
1014:
Many astronomical clocks use an astrolabe-style display, such as the famous
950:
A page from the 1575 book "Astrolabium" depicting an astrolabe. Masha'Allah
783:
536:
524:
315:
204:
16th-century woodcut of measurement of a building's height with an astrolabe
125:
39:
2831:
Nancy Marie Brown (2010), "The Abacus and the Cross". p. 143. basic Books.
2598:
Toward the Setting Sun: Columbus, Cabot, Vespucci, and the Race for America
4871:
1976:
1884:
1076:
above the local horizon. The rim of the mater is typically graduated into
17:
5306:
5134:
4998:
4731:
4701:
4666:
4656:
4596:
4415:
3930:
3900:
3844:
3778:
3768:
3693:
3607:
3410:
3389:
3043:
1896:
1660:
1659:
direction for the observer (which would vary depending on the observer's
1543:
1542:
direction for the observer (which would vary depending on the observer's
1471:
1337:
1288:
1141:
1129:
1092:
1053:
394:
154:
3130:
1933:
1511:
Stereographic projection of an observer's horizon at a specific latitude
550:
415:
used an astrolabe to make the astronomical observations recorded in the
5210:
5073:
5068:
5018:
5008:
4636:
4626:
4561:
4510:
4450:
4440:
4405:
3763:
3186:], translated by Gunella, Alessandro; Lamprey, John, John Lamprey,
2544:
1837:
1766:
1713:
1670:
1640:
1585:
1553:
1523:
1496:
1475:
1432:
1379:
1341:
1329:
1314:
1295:
1245:
1146:
1065:
995:
799:
680:
679:
In 1370, the first Indian treatise on the astrolabe was written by the
591:
579:
520:
470:
466:
412:
383:
226:
185:
2662:
2465:
Celestial Treasury: From the Music of Spheres to the Conquest of Space
1038:(mother), which is deep enough to hold one or more flat plates called
336:
of the word as "lines of lab", where "Lab" refers to a certain son of
5321:
5271:
5220:
5093:
4943:
4611:
4606:
3431:
1745:
1684:
1656:
1539:
1487:
1284:
1159:
which were various from surveying to measuring inaccessible heights.
1061:
1049:
859:
787:
779:
775:
629:
273:
264:
258:
252:
83:
62:
3384:
Video of Howard Covitz's Presentation at Ignite Phoenix, June 2009.
2889:. Band 1: Vom Astrolab zum mathematischen Besteck. Cologne, S. 204.
2796:
Encyclopedia of world trade : from ancient times to the present
2536:
2523:(1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi".
2202:
The Modern Cultural Myth of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
5402:
3361:
1264:
The tympanum captures the celestial coordinate axes upon which the
465:
introduced angular scales to the design, adding circles indicating
4676:
4541:
4465:
3339:
God's Clockmaker: Richard of Wallingford and the Invention of Time
3180:
Stoeffler's Elucidatio – The Construction and Use of the Astrolabe
2043:
Encyclopedia of Time: Science, Philosophy, Theology, & Culture
1649:
The central blue point represents Earth (the observer's location).
1623:
1595:
1532:
The central blue point represents Earth (the observer's location).
1506:
1388:
The central blue point represents Earth (the observer's location).
1352:
1255:
1105:
1044:
973:
843:
724:
719:
663:
600:
549:
544:
540:
516:
482:
478:
341:
218:
214:
199:
133:
56:
45:
3427:
Ulysse Nardin Astrolabium Galilei Galileo: A Detailed Explanation
3102:
Gentili, Graziano; Simonutti, Luisa; Struppa, Daniele C. (2020).
2992:
Stephenson, Bruce; Bolt, Marvin; Friedman, Anna Felicity (2000).
2629:(Enhanced Credo ed.). Armonk, New York: Routledge. pp.
495:
The mathematical background was established by Muslim astronomer
344:). This etymology is mentioned by a 10th-century scientist named
322:
who stated: "asturlab is an arabisation of this Persian phrase" (
1940:"The most distinguished Syriac scholar of this later period was
1100:
1077:
982:
795:
791:
473:. It was widely used throughout the Muslim world, chiefly as an
4875:
4261:
3515:
3477:
2996:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 108–109.
1113:
which rotates over the rete, and may be marked with a scale of
1022:
designed and built an astrolabe wristwatch in conjunction with
4334:
3417:
Archive of James E. Morrison's extensive website on Astrolabes
2691:. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. p. 31.
2626:
Encyclopedia of world trade: from ancient times to the present
1121:
3436:
2994:
The Universe Unveiled: Instruments and Images through History
1899:; and translated into English by H.W. Green in R.T. Gunther,
1244:. The plane onto which the projection is made is that of the
1240:. The point from which the projection is usually made is the
78:
2273:. New York City, New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 63.
2770:
Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia
1712:
The two red circles represent a secondary meridian with an
3253:, Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press: 51–69
2987:
2985:
1639:
The blue arrow indicates the direction of true north (the
1600:
Stereographic projection of the horizon and an almucantar.
1522:
The blue arrow indicates the direction of true north (the
1478:
throughout the year: if the sun's altitude at noon on the
1378:
The blue arrow indicates the direction of true north (the
2975:
2239:. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. pp. 102–104.
2205:. Manchester, England: Palgrave, Macmillan. p. 183.
1722:
The geographic south of the celestial sphere acts as the
1566:
The geographic south of the celestial sphere acts as the
1394:
The geographic south of the celestial sphere acts as the
822:
A treatise explaining the importance of the astrolabe by
1207:, this globe is the third oldest surviving in the world.
243:
gives the translation "star-taker" for the English word
2714:
Archives Internationales d'Histoire des Sciences Oxford
50:
North African, 9th century AD, Planispheric Astrolabe.
1765:
containing the major stars, allow for determining the
1203:
Celestial Globe, Isfahan (?), Iran 1144. Shown at the
5379:
1252:
Designing a tympanum through stereographic projection
323:
119:
3382:"Hello World!" for the Astrolabe: The First Computer
2127:
2125:
1191:
collection. This instrument shows its rete and rule.
283:
277:
106:
5351:
5330:
5239:
5188:
5127:
4909:
4830:
4799:
4740:
4529:
4396:
4332:
4272:
4218:
4182:
4121:
4060:
3959:
3888:
3807:
3676:
3580:
3539:
2799:( ed.). Armonk, New York: Routledge. pp.
2166:
2164:
128:instrument dating to ancient times. It serves as a
3104:"The Mathematics of the Astrolabe and Its History"
2525:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
661:, also using Messahalla, but relatively original.
140:. Its various functions also make it an elaborate
2739:. Springer Science & Business Media. p.
2463:Lachièz-Rey, Marc; Luminet, Jean-Pierre (2001).
1877:De usu astrolabii eiusque constructione libellus
503:(c. AD 920), which was translated into Latin by
2270:The Birth of Mathematics: Ancient Times to 1300
2236:Hypatia of Alexandria: Mathematician and Martyr
1349:The tropics and the equator define the tympanum
3396:Video of Tom Wujec demonstrating an astrolabe.
3264:Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies
3059:The Astrolabe: What it is & what it is not
906:are mapped on an astrolabe's tympan through a
562:was a variation of both the astrolabe and the
444:also wrote a treatise on the astrolabe in the
4887:
3489:
3409:. Includes clickable transcript. Licensed as
3251:Constructions of Time in the Late Middle Ages
3159:The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy
2228:
2226:
2224:
2222:
1732:The celestial equatorial plane serves as the
1576:The celestial equatorial plane serves as the
1404:The celestial equatorial plane serves as the
511:). The earliest surviving astrolabe is dated
8:
3341:, Continuum International Publishing Group,
3231:Krebs, Robert E.; Krebs, Carolyn A. (2003),
2851:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers
2304:. In Harley, J. B.; Woodward, David (eds.).
1620:The meridians and the measurement of azimuth
1034:An astrolabe consists of a disk, called the
247:and traces it through medieval Latin to the
3362:Interactive digital astrolabe by Alex Boxer
3321:A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy
2887:Wissenschaftliche Instrumente in ihrer Zeit
2194:
2192:
2190:
2188:
1503:The horizon and the measurement of altitude
706:(1394–1460) while navigating for Portugal.
312:), a direct translation of the Greek word.
297:
184:The astrolabe, which is a precursor to the
4894:
4880:
4872:
4276:
4269:
4258:
3525:
3512:
3496:
3482:
3474:
3367:A digital astrolabe (HTML5 and javascript)
2601:. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 253.
2262:
2260:
2258:
2256:
1099:indicating the positions of the brightest
1091:, a framework bearing a projection of the
756:provide some of the earliest evidence for
3202:Journal for the History of Arabic Science
3129:
3119:
2767:Glick, Thomas; et al., eds. (2005),
1219:Computer-generated planispheric astrolabe
457:Astrolabes were further developed in the
318:quotes and criticises medieval scientist
31:For other pages with a similar name, see
5520:Technology in the medieval Islamic world
3282:Surveying Instruments of Greece and Rome
1773:and rotated for a specific time of day.
1593:) and, therefore, won't be represented.
1128:. When it is rotated, the stars and the
5485:Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world
5386:
3505:Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world
3377:paper astrolabe generator, from the ESO
2687:Harley, J. B.; Woodward, David (1992).
2499:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
1997:
1864:
1788:Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world
1173:
812:
645:for his son, mainly based on a work by
626:Nova compositio astrolabii particularis
616:, examined the use of the astrolabe in
428:Astrolabes continued to be used in the
4302:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity
3648:Khalid ibn Abd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrudhi
3184:Elucidatio Fabricae Ususque Astrolabii
1632:On the right side of the image above:
1515:On the right side of the image above:
1361:On the right side of the image above:
750:Elucidatio fabricae ususque astrolabii
674:Royal Museum of Scotland at Edinburgh.
4323:The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries
3074:
3072:
2940:
2922:(2). Paris: University of Paris: 87.
2793:Northrup, Cynthia Clark, ed. (2015).
2623:Northrup, Cynthia Clark, ed. (2015).
2170:
2045:. Vol. 1. SAGE. pp. 59–60.
1935:How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs
1891:Paris: Librairie Alain Brieux, 1981,
1889:Jean Philopon, traité de l'astrolabe,
1616:overlaps with the designed tympanum.
192:was developed to solve that problem.
7:
3081:Islamic astrolabists and their works
2155:
2143:
2131:
1669:The two black circles represent the
1552:The two black circles represent the
1336:) to determine the exact moments of
1072:and representing the portion of the
713:), where it was integrated into the
328:, meaning "taker of the stars"). In
3372:Astrolabe Tech Made ... Not So Easy
2559:"Qantara – 'Carolingian' astrolabe"
2494:"Sharaf al-Din al-Muzaffar al-Tusi"
2349:Transactions of the Optical Society
1911:repr. London: Holland Press, 1976,
1287:, which will vary depending on the
874:Disassembled 18th-century astrolabe
694:A simplified astrolabe, known as a
293:
161:(and vice versa), to survey, or to
116:
103:
272:In the medieval Islamic world the
25:
5495:Historical scientific instruments
3108:Journal of Humanistic Mathematics
2667:The Astrolabe: an Online Resource
1702:The orange circle represents the
1306:(from the horizon to the zenith).
5437:
5425:
5413:
5401:
5389:
1875:' treatise on the astrolabe are
1808:List of astronomical instruments
1683:The five red dots represent the
1212:
1196:
1176:
1087:Above the mater and tympan, the
943:
923:
891:
879:
867:
851:
831:
815:
655:Composition and Use of Astrolabe
4027:Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi
3437:Mobile astrolabe and horologium
3217:, University of Toronto Press,
2392:"Mathematics in Medieval Islam"
1655:The black arrow represents the
1538:The black arrow represents the
1368:The blue sphere represents the
582:892–902). In the 12th century,
4516:Schema for horizontal sundials
4032:Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi
3557:Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī
3284:, Cambridge University Press,
2910:The Almagest Volume 8, Issue 2
2333:"Description of the astrolabe"
2267:Bradley, Michael John (2006).
2233:Deakin, Michael A. B. (2007).
1279:Therefore, it should project:
1260:Parts of an Astrolabe tympanum
936:Libros del saber de astronomía
1:
5292:Inferior and superior planets
2731:Selin, Helaine (2008-03-12).
2438:Nizamoglu, Cem (2005-08-10).
2390:Berggren, J. Lennart (2007),
2109:"Online Etymology Dictionary"
914:) of a 16th-century European
886:Exploded view of an astrolabe
405:
398:
387:
376:
369:
4774:Constantinople (Taqi al-Din)
2394:, in Katz, Victor J. (ed.),
1589:projection of the celestial
477:and as a way of finding the
265:
263:"star" and λαμβάνειν :
259:
253:
208:The 10th-century astronomer
84:
4763:University of al-Qarawiyyin
3967:Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi
3298:Morrison, James E. (2007),
3161:, Oxford University Press,
2928:10.1484/J.ALMAGEST.5.114932
2199:Theodore, Jonathan (2016).
1950:, Oxford, 1932, pp. 82–103.
1938:. Routledge and Kegan Paul.
1901:The Astrolabes of the World
1120:The rete, representing the
642:A Treatise on the Astrolabe
554:An Arab astrolabe from 1208
324:
284:
278:
120:
107:
61:A modern astrolabe made in
5541:
5369:Medieval Islamic astronomy
5166:On the Sizes and Distances
4007:Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi
3337:North, John David (2005),
3121:10.5642/jhummath.202001.07
3018:"Star Names on Astrolabes"
2976:"Christaan van der Klauuw"
2773:, Routledge, p. 464,
2689:The history of cartography
2400:Princeton University Press
2369:10.1088/1475-4878/24/5/302
1965:Journal of Islamic Studies
1903:, Vol. 1/2, Oxford, 1932,
1168:Construction of astrolabes
930:Astrolabe manual from the
79:
33:Astrolabe (disambiguation)
29:
5359:Medieval European science
5089:Sosigenes the Peripatetic
4848:Medieval European science
4279:
4268:
4257:
4108:Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar
3865:Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli
3528:
3524:
3511:
3411:Creative Commons by-nc-nd
3390:Creative Commons by-nc-nd
2072:Oxford English Dictionary
1848:Prague astronomical clock
1769:of a star located on the
1465:Earth's rotational motion
1431:In purple, the celestial
1421:In orange, the celestial
764:. In 1612, Greek painter
620:during the 11th century.
332:sources, there is also a
240:Oxford English Dictionary
146:analog calculation device
5480:Astronomical instruments
5470:Ancient Greek technology
4098:Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri
3992:Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi
3633:Ali ibn Isa al-Asturlabi
3280:Lewis, M. J. T. (2001),
3266:, Binghamton, New York,
2954:"Astrolabium G. Galilei"
2504:University of St Andrews
1963:(1993). "Book Reviews".
1797:mathematical instruments
1795:, designer and maker of
1486:(the sun will be at the
1441:In green, the celestial
1234:stereographic projection
1058:stereographic projection
908:stereographic projection
639:(c. 1343–1400) compiled
519:). In the 10th century,
432:. Christian philosopher
181:for all these purposes.
38:Not to be confused with
5465:Ancient Greek astronomy
5084:Sosigenes of Alexandria
4903:Ancient Greek astronomy
4200:Baha' al-din al-'Amili
4174:'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i
4052:Fakhr al-Din al-Akhlati
3972:Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili
3386:Slides for Presentation
3057:King, David A. (2018).
2848:Hockey, Thomas (2009).
1948:Astrolabes of the World
1799:, globes and astrolabes
1056:and is engraved with a
1052:is made for a specific
910:. Hypothetical tympan (
771:Catherine of Alexandria
730:Astronomical Instrument
659:Christian of Prachatice
539:, timekeeping, prayer,
251:word ἀστρολάβος :
27:Astronomical instrument
5515:Navigational equipment
5510:Mechanical calculators
5156:On Sizes and Distances
4481:Navigational astrolabe
4236:Al Achsasi al Mouakket
4002:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
3921:Al-Samawal al-Maghribi
3870:Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani
3799:Abu al-Hasan al-Ahwazi
3260:Practique de Astralabe
3061:. Frankfurt, Germany:
2033:Bean, Adam L. (2009).
1823:Zeiss-Planetarium Jena
1629:
1601:
1512:
1358:
1291:of the astrolabe user.
1261:
1009:Richard of Wallingford
999:
992:Museum Plantin-Moretus
904:geographic coordinates
898:Animation showing how
737:
676:
606:
566:, invented during the
555:
459:medieval Islamic world
210:ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣūfī
205:
66:
54:
5267:Deferent and epicycle
5196:Antikythera mechanism
4817:Hellenistic astronomy
4788:Samarkand (Ulugh Beg)
4582:Deferent and epicycle
3982:Alam al-Din al-Hanafi
3951:Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi
3593:Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi
3157:Evans, James (1998),
3079:Mayer, L. A. (1956).
2906:Vafea, Flora (2017).
2595:Boyle, David (2011).
2075:(2nd ed.). 1989.
1627:
1599:
1510:
1356:
1317:for a celestial body.
1259:
977:
970:Astrolabes and clocks
952:Public Library Bruges
744:In the 16th century,
728:
667:
604:
584:Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī
553:
257:, from ἄστρον :
203:
60:
49:
5525:Scientific equipment
5338:Babylonian astronomy
5029:Hippocrates of Chios
4807:Babylonian astronomy
4622:Gravitational energy
3997:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
3987:Najm al‐Din al‐Misri
3668:Yahya ibn Abi Mansur
3567:Mashallah ibn Athari
3552:Al-Fadl ibn Naubakht
3441:Medieval equal hour
3213:King, Henry (1978),
2521:Maddison, Francis R.
2490:Robertson, Edmund F.
2440:"Using an Astrolabe"
2426:Golden Age of Persia
2295:Savage-Smith, Emilie
2097:on October 22, 2013.
1961:Savage-Smith, Emilie
1740:When projecting the
1584:When projecting the
1344:throughout the year.
932:Alfonso X of Castile
824:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
5109:Theon of Alexandria
4748:Al-Azhar University
4567:Celestial mechanics
4357:Book of Fixed Stars
4316:The Book of Healing
4295:Aja'ib al-Makhluqat
4037:Ibn Ishaq al-Tunisi
4012:Zakariya al-Qazwini
3623:Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf
3618:Abu Hanifa Dinawari
3317:Neugebauer, Otto E.
3235:, Greenwood Press,
3089:1956iatw.book.....M
2856:Springer Publishing
2488:O'Connor, John J.;
2422:Richard Nelson Frye
2361:1923TrOS...24..289M
2345:See p. 289 of
2299:"Celestial Mapping"
2091:Oxford Dictionaries
1977:10.1093/jis/4.2.296
1871:Modern editions of
1828:Hamburg Planetarium
1813:Mariner's astrolabe
1591:Tropic of Capricorn
1457:Tropic of Capricorn
1453:circles of latitude
1443:Tropic of Capricorn
1413:circles of latitude
1322:circles of latitude
1004:astronomical clocks
826:, Persian scientist
807:Medieval astrolabes
605:Spherical astrolabe
570:by astronomers and
560:spherical astrolabe
481:, the direction of
423:Emilie Savage-Smith
366:Theon of Alexandria
217:, the direction of
190:mariner's astrolabe
167:classical antiquity
52:Khalili Collection.
5343:Egyptian astronomy
5257:Circle of latitude
4812:Egyptian astronomy
4753:House of Knowledge
4431:Astronomical clock
4241:Muhammad al-Rudani
3638:Banū Mūsā brothers
3588:Abu Ali al-Khayyat
3401:2012-03-23 at the
3176:Stöffler, Johannes
2964:on 2 January 2011.
2885:Ralf Kern (2010),
2331:Sebokht, Severus.
2011:The New York Times
1833:Astronomical clock
1742:celestial meridian
1704:celestial meridian
1691:(the point on the
1630:
1602:
1513:
1359:
1311:celestial meridian
1262:
1228:Mathematical basis
1095:plane and several
1000:
912:40° north latitude
738:
677:
622:Peter of Maricourt
607:
556:
490:Muhammad al-Fazari
463:Muslim astronomers
206:
171:Islamic Golden Age
67:
55:
5505:Marine navigation
5377:
5376:
5252:Celestial spheres
4869:
4868:
4865:
4864:
4861:
4860:
4843:Chinese astronomy
4838:Byzantine science
4712:Temporal finitism
4642:Islamic cosmology
4572:Celestial spheres
4392:
4391:
4284:Arabic star names
4253:
4252:
4249:
4248:
4113:Fathullah Shirazi
4047:Al-Ashraf Umar II
3759:Ibrahim ibn Sinan
3562:Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī
3348:978-1-85285-451-5
3330:978-3-642-61912-0
3309:978-0-939320-30-1
3291:978-0-511-48303-5
3242:978-0-313-31342-4
3224:978-0-8020-2312-4
3193:978-1-4243-3502-2
2895:978-3-86560-865-9
2865:978-0-387-31022-0
2837:978-0-465-00950-3
2750:978-1-4020-4559-2
2584:978-0-465-00950-3
2561:. Qantara-med.org
2517:Bedini, Silvio A.
2474:978-0-521-80040-2
2409:978-0-691-11485-9
2335:. Tertullian.org.
2246:978-1-59102-520-7
2212:978-1-137-56997-4
2052:978-1-4129-4164-8
1124:, functions as a
766:Ieremias Palladas
762:division of labor
746:Johannes Stöffler
734:Ieremias Palladas
711:Pope Sylvester II
610:Herman Contractus
509:De Motu Stellarum
485:. Eighth-century
475:aid to navigation
320:Hamza al-Isfahani
165:. It was used in
16:(Redirected from
5532:
5490:Greek inventions
5460:Analog computers
5442:
5441:
5440:
5430:
5429:
5428:
5418:
5417:
5416:
5406:
5405:
5394:
5393:
5392:
5385:
5364:Indian astronomy
5317:Sublunary sphere
5287:Hipparchic cycle
5226:Mural instrument
5201:Armillary sphere
5180:
5170:
5160:
5150:
5140:
4896:
4889:
4882:
4873:
4853:Indian astronomy
4822:Indian astronomy
4790:
4783:
4776:
4697:Sublunary sphere
4687:Specific gravity
4587:Earth's rotation
4476:Mural instrument
4421:Armillary sphere
4344:Alfonsine tables
4309:Tabula Rogeriana
4289:Islamic calendar
4277:
4270:
4259:
4154:Sibt al-Maridini
4139:Jamshid al-Kashi
3860:Said al-Andalusi
3663:Thābit ibn Qurra
3598:Abu Said Gorgani
3572:Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq
3526:
3513:
3498:
3491:
3484:
3475:
3470:
3469:
3468:
3462:
3456:, archived from
3455:
3351:
3333:
3312:
3294:
3276:
3254:
3245:
3227:
3209:
3196:
3171:
3144:
3143:
3133:
3123:
3099:
3093:
3092:
3076:
3067:
3066:
3054:
3048:
3047:
3035:
3029:
3028:
3026:
3025:
3014:
3008:
3007:
2989:
2980:
2979:
2972:
2966:
2965:
2960:. Archived from
2950:
2944:
2938:
2932:
2931:
2903:
2897:
2883:
2877:
2876:
2874:
2872:
2845:
2839:
2829:
2823:
2822:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2764:
2758:
2757:
2738:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2709:
2703:
2702:
2684:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2674:
2659:
2653:
2652:
2620:
2614:
2612:
2592:
2586:
2576:
2570:
2569:
2567:
2566:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2485:
2479:
2478:
2460:
2454:
2453:
2451:
2450:
2435:
2429:
2419:
2413:
2412:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2303:
2291:
2285:
2284:
2264:
2251:
2250:
2230:
2217:
2216:
2196:
2183:
2180:
2174:
2168:
2159:
2153:
2147:
2141:
2135:
2129:
2120:
2119:
2117:
2116:
2111:. Etymonline.com
2105:
2099:
2098:
2093:. Archived from
2083:
2077:
2076:
2063:
2057:
2056:
2030:
2024:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2002:
1985:
1984:
1957:
1951:
1939:
1930:O'Leary, De Lacy
1926:
1920:
1869:
1793:Philippe Danfrie
1783:Armillary sphere
1734:projection plane
1731:
1721:
1711:
1701:
1693:celestial sphere
1682:
1675:celestial sphere
1668:
1654:
1648:
1638:
1578:projection plane
1575:
1565:
1558:celestial sphere
1551:
1537:
1531:
1521:
1440:
1430:
1423:Tropic of Cancer
1420:
1406:projection plane
1403:
1393:
1387:
1377:
1370:celestial sphere
1367:
1238:celestial sphere
1216:
1200:
1180:
1074:celestial sphere
979:Amerigo Vespucci
960:
947:
927:
895:
883:
871:
858:An 18th-century
855:
835:
819:
758:batch production
702:was promoted by
672:now kept at the
670:Indian astrolabe
637:Geoffrey Chaucer
618:Mensura Astrolai
588:linear astrolabe
564:armillary sphere
505:Plato Tiburtinus
499:in his treatise
430:Byzantine Empire
410:
407:
403:
400:
392:
389:
381:
378:
374:
371:
348:but rejected by
330:medieval Islamic
327:
311:
308:
305:
302:
299:
295:
294:آخِذُ ٱلنُّجُومْ
287:
285:ākhidhu al-Nujūm
281:
268:
262:
256:
179:Age of Discovery
123:
118:
110:
105:
97:
94:
91:
87:
82:
81:
43:
36:
21:
5540:
5539:
5535:
5534:
5533:
5531:
5530:
5529:
5450:
5449:
5448:
5438:
5436:
5426:
5424:
5414:
5412:
5400:
5390:
5388:
5380:
5378:
5373:
5347:
5326:
5312:Spherical Earth
5247:Callippic cycle
5235:
5216:Equatorial ring
5184:
5178:
5168:
5158:
5148:
5138:
5123:
5114:Theon of Smyrna
4905:
4900:
4870:
4857:
4826:
4795:
4786:
4779:
4772:
4758:House of Wisdom
4736:
4692:Spherical Earth
4525:
4456:Equatorial ring
4436:Celestial globe
4411:Analog computer
4388:
4383:Sullam al-sama'
4328:
4264:
4245:
4214:
4178:
4117:
4056:
3955:
3941:Jabir ibn Aflah
3884:
3815:Abu Nasr Mansur
3803:
3784:Abolfadl Harawi
3719:Ahmad ibn Yusuf
3672:
3576:
3547:Ahmad Nahavandi
3535:
3520:
3507:
3502:
3466:
3464:
3460:
3453:
3447:
3443:horary quadrant
3403:Wayback Machine
3358:
3349:
3336:
3331:
3315:
3310:
3297:
3292:
3279:
3274:
3257:
3248:
3243:
3230:
3225:
3212:
3199:
3194:
3174:
3169:
3156:
3153:
3148:
3147:
3101:
3100:
3096:
3078:
3077:
3070:
3056:
3055:
3051:
3038:King, David A.
3037:
3036:
3032:
3023:
3021:
3016:
3015:
3011:
3004:
2991:
2990:
2983:
2974:
2973:
2969:
2952:
2951:
2947:
2939:
2935:
2905:
2904:
2900:
2884:
2880:
2870:
2868:
2866:
2847:
2846:
2842:
2830:
2826:
2811:
2792:
2791:
2787:
2781:
2766:
2765:
2761:
2751:
2730:
2729:
2725:
2711:
2710:
2706:
2699:
2686:
2685:
2681:
2672:
2670:
2661:
2660:
2656:
2641:
2622:
2621:
2617:
2609:
2594:
2593:
2589:
2577:
2573:
2564:
2562:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2537:10.2307/1006002
2515:
2514:
2510:
2487:
2486:
2482:
2475:
2462:
2461:
2457:
2448:
2446:
2444:Muslim Heritage
2437:
2436:
2432:
2420:
2416:
2410:
2402:, p. 519,
2389:
2388:
2384:
2346:
2344:
2340:
2330:
2329:
2325:
2318:
2301:
2293:
2292:
2288:
2281:
2266:
2265:
2254:
2247:
2232:
2231:
2220:
2213:
2198:
2197:
2186:
2181:
2177:
2169:
2162:
2154:
2150:
2142:
2138:
2130:
2123:
2114:
2112:
2107:
2106:
2102:
2085:
2084:
2080:
2065:
2064:
2060:
2053:
2032:
2031:
2027:
2017:
2015:
2004:
2003:
1999:
1989:
1988:
1959:
1958:
1954:
1945:
1942:Severus Sebokht
1928:
1927:
1923:
1873:John Philoponus
1870:
1866:
1856:
1779:
1729:
1724:projection pole
1719:
1709:
1699:
1680:
1666:
1652:
1646:
1636:
1622:
1610:star's altitude
1573:
1568:projection pole
1563:
1549:
1535:
1529:
1519:
1505:
1493:summer solstice
1484:winter solstice
1438:
1428:
1418:
1401:
1396:projection pole
1391:
1385:
1375:
1365:
1351:
1320:The three main
1254:
1230:
1225:
1224:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1208:
1201:
1192:
1181:
1170:
1169:
1032:
1020:Ludwig Oechslin
1016:clock at Prague
988:Jan Collaert II
972:
967:
966:
965:
962:
954:
948:
939:
928:
919:
896:
887:
884:
875:
872:
863:
856:
847:
836:
827:
820:
809:
808:
798:(Jupiter), and
635:English author
614:Reichenau Abbey
455:
446:Syriac language
442:Severus Sebokht
434:John Philoponus
408:
401:
390:
379:
372:
363:
358:
309:
306:
303:
300:
235:
198:
173:, the European
138:heavenly bodies
95:
92:
89:
65:, Iran in 2013.
44:
37:
30:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5538:
5536:
5528:
5527:
5522:
5517:
5512:
5507:
5502:
5497:
5492:
5487:
5482:
5477:
5472:
5467:
5462:
5452:
5451:
5447:
5446:
5434:
5422:
5410:
5398:
5375:
5374:
5372:
5371:
5366:
5361:
5355:
5353:
5349:
5348:
5346:
5345:
5340:
5334:
5332:
5328:
5327:
5325:
5324:
5319:
5314:
5309:
5304:
5299:
5294:
5289:
5284:
5279:
5274:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5254:
5249:
5243:
5241:
5237:
5236:
5234:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5192:
5190:
5186:
5185:
5183:
5182:
5176:On the Heavens
5172:
5162:
5152:
5149:(Eratosthenes)
5142:
5131:
5129:
5125:
5124:
5122:
5121:
5116:
5111:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5091:
5086:
5081:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5061:
5056:
5054:Philip of Opus
5051:
5046:
5041:
5036:
5031:
5026:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5001:
4996:
4991:
4986:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4926:
4921:
4915:
4913:
4907:
4906:
4901:
4899:
4898:
4891:
4884:
4876:
4867:
4866:
4863:
4862:
4859:
4858:
4856:
4855:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4834:
4832:
4828:
4827:
4825:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4803:
4801:
4797:
4796:
4794:
4793:
4792:
4791:
4784:
4777:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4744:
4742:
4738:
4737:
4735:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4669:
4664:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4629:
4624:
4619:
4614:
4609:
4604:
4602:Elliptic orbit
4599:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4577:Circular orbit
4574:
4569:
4564:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4544:
4539:
4533:
4531:
4527:
4526:
4524:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4508:
4503:
4498:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4473:
4468:
4463:
4458:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4423:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4402:
4400:
4394:
4393:
4390:
4389:
4387:
4386:
4379:
4372:
4365:
4363:Toledan Tables
4360:
4353:
4346:
4340:
4338:
4330:
4329:
4327:
4326:
4319:
4312:
4305:
4298:
4291:
4286:
4280:
4274:
4266:
4265:
4262:
4255:
4254:
4251:
4250:
4247:
4246:
4244:
4243:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4226:Yang Guangxian
4222:
4220:
4216:
4215:
4213:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4197:
4192:
4186:
4184:
4180:
4179:
4177:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4125:
4123:
4119:
4118:
4116:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4064:
4062:
4058:
4057:
4055:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3963:
3961:
3957:
3956:
3954:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3892:
3890:
3886:
3885:
3883:
3882:
3880:Ali ibn Khalaf
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3855:Kushyar Gilani
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3825:Ali ibn Ridwan
3822:
3817:
3811:
3809:
3805:
3804:
3802:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3789:Haseb-i Tabari
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3680:
3678:
3674:
3673:
3671:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3658:Sahl ibn Bishr
3655:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3584:
3582:
3578:
3577:
3575:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3543:
3541:
3537:
3536:
3534:
3533:
3529:
3522:
3521:
3516:
3509:
3508:
3503:
3501:
3500:
3493:
3486:
3478:
3472:
3471:
3445:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3407:TEDGlobal 2009
3393:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3357:
3356:External links
3354:
3353:
3352:
3347:
3334:
3329:
3313:
3308:
3295:
3290:
3277:
3272:
3255:
3246:
3241:
3228:
3223:
3210:
3197:
3192:
3172:
3167:
3152:
3149:
3146:
3145:
3094:
3083:. A. Kunding.
3068:
3049:
3030:
3009:
3002:
2981:
2967:
2945:
2933:
2898:
2878:
2864:
2840:
2824:
2810:978-0765680587
2809:
2785:
2779:
2759:
2749:
2723:
2704:
2697:
2679:
2663:"Introduction"
2654:
2640:978-0765680587
2639:
2615:
2607:
2587:
2571:
2550:
2508:
2480:
2473:
2455:
2430:
2414:
2408:
2382:
2355:(5): 289–303,
2338:
2323:
2316:
2286:
2279:
2252:
2245:
2218:
2211:
2184:
2175:
2160:
2148:
2136:
2121:
2100:
2078:
2058:
2051:
2039:Birx, H. James
2025:
2014:. May 18, 1964
1996:
1995:
1994:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1971:(2): 296–299.
1952:
1921:
1863:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1855:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1790:
1785:
1778:
1775:
1738:
1737:
1727:
1717:
1707:
1697:
1678:
1664:
1650:
1644:
1621:
1618:
1582:
1581:
1571:
1561:
1547:
1533:
1527:
1504:
1501:
1449:
1448:
1447:
1446:
1436:
1426:
1409:
1399:
1389:
1383:
1373:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1345:
1318:
1307:
1292:
1253:
1250:
1229:
1226:
1222:
1221:
1218:
1211:
1209:
1202:
1195:
1193:
1182:
1175:
1172:
1171:
1167:
1166:
1165:
1082:degrees of arc
1031:
1028:
983:Southern Cross
981:observing the
971:
968:
964:
963:
949:
942:
940:
929:
922:
920:
897:
890:
888:
885:
878:
876:
873:
866:
864:
857:
850:
848:
837:
830:
828:
821:
814:
811:
810:
806:
805:
804:
754:Georg Hartmann
454:
451:
391: 350–370
362:
359:
357:
354:
334:folk etymology
234:
231:
223:lunar calendar
197:
194:
134:physical model
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5537:
5526:
5523:
5521:
5518:
5516:
5513:
5511:
5508:
5506:
5503:
5501:
5500:Inclinometers
5498:
5496:
5493:
5491:
5488:
5486:
5483:
5481:
5478:
5476:
5473:
5471:
5468:
5466:
5463:
5461:
5458:
5457:
5455:
5445:
5435:
5433:
5423:
5421:
5411:
5409:
5404:
5399:
5397:
5387:
5383:
5370:
5367:
5365:
5362:
5360:
5357:
5356:
5354:
5350:
5344:
5341:
5339:
5336:
5335:
5333:
5329:
5323:
5320:
5318:
5315:
5313:
5310:
5308:
5305:
5303:
5300:
5298:
5297:Metonic cycle
5295:
5293:
5290:
5288:
5285:
5283:
5282:Heliocentrism
5280:
5278:
5275:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5262:Counter-Earth
5260:
5258:
5255:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5245:
5244:
5242:
5238:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5193:
5191:
5187:
5181:
5177:
5173:
5171:
5169:(Aristarchus)
5167:
5163:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5141:
5137:
5133:
5132:
5130:
5126:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5082:
5080:
5077:
5075:
5072:
5070:
5067:
5065:
5062:
5060:
5057:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5047:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4916:
4914:
4912:
4908:
4904:
4897:
4892:
4890:
4885:
4883:
4878:
4877:
4874:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4835:
4833:
4829:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4804:
4802:
4798:
4789:
4785:
4782:
4778:
4775:
4771:
4770:
4769:
4768:Observatories
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4745:
4743:
4739:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4722:Triangulation
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4632:Heliocentrism
4630:
4628:
4625:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4534:
4532:
4528:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4506:Shadow square
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4403:
4401:
4399:
4395:
4385:
4384:
4380:
4378:
4377:
4376:Zij-i Sultani
4373:
4371:
4370:
4369:Zij-i Ilkhani
4366:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4358:
4354:
4352:
4351:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4341:
4339:
4337:
4336:
4331:
4325:
4324:
4320:
4318:
4317:
4313:
4311:
4310:
4306:
4304:
4303:
4299:
4297:
4296:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4281:
4278:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4260:
4256:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4223:
4221:
4217:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4187:
4185:
4181:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4165:
4162:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4144:Kadızade Rumi
4142:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4126:
4124:
4120:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4068:Ibn al-Shatir
4066:
4065:
4063:
4059:
4053:
4050:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4042:Ibn al‐Raqqam
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3964:
3962:
3958:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3936:Ibn al-Kammad
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3893:
3891:
3887:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3850:Ibn al-Saffar
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3812:
3810:
3806:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3681:
3679:
3675:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3585:
3583:
3579:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3544:
3542:
3538:
3531:
3530:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3499:
3494:
3492:
3487:
3485:
3480:
3479:
3476:
3463:on 2015-06-17
3459:
3452:
3451:
3446:
3444:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3397:
3394:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3359:
3355:
3350:
3344:
3340:
3335:
3332:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3311:
3305:
3301:
3300:The Astrolabe
3296:
3293:
3287:
3283:
3278:
3275:
3273:0-86698-132-2
3269:
3265:
3261:
3256:
3252:
3247:
3244:
3238:
3234:
3229:
3226:
3220:
3216:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3198:
3195:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3170:
3168:0-19-509539-1
3164:
3160:
3155:
3154:
3150:
3141:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3098:
3095:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3075:
3073:
3069:
3064:
3060:
3053:
3050:
3046:. p. 30.
3045:
3041:
3034:
3031:
3020:. Ian Ridpath
3019:
3013:
3010:
3005:
3003:0-521-79143-X
2999:
2995:
2988:
2986:
2982:
2977:
2971:
2968:
2963:
2959:
2958:Ulysse Nardin
2955:
2949:
2946:
2942:
2937:
2934:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2911:
2902:
2899:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2882:
2879:
2867:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2852:
2844:
2841:
2838:
2834:
2828:
2825:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2797:
2789:
2786:
2782:
2780:0-415-96930-1
2776:
2772:
2771:
2763:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2746:
2742:
2737:
2736:
2727:
2724:
2720:(106): 42–62.
2719:
2715:
2708:
2705:
2700:
2698:0-226-31635-1
2694:
2690:
2683:
2680:
2668:
2664:
2658:
2655:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2627:
2619:
2616:
2610:
2608:9780802779786
2604:
2600:
2599:
2591:
2588:
2585:
2581:
2575:
2572:
2560:
2554:
2551:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2512:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2500:
2495:
2491:
2484:
2481:
2476:
2470:
2466:
2459:
2456:
2445:
2441:
2434:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2418:
2415:
2411:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2386:
2383:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2342:
2339:
2334:
2327:
2324:
2319:
2313:
2309:
2308:
2300:
2296:
2290:
2287:
2282:
2280:9780816054237
2276:
2272:
2271:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2257:
2253:
2248:
2242:
2238:
2237:
2229:
2227:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2214:
2208:
2204:
2203:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2185:
2179:
2176:
2172:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2158:, p. 45.
2157:
2152:
2149:
2146:, p. 51.
2145:
2140:
2137:
2134:, p. 44.
2133:
2128:
2126:
2122:
2110:
2104:
2101:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2082:
2079:
2074:
2073:
2068:
2062:
2059:
2054:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2029:
2026:
2013:
2012:
2007:
2001:
1998:
1991:
1990:
1983:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1956:
1953:
1949:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1931:
1925:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1868:
1865:
1858:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1798:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1758:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1735:
1728:
1725:
1718:
1715:
1708:
1705:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1679:
1676:
1672:
1665:
1662:
1658:
1651:
1645:
1642:
1635:
1634:
1633:
1626:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1598:
1594:
1592:
1587:
1579:
1572:
1569:
1562:
1559:
1555:
1548:
1545:
1541:
1534:
1528:
1525:
1518:
1517:
1516:
1509:
1502:
1500:
1498:
1494:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1468:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1444:
1437:
1434:
1427:
1424:
1417:
1416:
1414:
1410:
1407:
1400:
1397:
1390:
1384:
1381:
1374:
1371:
1364:
1363:
1362:
1355:
1348:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1258:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1227:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1205:Louvre Museum
1199:
1194:
1190:
1187:astrolabe in
1186:
1179:
1174:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1149:
1148:
1143:
1137:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1107:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1085:
1083:
1079:
1078:hours of time
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1046:
1041:
1037:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1024:Ulysse Nardin
1021:
1017:
1012:
1010:
1005:
997:
993:
989:
984:
980:
976:
969:
958:
953:
946:
941:
937:
933:
926:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
894:
889:
882:
877:
870:
865:
861:
854:
849:
845:
841:
838:Astrolabe of
834:
829:
825:
818:
813:
803:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
772:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
742:
735:
731:
727:
723:
721:
716:
712:
707:
705:
701:
697:
692:
690:
686:
685:Mahendra Suri
682:
675:
671:
666:
662:
660:
656:
652:
651:Ibn al-Saffar
648:
644:
643:
638:
633:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
603:
599:
595:
593:
589:
586:invented the
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
552:
548:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
493:
491:
488:
487:mathematician
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
452:
450:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
426:
424:
420:
419:
414:
396:
385:
367:
360:
355:
353:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
326:
321:
317:
313:
291:
286:
280:
275:
270:
267:
261:
255:
250:
246:
242:
241:
232:
230:
228:
224:
220:
216:
211:
202:
195:
193:
191:
187:
182:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
122:
114:
109:
101:
86:
76:
72:
64:
59:
53:
48:
41:
34:
19:
5444:Solar System
5205:
5175:
5165:
5159:(Hipparchus)
5155:
5146:Catasterismi
5145:
5135:
4994:Eratosthenes
4741:Institutions
4592:Eccentricity
4552:Astrophysics
4446:Compass rose
4425:
4381:
4374:
4367:
4355:
4348:
4333:
4321:
4314:
4307:
4300:
4293:
4159:Ibn al-Majdi
4134:Abd al‐Wajid
4093:Al-Wabkanawi
4088:Abū al‐ʿUqūl
3977:Jamal ad-Din
3946:Omar Khayyam
3774:Al-ʻIjliyyah
3749:Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī
3734:Ibn al-A'lam
3653:Al-Khwarizmi
3465:, retrieved
3458:the original
3449:
3388:Licensed as
3338:
3323:, Springer,
3320:
3299:
3281:
3263:
3259:
3250:
3232:
3214:
3205:
3201:
3183:
3179:
3158:
3151:Bibliography
3131:2158/1182616
3111:
3107:
3097:
3080:
3058:
3052:
3039:
3033:
3022:. Retrieved
3012:
2993:
2970:
2962:the original
2957:
2948:
2936:
2919:
2915:
2909:
2901:
2886:
2881:
2869:. Retrieved
2850:
2843:
2827:
2795:
2788:
2769:
2762:
2754:
2734:
2726:
2717:
2713:
2707:
2688:
2682:
2671:. Retrieved
2666:
2657:
2625:
2618:
2597:
2590:
2574:
2563:. Retrieved
2553:
2528:
2524:
2511:
2497:
2483:
2464:
2458:
2447:. Retrieved
2443:
2433:
2425:
2417:
2395:
2385:
2352:
2348:
2341:
2326:
2306:
2289:
2269:
2235:
2201:
2178:
2151:
2139:
2113:. Retrieved
2103:
2095:the original
2081:
2070:
2061:
2042:
2035:"Astrolabes"
2028:
2016:. Retrieved
2009:
2000:
1982:antecedents.
1980:
1968:
1964:
1955:
1947:
1934:
1924:
1900:
1888:
1876:
1867:
1770:
1762:
1759:
1739:
1631:
1613:
1603:
1583:
1514:
1479:
1469:
1460:
1450:
1360:
1296:horizon line
1278:
1265:
1263:
1231:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1145:
1138:
1119:
1115:declinations
1110:
1104:
1088:
1086:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1033:
1030:Construction
1013:
1001:
916:planispheric
840:Jean Fusoris
769:
749:
743:
739:
708:
704:Prince Henry
699:
695:
693:
688:
678:
668:Front of an
654:
640:
634:
625:
617:
608:
596:
587:
557:
508:
501:Kitab az-Zij
500:
494:
456:
453:Medieval era
438:Mesopotamian
427:
416:
364:
350:al-Khwarizmi
314:
271:
244:
238:
236:
207:
196:Applications
183:
142:inclinometer
126:astronomical
104:ٱلأَسْطُرلاب
70:
68:
5432:Outer space
5420:Spaceflight
5277:Geocentrism
5189:Instruments
5179:(Aristotle)
4984:Cleostratus
4949:Aristarchus
4929:Anaximander
4911:Astronomers
4727:Tusi couple
4717:Trepidation
4682:Salah times
4617:Geocentrism
4491:Planisphere
4471:Graph paper
4398:Instruments
4350:Huihui Lifa
4231:Ehmedê Xanî
4190:Al-Birjandi
4169:al-Kubunani
3926:Abu al-Salt
3875:Al-Isfizari
3835:Ibn al-Samh
3714:Abu al-Wafa
3699:al-Khojandi
3603:Al-Farghani
3518:Astronomers
3114:: 101–144.
2531:(5): 1–69.
2087:"Astrolabe"
2067:"Astrolabe"
2018:February 4,
1843:Planetarium
1134:planisphere
1084:, or both.
1002:Mechanical
955: [
782:(Mercury),
683:astronomer
568:Middle Ages
421:. However,
418:Tetrabiblos
361:Ancient era
279:al-Asturlāb
269:"to take".
175:Middle Ages
163:triangulate
136:of visible
108:al-Asṭurlāb
5475:Astrometry
5454:Categories
5352:Influenced
5331:Influences
5302:Octaeteris
5231:Triquetrum
5119:Timocharis
5104:Theodosius
5064:Posidonius
5024:Hipparchus
5014:Heraclides
4954:Aristyllus
4939:Apollonius
4934:Andronicus
4831:Influenced
4800:Influences
4672:Precession
4652:Multiverse
4557:Axial tilt
4537:Almucantar
4521:Triquetrum
4461:Equatorium
4210:Takiyüddin
4083:al-Battiwi
4078:Ibn Shuayb
4073:Al-Khalili
3916:Al-Khazini
3911:Al-Kharaqī
3906:Ibn Tufail
3896:Al-Bitruji
3830:Al-Zarqālī
3794:al-Majriti
3744:Al-Saghani
3739:Al-Nayrizi
3724:al-Battani
3643:Iranshahri
3628:Al-Marwazi
3532:by century
3467:2018-10-26
3024:2016-11-12
2941:North 2005
2871:August 22,
2673:2020-05-15
2565:2013-11-07
2449:2023-10-16
2317:0226316351
2171:Lewis 2001
2115:2013-11-07
1919:pp. 61–81.
1917:14132393M
1854:References
1818:Yantraraja
1803:Equatorium
1641:North Star
1606:almucantar
1524:North Star
1380:North Star
1300:almucantar
1242:South Pole
1126:star chart
998:, Belgium.
918:astrolabe.
842:, made in
748:published
732:Detail by
715:quadrivium
689:Yantrarāja
647:Messahalla
576:Al-Nayrizi
533:navigation
497:Albatenius
409: 414
402: 373
380: 405
373: 335
325:sitara yab
307:star-taker
254:astrolábos
159:local time
130:star chart
93:star-taker
85:astrolábos
80:ἀστρολάβος
18:Astrolabes
5396:Astronomy
5206:Astrolabe
5139:(Ptolemy)
5059:Philolaus
5049:Oenopides
5034:Hypsicles
4979:Cleomedes
4974:Callippus
4964:Autolycus
4919:Aglaonice
4707:Supernova
4662:Obliquity
4647:Moonlight
4547:Astrology
4426:Astrolabe
4205:Piri Reis
4195:al-Khafri
4164:al-Wafa'i
4149:Ulugh Beg
4129:Ali Kuşçu
4103:al-Jadiri
4022:al-Abhari
3820:al-Biruni
3754:Ibn Yunus
3729:Al-Qabisi
3704:al-Khazin
3613:Al-Mahani
3405:Taken at
3302:, Janus,
3178:(2007) ,
3140:211008813
3063:Frankfurt
2819:889717964
2649:889717964
2377:1475-4878
2156:King 1981
2144:King 1981
2132:King 1981
1909:18840299M
1885:165707441
1859:Footnotes
1754:bisection
1612:when its
1497:equinoxes
1476:equinoxes
1472:solstices
1342:equinoxes
1338:solstices
1326:Capricorn
1064:denoting
900:celestial
862:astrolabe
786:(Venus),
784:Aphrodite
700:balesilha
696:balesilha
687:, titled
594:in 1235.
572:inventors
537:surveying
529:astrology
525:astronomy
316:Al-Biruni
266:lambanein
245:astrolabe
233:Etymology
121:Setāreyāb
117:ستارهیاب
71:astrolabe
40:Cosmolabe
5307:Solstice
5240:Concepts
5136:Almagest
5079:Seleucus
5039:Menelaus
4999:Euctemon
4781:Maragheh
4732:Universe
4702:Sunlight
4667:Parallax
4657:Muwaqqit
4597:Ecliptic
4530:Concepts
4496:Quadrant
4416:Aperture
3931:Averroes
3901:Avempace
3845:Avicenna
3779:Nastulus
3769:al-Sijzi
3694:Al-Adami
3608:Al-Kindi
3399:Archived
3319:(1975),
3044:Florence
2916:Almagest
2428:. p. 163
2297:(1992).
1932:(1948).
1897:10467740
1777:See also
1661:latitude
1544:latitude
1304:altitude
1289:latitude
1185:Hartmann
1142:calendar
1130:ecliptic
1097:pointers
1093:ecliptic
1070:altitude
1054:latitude
1045:climates
794:(Mars),
778:(Moon),
467:azimuths
461:, where
395:Synesius
346:al-Qummi
177:and the
155:latitude
151:altitude
124:) is an
5382:Portals
5211:Dioptra
5074:Pytheas
5069:Ptolemy
5019:Hicetas
5009:Geminus
5004:Eudoxus
4959:Attalus
4924:Agrippa
4637:Inertia
4627:Gravity
4562:Azimuth
4511:Sundial
4501:Sextant
4451:Dioptra
4441:Compass
4406:Alidade
4017:al-Urdi
3840:Alhazen
3764:Ma Yize
3709:al-Qūhī
3684:al-Sufi
3208:: 43–83
3085:Bibcode
2545:1006002
2357:Bibcode
2041:(ed.).
1838:Hypatia
1767:azimuth
1714:azimuth
1671:horizon
1586:horizon
1554:horizon
1433:equator
1330:Equator
1315:azimuth
1246:Equator
1236:of the
1147:alidade
1066:azimuth
1062:circles
1040:tympans
996:Antwerp
961:Ms. 522
938:, 1276.
860:Persian
800:Chronos
790:(Sun),
592:Isfahan
547:, etc.
521:al-Sufi
471:horizon
469:on the
440:bishop
413:Ptolemy
384:Hypatia
356:History
301:
227:Ramadan
186:sextant
144:and an
113:Persian
5322:Zodiac
5272:Equant
5221:Gnomon
5099:Thales
5094:Strabo
4944:Aratus
4612:Galaxy
4607:Equant
4542:Apogee
4486:Octant
4263:Topics
3345:
3327:
3306:
3288:
3270:
3239:
3221:
3190:
3165:
3138:
3000:
2893:
2862:
2835:
2817:
2807:
2777:
2747:
2695:
2669:. 2006
2647:
2637:
2605:
2582:
2543:
2471:
2406:
2375:
2314:
2277:
2243:
2209:
2049:
1915:
1907:
1895:
1883:
1746:zenith
1730:
1720:
1710:
1700:
1696:plane.
1687:, the
1685:zenith
1681:
1667:
1657:zenith
1653:
1647:
1637:
1574:
1564:
1550:
1540:zenith
1536:
1530:
1520:
1488:zenith
1439:
1429:
1419:
1402:
1392:
1386:
1376:
1366:
1334:Cancer
1332:, and
1285:zenith
1050:tympan
846:, 1400
788:Helios
780:Hermes
776:Selene
630:Aleppo
290:Arabic
274:Arabic
260:astron
169:, the
157:given
100:Arabic
63:Tabriz
5408:Stars
5128:Works
5044:Meton
4989:Conon
4677:Qibla
4466:Globe
4273:Works
3461:(PDF)
3454:(PDF)
3182:[
3136:S2CID
2541:JSTOR
2302:(PDF)
2037:. In
1992:Notes
1750:nadir
1689:nadir
1111:label
1101:stars
1042:, or
1036:mater
959:]
934:work
844:Paris
720:Paris
545:Qibla
541:Salat
517:salat
483:Mecca
479:Qibla
342:Enoch
338:Idris
276:word
249:Greek
219:Mecca
215:qibla
75:Greek
4969:Bion
4219:17th
4183:16th
4122:15th
4061:14th
3960:13th
3889:12th
3808:11th
3677:10th
3343:ISBN
3325:ISBN
3304:ISBN
3286:ISBN
3268:ISBN
3262:)",
3237:ISBN
3219:ISBN
3188:ISBN
3163:ISBN
2998:ISBN
2891:ISBN
2873:2012
2860:ISBN
2833:ISBN
2815:OCLC
2805:ISBN
2775:ISBN
2745:ISBN
2741:1335
2693:ISBN
2645:OCLC
2635:ISBN
2603:ISBN
2580:ISBN
2469:ISBN
2404:ISBN
2373:ISSN
2312:ISBN
2275:ISBN
2241:ISBN
2207:ISBN
2047:ISBN
2020:2024
1893:OCLC
1881:OCLC
1771:rete
1763:rete
1748:and
1614:rete
1480:rete
1474:and
1461:rete
1340:and
1309:The
1298:and
1294:The
1283:The
1274:year
1272:and
1266:rete
1189:Yale
1183:The
1106:rule
1089:rete
1068:and
1048:. A
902:and
796:Zeus
792:Ares
736:1612
681:Jain
558:The
298:lit.
237:The
132:and
4335:Zij
3689:Ibn
3581:9th
3540:8th
3126:hdl
3116:doi
2924:doi
2801:460
2533:doi
2365:doi
1973:doi
1467:).
1270:day
1122:sky
1109:or
1060:of
760:by
657:by
649:or
612:of
580:fl.
69:An
5456::
3204:,
3134:.
3124:.
3112:10
3110:.
3106:.
3071:^
3042:.
2984:^
2956:.
2918:.
2914:.
2858:.
2854:.
2813:.
2803:.
2753:.
2743:.
2718:31
2716:.
2665:.
2643:.
2633:.
2631:72
2539:.
2529:56
2527:.
2519:;
2502:,
2496:,
2492:,
2442:.
2424::
2398:,
2371:,
2363:,
2353:24
2351:,
2255:^
2221:^
2187:^
2163:^
2124:^
2089:.
2069:.
2008:.
1979:.
1967:.
1913:OL
1905:OL
1663:).
1643:).
1546:).
1526:).
1499:.
1415::
1382:).
1328:,
1276:.
1248:.
1136:.
1117:.
1080:,
994:,
990:.
957:nl
691:.
543:,
535:,
531:,
527:,
513:AH
406:c.
404:–
399:c.
388:c.
377:c.
375:–
370:c.
352:.
296:,
292::
229:.
115::
111:;
102::
98:;
88:,
77::
5384::
4895:e
4888:t
4881:v
3497:e
3490:t
3483:v
3413:.
3392:.
3206:5
3142:.
3128::
3118::
3091:.
3087::
3065:.
3027:.
3006:.
2978:.
2943:.
2930:.
2926::
2920:8
2912:"
2875:.
2821:.
2701:.
2676:.
2651:.
2613:.
2611:.
2568:.
2547:.
2535::
2477:.
2452:.
2379:.
2367::
2359::
2320:.
2283:.
2249:.
2215:.
2173:.
2118:.
2055:.
2022:.
1975::
1969:4
1736:.
1726:.
1580:.
1570:.
1445:.
1435:.
1425:.
1408:.
1398:.
1372:.
1324:(
578:(
507:(
397:(
386:(
368:(
340:(
310:'
304:'
288:(
96:'
90:'
73:(
42:.
35:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
