333:
Caltech with the work far from complete, and encouraged the
Burbidges to join him in California. Both of the Burbidges had temporary positions created for them in 1956 at Caltech by Fowler for this purpose. The first complete draft was completed by the Burbidges in 1956 at Caltech, after adding extensive astronomical observations and experimental data to support the theory. Margaret Burbidge, the paper's
405:, for example, argued in 2008 that "Hoyle should have been awarded a Nobel Prize for this and other work". He also speculated that the reason why Hoyle ended up empty-handed was that "Fowler was believed to be the leader of the group." Burbidge insisted that this perception was false and pointed to Hoyle's earlier foundational papers from 1946 and 1954.
201:. However, it went beyond simply reviewing Hoyle's work, by incorporating observational measurements of elemental abundances published by the Burbidges, and Fowler's laboratory experiments on nuclear reactions. The result was a synthesis of theory and observation, which provided convincing evidence for Hoyle's hypothesis.
332:
to join them in
Cambridge, as the couple had recently published extensive work on stellar abundances that would be required to test Hoyle's hypothesis. The quartet collaborated on several projects whilst in Cambridge; Fowler and Hoyle began work on a review that would become BFH. Fowler returned to
356:
Some have presumed that Fowler was the leader of the group because the writing and submission for publication were done at
Caltech in 1956, but Geoffrey Burbidge has stated that this is a misconception. Fowler, though an accomplished nuclear physicist, was still learning Hoyle's theory in 1955 and
165:
in 1938 and 1939, respectively. Thus, it was known by Gamow and others that the abundances of hydrogen and helium were not perfectly static. According to their view, fusion in stars would produce small amounts of helium, adding only slightly to its abundance from the Big Bang. This stellar nuclear
307:
to Hoyle's 1954 paper compared to BFH as a combination of factors: the difficulty of digesting Hoyle's 1954 paper even for his BFH coauthors, and among astronomers generally; to Hoyle's having described its key equation only in words rather than writing it prominently in his paper; and to Hoyle's
282:
BFH comprehensively outlined and analyzed the nucleosynthesis of the elements heavier than iron by the capture within stars of free neutrons. It advanced much less the understanding of the synthesis of the very abundant elements from silicon to nickel. The paper did not include the
376:, arguably for his contributions to BFH. The Nobel committee stated: "Together with a number of co-workers, developed, during the 1950s, a complete theory of the formation of the chemical elements in the universe." Fowler's contributions to BFH included the nuclear physics of the
239:
indicate that the length of the lifetime of a star depends greatly on its initial mass, with the most massive stars being very short-lived, and less massive stars are longer-lived. The BFH paper argued that when a star dies, it will enrich the
357:
later stated that Hoyle was the intellectual leader. The
Burbidges also learnt Hoyle's theory during 1954–55 in Cambridge. "There was no leader in the group," G. Burbidge wrote in 2008, "we all made substantial contributions".
279:. The abundances of these heavy elements and their isotopes are roughly 100,000 times less than those of the major elements, which supported Hoyle's 1954 hypothesis of nuclear fusion within the burning shells of massive stars.
408:
Fowler, in his own Nobel lecture, wrote about Hoyle: "Fred Hoyle was the second great influence in my life. The grand concept of nucleosynthesis in stars was first definitely established by Hoyle in 1946."
81:
theory and supported it with astronomical and laboratory data. It identified nucleosynthesis processes that are responsible for producing the elements heavier than iron and explained their
923:"William A. Fowler – Nobel Lecture: Experimental and Theoretical Nuclear Astrophysics; the Quest for the Origin of the Elements". Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014. Web. 29 Mar 2018.
412:
Hoyle's biographer Mitton has speculated that Hoyle was left out by the Nobel committee because he had earlier spoken out against the injustice the Nobel committee overlooking
173:
Fred Hoyle offered a hypothesis for the origin of heavy elements. Beginning with a paper in 1946, and expanded upon in 1954, Hoyle proposed that all atomic nuclei heavier than
1018:
181:. Both theories agreed that some light nuclei (hydrogen, helium and a small amount of lithium) were not produced in stars, which became the now-accepted theory of
369:. By reviewing the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis and supporting it with observational evidence, BFH firmly established the theory among astronomers.
1113:
260:
122:
82:
432:
713:
158:
423:
to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the publication of BFH, where
Geoffrey Burbidge presented remarks on the writing of BFH.
236:
753:
263:
and the nuclear processes that must be responsible for them. The authors invoke nuclear physics processes, now known as the
204:
The theory predicted that the abundances of the elements would evolve over cosmological time, an idea which is testable by
541:
The
Internal Constitution of the Stars A. S. Eddington The Scientific Monthly Vol. 11, No. 4 (Oct., 1920), pp. 297–303
397:
deserved similar recognition for theoretical work on the topic, and contend that his unorthodox views concerning the
924:
1010:
761:
638:
505:
296:
205:
70:
1163:
1148:
1143:
1082:
897:
228:
182:
118:
1168:
1158:
1109:
292:
198:
167:
78:
61:
861:
244:
with 'heavy elements' (in this case all elements heavier than lithium), from which newer stars are formed.
373:
288:
284:
1153:
317:
217:
53:
1057:
709:"On Nuclear Reactions Occurring in Very Hot Stars. I. The Synthesis of Elements from Carbon to Nickel"
295:, each of which contribute to the elements from magnesium to nickel. Hoyle had already suggested that
1027:
870:
770:
722:
672:
610:
571:
514:
458:
420:
413:
366:
216:
can be used to infer the atmospheric composition of individual stars. Observations indicate a strong
213:
346:
241:
154:
150:
967:
840:
542:
350:
902:
959:
942:
832:
815:
402:
329:
325:
300:
256:
232:
49:
45:
1037:
951:
878:
824:
786:
778:
732:
680:
618:
579:
522:
466:
321:
126:
106:
35:
599:
H. A. Bethe; C. L. Critchfield (1938). "The
Formation of Deuterons by Proton Combination".
497:
985:
663:
601:
338:
248:
90:
337:, completed much of the work whilst pregnant. The final paper is 104 pages long, with 34
1032:
874:
774:
727:
676:
614:
575:
518:
462:
259:, the authors identified different stellar environments that could produce the observed
209:
194:
138:
110:
1137:
971:
844:
796:
1087:
955:
859:
Donald D. Clayton (2008). "Fred Hoyle, primary nucleosynthesis and radioactivity".
334:
252:
102:
925:
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1983/fowler-lecture.html
636:
882:
221:
1042:
782:
527:
471:
446:
445:
Burbidge, E. Margaret; Burbidge, G. R.; Fowler, William A.; Hoyle, F. (1957).
394:
342:
146:
57:
828:
584:
559:
384:
377:
304:
272:
268:
264:
162:
86:
963:
836:
685:
658:
622:
224:) and its age. More recently formed stars tend to have higher metallicity.
398:
130:
114:
255:
involved in how stars produce these heavy elements. By scrutinizing the
174:
65:
791:
227:
The early
Universe consisted of only the light elements formed during
153:
had shown the mechanism for stellar fusion of helium by deriving the
134:
1117:
546:
17:
737:
708:
1083:"Fred Hoyle: the scientist whose rudeness cost him a Nobel prize"
324:
to visit Hoyle in
Cambridge from 1954 to 1955. The pair invited
276:
178:
142:
496:
E. M. Burbidge; G. R. Burbidge; W. A. Fowler; F. Hoyle (1957).
44:, but it became known as BFH from the initials of its authors:
1110:"Nuclear Astrophysics: 1957–2007 – Beyond the first 50 years"
754:"Synthesis of the elements in stars: forty years of progress"
220:
between a star's initial heavy element content (known as the
38:
on the origin of the chemical elements. The paper's title is
105:
advocated a theory of the Universe in which almost all
401:
stopped him being awarded a share of the Nobel Prize.
170:. The elements from carbon upward remained a mystery.
898:"Celebrating Astronomer Margaret Burbidge, 1919–2020"
299:could be responsible for these in his 1954 paper.
1019:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
564:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
117:. Gamow's theory (which differs from present-day
813:Donald D. Clayton (2007). "Hoyle's Equation".
365:BFH drew scientific attention to the field of
85:. The paper became highly influential in both
1011:"The Synthesis of the Elements from Hydrogen"
935:
933:
197:summarising recent advances in the theory of
161:and Hans Bethe had independently derived the
8:
419:In 2007 a conference was held at Caltech in
940:G. Burbidge (2008). "Hoyle's Role in BFH".
560:"On the radiative equilibrium of the stars"
349:; despite this length, it does not have an
275:, to account for the elements heavier than
247:The BFH paper described key aspects of the
208:. Each element has a characteristic set of
141:could provide the energy required to power
101:Prior to the publication of the BFH paper,
60:. It was written from 1955 to 1956 at the
1041:
1031:
790:
736:
726:
702:
700:
698:
696:
684:
583:
526:
470:
27:1957 paper on stellar origins of elements
485:
491:
489:
129:had speculated that the conversion of
125:would remain mostly static over time.
7:
752:G. Wallerstein; et al. (1997).
498:"Synthesis of the Elements in Stars"
447:"Synthesis of the Elements in Stars"
372:Fowler was awarded half of the 1983
308:incomplete review of the BFH draft.
303:has attributed the lower number of
1114:California Institute of Technology
166:power did not require substantial
123:abundance of the chemical elements
41:Synthesis of the Elements in Stars
25:
1058:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1983"
986:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1983"
714:Astrophysical Journal Supplement
193:The BFH paper was ostensibly a
956:10.1126/science.319.5869.1484b
316:The Caltech nuclear physicist
113:, were synthesized during the
1:
121:theory) would imply that the
97:Nucleosynthesis prior to 1957
659:"Energy Production in Stars"
1116:. July 2007. Archived from
1081:R. McKie (2 October 2010).
896:Skuse, Ben (6 April 2020).
883:10.1016/j.newar.2008.05.007
261:isotopic abundance patterns
237:Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
1185:
783:10.1103/RevModPhys.69.995
762:Reviews of Modern Physics
639:Physikalische Zeitschrift
558:Eddington, A. S. (1916).
528:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547
506:Reviews of Modern Physics
472:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547
451:Reviews of Modern Physics
297:supernova nucleosynthesis
206:astronomical spectroscopy
71:Reviews of Modern Physics
433:Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper
229:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
183:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
119:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
1043:10.1093/mnras/106.5.343
829:10.1126/science.1151167
293:silicon-burning process
199:stellar nucleosynthesis
168:stellar nucleosynthesis
79:stellar nucleosynthesis
77:The BFH paper reviewed
62:University of Cambridge
686:10.1103/PhysRev.55.434
623:10.1103/PhysRev.54.248
393:Some have argued that
374:Nobel Prize in Physics
289:oxygen-burning process
285:carbon-burning process
151:Charles L. Critchfield
862:New Astronomy Reviews
585:10.1093/mnras/77.1.16
318:William Alfred Fowler
802:on 9 September 2011.
657:H. A. Bethe (1939).
421:Pasadena, California
416:for the 1974 prize.
414:Jocelyn Bell Burnell
367:nuclear astrophysics
312:Writing of the paper
218:negative correlation
214:stellar spectroscopy
189:Physics in the paper
177:were synthesized in
157:(pp-chain) in 1938.
68:, then published in
1033:1946MNRAS.106..343H
903:Sky & Telescope
875:2008NewAR..52..360C
823:(5858): 1876–1877.
775:1997RvMP...69..995W
728:1954ApJS....1..121H
677:1939PhRv...55..434B
615:1938PhRv...54..248B
576:1916MNRAS..77...16E
519:1957RvMP...29..547B
463:1957RvMP...29..547B
242:interstellar medium
159:Carl von Weizsäcker
155:proton-proton chain
83:relative abundances
927:(see Biographical)
857:See footnote 1 in
109:, or equivalently
1009:F. Hoyle (1946).
869:(7–10): 360–363.
707:F. Hoyle (1954).
403:Geoffrey Burbidge
330:Geoffrey Burbidge
326:Margaret Burbidge
301:Donald D. Clayton
257:table of nuclides
233:Stellar structure
185:of H, He and Li.
107:chemical elements
54:William A. Fowler
50:Geoffrey Burbidge
46:Margaret Burbidge
16:(Redirected from
1176:
1129:
1128:
1126:
1125:
1106:
1100:
1099:
1097:
1095:
1078:
1072:
1071:
1069:
1068:
1054:
1048:
1047:
1045:
1035:
1015:
1006:
1000:
999:
997:
996:
982:
976:
975:
937:
928:
921:
915:
914:
912:
910:
893:
887:
886:
855:
849:
848:
810:
804:
803:
801:
795:. Archived from
794:
758:
749:
743:
742:
740:
730:
704:
691:
690:
688:
654:
648:
647:
633:
627:
626:
596:
590:
589:
587:
555:
549:
539:
533:
532:
530:
502:
493:
476:
474:
322:sabbatical leave
127:Arthur Eddington
36:scientific paper
21:
1184:
1183:
1179:
1178:
1177:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1164:1957 in science
1149:Nucleosynthesis
1144:Nuclear physics
1134:
1133:
1132:
1123:
1121:
1108:
1107:
1103:
1093:
1091:
1080:
1079:
1075:
1066:
1064:
1056:
1055:
1051:
1013:
1008:
1007:
1003:
994:
992:
984:
983:
979:
939:
938:
931:
922:
918:
908:
906:
895:
894:
890:
858:
856:
852:
812:
811:
807:
799:
769:(4): 995–1084.
756:
751:
750:
746:
706:
705:
694:
664:Physical Review
656:
655:
651:
635:
634:
630:
602:Physical Review
598:
597:
593:
557:
556:
552:
540:
536:
500:
495:
494:
487:
483:
444:
441:
439:Further reading
429:
363:
345:plates, and 22
314:
249:nuclear physics
191:
99:
91:nuclear physics
34:was a landmark
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1182:
1180:
1172:
1171:
1169:Physics papers
1166:
1161:
1159:1957 documents
1156:
1151:
1146:
1136:
1135:
1131:
1130:
1101:
1073:
1062:NobelPrize.org
1049:
1001:
990:NobelPrize.org
977:
950:(5869): 1484.
929:
916:
888:
850:
805:
744:
738:10.1086/190005
692:
649:
628:
591:
550:
534:
484:
482:
479:
478:
477:
457:(4): 547–650.
440:
437:
436:
435:
428:
425:
362:
359:
313:
310:
210:spectral lines
195:review article
190:
187:
139:nuclear fusion
98:
95:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1181:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1141:
1139:
1120:on 2011-05-07
1119:
1115:
1111:
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1090:
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1077:
1074:
1063:
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953:
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934:
930:
926:
920:
917:
905:
904:
899:
892:
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876:
872:
868:
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863:
854:
851:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
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818:
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809:
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793:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
763:
755:
748:
745:
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734:
729:
724:
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710:
703:
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132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
111:atomic nuclei
108:
104:
96:
94:
92:
88:
84:
80:
75:
73:
72:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
42:
37:
33:
19:
1154:Astrophysics
1122:. Retrieved
1118:the original
1104:
1092:. Retrieved
1088:The Guardian
1086:
1076:
1065:. Retrieved
1061:
1052:
1023:
1017:
1004:
993:. Retrieved
989:
980:
947:
941:
919:
907:. Retrieved
901:
891:
866:
860:
853:
820:
814:
808:
797:the original
766:
760:
747:
718:
712:
668:
662:
652:
643:
637:
631:
606:
600:
594:
567:
563:
553:
537:
510:
504:
454:
450:
418:
411:
407:
392:
385:
378:
371:
364:
355:
343:photographic
335:first author
315:
281:
253:astrophysics
246:
226:
203:
192:
172:
145:in 1920.
103:George Gamow
100:
76:
69:
40:
39:
31:
29:
361:Recognition
222:metallicity
1138:Categories
1124:2011-04-14
1067:2023-12-07
1026:(5): 343.
995:2023-12-06
792:2152/61093
671:(5): 434.
609:(4): 248.
513:(4): 547.
481:References
395:Fred Hoyle
147:Hans Bethe
58:Fred Hoyle
972:206579529
845:118423007
570:: 16–35.
320:used his
305:citations
273:s-process
269:r-process
265:p-process
163:CNO cycle
87:astronomy
74:in 1957.
32:BFH paper
964:18339922
837:18096793
427:See also
399:Big Bang
388:-process
383:and the
381:-process
351:abstract
291:and the
235:and the
131:hydrogen
115:Big Bang
1094:3 March
1028:Bibcode
943:Science
909:6 April
871:Bibcode
816:Science
771:Bibcode
723:Bibcode
721:: 121.
673:Bibcode
611:Bibcode
572:Bibcode
515:Bibcode
459:Bibcode
175:lithium
66:Caltech
970:
962:
843:
835:
646:: 633.
545:
347:tables
287:, the
271:, and
135:helium
56:, and
1014:(PDF)
968:S2CID
841:S2CID
800:(PDF)
757:(PDF)
543:JSTOR
501:(PDF)
339:plots
212:, so
179:stars
143:stars
133:into
1096:2013
960:PMID
911:2020
833:PMID
547:6491
341:, 4
328:and
277:iron
251:and
149:and
89:and
64:and
30:The
18:B2FH
1038:doi
1024:106
952:doi
948:319
879:doi
825:doi
821:318
787:hdl
779:doi
733:doi
681:doi
619:doi
580:doi
523:doi
467:doi
390:.
137:by
1140::
1112:.
1085:.
1060:.
1036:.
1022:.
1016:.
988:.
966:.
958:.
946:.
932:^
900:.
877:.
867:32
865:.
839:.
831:.
819:.
785:.
777:.
767:69
765:.
759:.
731:.
717:.
711:.
695:^
679:.
669:55
667:.
661:.
644:39
642:.
617:.
607:54
605:.
578:.
568:77
566:.
562:.
521:.
511:29
509:.
503:.
488:^
465:.
455:29
453:.
449:.
353:.
267:,
231:.
93:.
52:,
48:,
1127:.
1098:.
1070:.
1046:.
1040::
1030::
998:.
974:.
954::
913:.
885:.
881::
873::
847:.
827::
789::
781::
773::
741:.
735::
725::
719:1
689:.
683::
675::
625:.
621::
613::
588:.
582::
574::
531:.
525::
517::
475:.
469::
461::
386:r
379:s
20:)
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