Bacillus thuringiensis - Knowledge (XXG)

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amount of maize from the U.S., and due to formal and informal seed networks among rural farmers, many potential routes are available for transgenic maize to enter into food and feed webs. One study found small-scale (about 1%) introduction of transgenic sequences in sampled fields in Mexico; it did not find evidence for or against this introduced genetic material being inherited by the next generation of plants. That study was immediately criticized, with the reviewer writing, "Genetically, any given plant should be either non-transgenic or transgenic, therefore for leaf tissue of a single transgenic plant, a GMO level close to 100% is expected. In their study, the authors chose to classify leaf samples as transgenic despite GMO levels of about 0.1%. We contend that results such as these are incorrectly interpreted as positive and are more likely to be indicative of contamination in the laboratory."

1602:, which have in some cases "completely eroded all benefits from Bt cotton cultivation". The increase in sucking pests depended on local temperature and rainfall conditions and increased in half the villages studied. The increase in insecticide use for the control of these secondary insects was far smaller than the reduction in total insecticide use due to Bt cotton adoption. Another study in five provinces in China found the reduction in pesticide use in Bt cotton cultivars is significantly lower than that reported in research elsewhere, consistent with the hypothesis suggested by recent studies that more pesticide sprayings are needed over time to control emerging secondary pests, such as aphids, spider mites, and lygus bugs. 1439:) cells of the targeted pests, resulting in their rupture. While the target pests are exposed to the toxins primarily through leaf and stalk material, Cry proteins are also expressed in other parts of the plant, including trace amounts in maize kernels which are ultimately consumed by both humans and animals. However, other organisms (including humans, other animals and non-targeted insects) that lack the appropriate receptors in their gut cannot be affected by the 66: 431: 3530: 1578:. This was the first instance of Bt resistance confirmed by Monsanto anywhere in the world. Monsanto responded by introducing a second-generation cotton with multiple Bt proteins, which was rapidly adopted. Bollworm resistance to first-generation Bt cotton was also identified in Australia, China, Spain, and the United States. Additionally, resistance to Bt was documented in field population of 44: 1395: 1265: 1812: 1713:

crops have been widely planted since the late 1990s, but CCD did not appear until 2006. In addition, CCD has been reported in countries that do not allow GM crops to be planted, such as Switzerland. German researchers have noted in one study a possible correlation between exposure to Bt pollen and compromised immunity to

1212:; however, the manuals for these products do contain many environmental and human health warnings, and a 2012 European regulatory peer review of five approved strains found, while data exist to support some claims of low toxicity to humans and the environment, the data are insufficient to justify many of these claims. 1633:. The paper produced a public uproar and demonstrations against Bt maize; however by 2001 several follow-up studies coordinated by the USDA had asserted that "the most common types of Bt maize pollen are not toxic to monarch larvae in concentrations the insects would encounter in the fields." Similarly, 1118:

found in the insect gut, which liberate the toxin from the crystal. The Cry toxin is then inserted into the insect gut cell membrane, paralyzing the digestive tract and forming a pore. The insect stops eating and starves to death; live Bt bacteria may also colonize the insect, which can contribute to

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found no evidence that pollen from Bt crops is adversely affecting bees. According to the USDA, "Genetically modified (GM) crops, most commonly Bt corn, have been offered up as the cause of CCD. But there is no correlation between where GM crops are planted and the pattern of CCD incidents. Also, GM

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Dorsch JA, Candas M, Griko NB, Maaty WS, Midboe EG, Vadlamudi RK, Bulla LA (September 2002). "Cry1A toxins of Bacillus thuringiensis bind specifically to a region adjacent to the membrane-proximal extracellular domain of BT-R(1) in Manduca sexta: involvement of a cadherin in the entomopathogenicity

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A subsequent large-scale study in 2005 failed to find any evidence of genetic mixing in Oaxaca. A 2007 study found the "transgenic proteins expressed in maize were found in two (0.96%) of 208 samples from farmers' fields, located in two (8%) of 25 sampled communities." Mexico imports a substantial

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to improve crystal size and increase pesticidal activity, or broaden the host range of Bt and obtain more effective formulations. Each new strain is given a unique number and registered with the U.S. EPA and allowances may be given for genetic modification depending on "its parental strains, the

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The toxic nature of Bt proteins has an adverse impact on many major crop pests, but some ecological risk assessments has been conducted to ensure safety of beneficial non-target organisms that may come into contact with the toxins. Toxicity for the monarch butterfly, has been shown to not reach

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Animal models have been used to assess human health risk from consumption of products containing Cry proteins. The United States Environmental Protection Agency recognizes mouse acute oral feeding studies where doses as high as 5,000 mg/kg body weight resulted in

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is no longer the sole source of pesticidal proteins. The Bacterial Pesticidal Protein Resource Center (BPPRC) provides information on the rapidly expanding field of pesticidal proteins for academics, regulators, and research and development personnel.

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Guinebretière MH, Auger S, Galleron N, Contzen M, De Sarrau B, De Buyser ML, et al. (January 2013). "Bacillus cytotoxicus sp. nov. is a novel thermotolerant species of the Bacillus cereus Group occasionally associated with food poisoning".

3528:, Adams LF, Thomas MD, Sloma AP, Widner WR, "Formation of and methods for the production of large bacillus thuringiensis crystals with increased pesticidal activity", issued 16 October 2001, assigned to Valent BioSciences LLC. 4501:

Helassa N, Quiquampoix H, Staunton S (2013). "Structure, Biological Activity and Environmental Fate of Insecticidal Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) Cry Proteins of Bacterial and Genetically Modified Plant Origin". In Xu J, Sparks D (eds.).

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can silence the Cry5Ba toxin expression when outside the host by binding to the RBS site of the Cry5Ba toxin transcript to avoid nematode behavioral defenses. The silencing results in an increase of the bacteria ingestion by

959:) lacking the 35kb pathogenicity island of pXO2 itself, and in fact having no identifiable virulence factors. (The pXO2 family does not have replacement of the pathogenicity island, instead simply lacking that part of pXO2.) 1520:

Concerns over possible environmental impact from accumulation of Bt toxins from plant tissues, pollen dispersal, and direct secretion from roots have been investigated. Bt toxins may persist in soil for over 200 days, with

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proposed pesticide use pattern, and the manner and extent to which the organism has been genetically modified". Formulations of Bt that are approved for organic farming in the US are listed at the website of the

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Fearing PL, Brown D, Vlachos D, Meghji M, Privalle L (June 1997). "Quantitative analysis of CryIA (b) expression in Bt maize plants, tissues, and silage and stability of expression over successive generations".

1735:, the common name for which is thuringiensin. A consensus document produced by the OECD says: "Beta-exotoxins are known to be toxic to humans and almost all other forms of life and its presence is prohibited in 545:) cells of the targeted pests, resulting in their rupture. Other organisms (including humans, other animals and non-targeted insects) that lack the appropriate receptors in their gut cannot be affected by the 5776:

Serratos-Hernández J, Gómez-Olivares J, Salinas-Arreortua N, Buendía-Rodríguez E, Islas-Gutiérrez F, De-Ita A (2007). "Transgenic proteins in maize in the Soil Conservation area of Federal District, Mexico".

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New strains of Bt are developed and introduced over time as insects develop resistance to Bt, or the desire occurs to force mutations to modify organism characteristics, or to use homologous recombinant

1508:. The instability of the proteins in digestive fluids is an additional indication that Cry proteins are unlikely to be allergenic, since most known food allergens resist degradation and are ultimately 1529:

by organic matter and persists longer. Some studies, in contrast, claim that the toxins do not persist in the soil. Bt toxins are less likely to accumulate in bodies of water, but pollen shed or

3647: 1709: 4046:"Application for authorization to place on the market MON 87701 × MON 89788 soybean in the European Union, according to Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 on genetically modified food and feed" 482:, as well on leaf surfaces, aquatic environments, animal feces, insect-rich environments, flour mills and grain-storage facilities. It has also been observed to parasitize moths such as 6760: 4335:

Randhawa GJ, Singh M, Grover M (February 2011). "Bioinformatic analysis for allergenicity assessment of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry proteins expressed in insect-resistant food crops".

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yield - was not achieved, with no growth advantage despite that reduction in herbivore damage; one of their major pests still preys upon the transgenic trees; and besides that, their

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Several studies have documented surges in "sucking pests" (which are not affected by Bt toxins) within a few years of adoption of Bt cotton. In China, the main problem has been with

6834: 1261:. The Bt tobacco was never commercialized; tobacco plants are used to test genetic modifications since they are easy to manipulate genetically and are not part of the food supply. 4045: 3463:

Huang F, Buschman LL, Higgins RA (2001). "Larval feeding behavior of Dipel-resistant and susceptible Ostrinia nubilalis on diet containing Bacillus thuringiensis (Dipel EStm)".

1460:, further suggesting that Bt toxins are not toxic to mammals. The results of toxicology studies are further strengthened by the lack of observed toxicity from decades of use of 3403:"Conclusion on the peer review of the pesticide risk assessment of the active substance Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (strains ABTS 351, PB 54, SA 11, SA 12, EG 2348)" 1609:

and aphids although a survey of small Indian farms between 2002 and 2008 concluded Bt cotton adoption has led to higher yields and lower pesticide use, decreasing over time.

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Studies have been conducted to evaluate the fate of Bt toxins that are ingested in foods. Bt toxin proteins have been shown to digest within minutes of exposure to simulated

2617: 6077: 1161:). Vip proteins do not share sequence homology with Cry proteins, in general do not compete for the same receptors, and some kill different insects than do Cry proteins. 6510: 2578: 6734: 5157: 3850: 926: 5632:

Kaplinsky N, Braun D, Lisch D, Hay A, Hake S, Freeling M (April 2002). "Biodiversity (Communications arising): maize transgene results in Mexico are artefacts".

4221: 6773: 6526: 1114:. When insects ingest toxin crystals, their alkaline digestive tracts denature the insoluble crystals, making them soluble and thus amenable to being cut with 2524:(Btk) Excerpts from a Forestry Technical Manual produced by Valent BioSciences, manufacturers of Foray® and DiPel®, two formulations of commercially produced 901:, its absence greatly reducing virulence and toxicity. Some strains do naturally complete their life cycle with an inactivated plcR. It is half of a two-gene 1542:

dangerous levels. Most soil-dwelling organisms, potentially exposed to Bt toxins through root exudates, are probably not impacted by the growth of Bt crops.

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Cox PD (1975). "The influence of photoperiod on the life-cycles of Ephestia calidella (Guenee) and Ephestia figulilella Gregson (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae)".

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and that "the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper." A significant controversy happened over the paper and

1298:, making it the first human-modified pesticide-producing crop to be approved in the US, though many plants produce pesticides naturally, including tobacco, 5060:

Wang Z, Lin H, Huang J, Hu R, Rozelle S, Pray C (2009). "Bt Cotton in China: Are Secondary Insect Infestations Offsetting the Benefits in Farmer Fields?".

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proteins that are not hemolytic, but capable of preferentially killing cancer cells. As of January 2013, parasporins comprise six subfamilies: PS1 to PS6.

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Palma L, Hernández-Rodríguez CS, Maeztu M, Hernández-Martínez P, Ruiz de Escudero I, Escriche B, Muñoz D, Van Rie J, Ferré J, Caballero P (October 2012).

4602: 3624: 6560: 4716:(Bt) toxin released from root exudates and biomass of Bt corn has no apparent effect on earthworms, nematodes, protozoa, bacteria, and fungi in soil" 6708: 1708:

hives all over North America. Initial speculation on possible causes included new parasites, pesticide use, and the use of Bt transgenic crops. The

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Zhao JH, Ho P, Azadi H (February 2011). "Benefits of Bt cotton counterbalanced by secondary pests? Perceptions of ecological change in China".

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Roh JY, Choi JY, Li MS, Jin BR, Je YH (April 2007). "Bacillus thuringiensis as a specific, safe, and effective tool for insect pest control".

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was approved, which killed the European corn borer and related species; subsequent Bt genes were introduced that killed corn rootworm larvae.

4519: 3989: 3749: 3641: 3447: 2365: 2328: 2248: 1977: 1890: 5187: 3509:, Gaertner FH, Soares GC, Payne J, "Novel Bacillus thuringiensis isolate", issued 20 March 1990, assigned to Mycogen Corp. 2677:"Biochemical genetics of the bacterial insect-control agent Bacillus thuringiensis: basic principles and prospects for genetic engineering" 4420:

Betz FS, Hammond BG, Fuchs RL (October 2000). "Safety and advantages of Bacillus thuringiensis-protected plants to control insect pests".

3869:"Safety Assessment of NewLeaf ®Y Potatoes Protected Against Colorado Potato Beetle and Infection by Potato Virus Y Causing Rugose Mosaic" 3705:

Vaeck M, Reynaerts A, Höfte H, Jansens S, de Beuckeleer M, Dean C, et al. (1987). "Transgenic plants protected from insect attack".

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Tabashnik BE, Van Rensburg JB, Carrière Y (December 2009). "Field-evolved insect resistance to Bt crops: definition, theory, and data".

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de Maagd RA, Bravo A, Crickmore N (April 2001). "How Bacillus thuringiensis has evolved specific toxins to colonize the insect world".

6085: 3157:"Vip3A, a novel Bacillus thuringiensis vegetative insecticidal protein with a wide spectrum of activities against lepidopteran insects" 3829: 1825: 996: 803: 524: 279: 3048:"Small RNA-mediated Cry toxin silencing allows Bacillus thuringiensis to evade Caenorhabditis elegans avoidance behavioral defenses" 1678: 6108:"Consensus Document on Safety Information on Transgenic Plants Expressing Bacillus Thuringiensis - Derived Insect Control Proteins" 2284:

Zakharyan RA, Israelyan YK, Agabalyan AS, Tatevosyan PE, Akopyan S, Afrikyan EK (1979). "Plasmid DNA from Bacillus thuringiensis".

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prompted the need for extensive evaluation of their safety for use in foods and potential unintended impacts on the environment.

1225:(OMRI) and several university extension websites offer advice on how to use Bt spore or protein preparations in organic farming. 4106:

Stange M, Barrett RD, Hendry AP (February 2021). "The importance of genomic variation for biodiversity, ecosystems and people".

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Tarnishing Silver Bullets: Bt Technology Adoption, Bounded Rationality and the Outbreak of Secondary Pest Infestations in China

3905: 1295: 795: 301: 5814:"Transgenes in Mexican maize: molecular evidence and methodological considerations for GMO detection in landrace populations" 5683: 1525:

between 1.6 and 22 days. Much of the toxin is initially degraded rapidly by microorganisms in the environment, while some is

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have been used to control insect pests since the 1920s and are often applied as liquid sprays. They are now used as specific

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Tabashnik BE, Gassmann AJ, Crowder DW, Carriére Y (February 2008). "Insect resistance to Bt crops: evidence versus theory".

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Piñeyro-Nelson A, Van Heerwaarden J, Perales HR, Serratos-Hernández JA, Rangel A, Hufford MB, et al. (February 2009).

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Batista R, Nunes B, Carmo M, Cardoso C, José HS, de Almeida AB, Manique A, Bento L, Ricardo CP, Oliveira MM (August 2005).

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The Bt genes engineered into crops and approved for release include, singly and stacked: Cry1A.105, CryIAb, CryIF, Cry2Ab,

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OECD Environment, Health and Safety Publications, Series on Harmonisation of Regulatory Oversight in Biotechnology No. 42

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Sears MK, Hellmich RL, Stanley-Horn DE, Oberhauser KS, Pleasants JM, Mattila HR, Siegfried BD, Dively GP (October 2001).

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Quist D, Chapela IH (November 2001). "Transgenic DNA introgressed into traditional maize landraces in Oaxaca, Mexico".

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Introduction of a new protein raised concerns regarding the potential for allergic responses in sensitive individuals.

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has no other species characteristics. Plasmid exchange has been observed both naturally and experimentally both within

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Baxter SW, Badenes-Pérez FR, Morrison A, Vogel H, Crickmore N, Kain W, Wang P, Heckel DG, Jiggins CD (October 2011).

6536: 6647: 5518: 3378: 3354: 2460: 1320: 1242: 516: 512: 6778: 5125:"Erratum to: Benefits of Bt cotton counterbalanced by secondary pests? Perceptions of ecological change in China" 1839: 1719:." The actual cause of CCD was unknown in 2007, and scientists believe it may have multiple exacerbating causes. 1111: 65: 3879: 1151:

In 1996 another class of insecticidal proteins in Bt was discovered: the vegetative insecticidal proteins (Vip;

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death. Death occurs within a few hours or weeks. The midgut bacteria of susceptible larvae may be required for

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Castagnola AS, Jurat-Fuentes JL (March 2012). "Bt Crops: Past and Future. Chapter 15". In Sansinenea E (ed.).

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serves as an important reservoir of Cry toxins for production of biological insecticides and insect-resistant

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Lemaux PG (2008). "Genetically Engineered Plants and Foods: A Scientist's Analysis of the Issues (Part I)".

1834: 1715: 894: 716: 617: 6568: 5010:"Seven-year glitch: Cornell warns that Chinese GM cotton farmers are losing money due to 'secondary' pests" 1629:

The most publicised problem associated with Bt crops is the claim that pollen from Bt maize could kill the

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In India, by 2014, more than seven million cotton farmers, occupying twenty-six million acres, had adopted

6829: 6609: 6161:"A structure-based nomenclature for Bacillus thuringiensis and other bacteria-derived pesticidal proteins" 5443:

Hellmich RL, Siegfried BD, Sears MK, Stanley-Horn DE, Daniels MJ, Mattila HR, et al. (October 2001).

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Schnepf E, Crickmore N, Van Rie J, Lereclus D, Baum J, Feitelson J, Zeigler DR, Dean DH (September 1998).

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is not a chromosomal gene in most strains). If these plasmids are lost it becomes indistinguishable from

4603:"Environmental fate and effects of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) proteins from transgenic crops: a review" 4088: 4006: 3666:"Structural and functional analysis of a cloned delta endotoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis berliner 1715" 3264: 1844: 1645: 1639: 1234: 150: 952: 933: 5017: 3563: 1314:. This was the 'New Leaf' potato, and it was removed from the market in 2001 due to lack of interest. 1164:

In 2000, a novel subgroup of Cry protein, designated parasporin, was discovered from non-insecticidal

6788: 6682: 6577:"Economics literature about the impacts of genetically engineered (GE) crops in developing economies" 5722: 5641: 5590: 5456: 5306: 4953: 4785: 4664: 3714: 3168: 3111: 2992: 2843: 1563: 1361:-resistance gene for the Brazilian market, which completed the Brazilian regulatory process in 2010. 941: 463: 6351:"Mode of action of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry and Cyt toxins and their potential for insect control" 5958:. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. 2008-05-29. Archived from 4570:"No Detection of Cry1Ac Protein in Soil After Multiple Years of Transgenic Bt Cotton (Bollgard) Use" 4455:

Astwood JD, Leach JN, Fuchs RL (October 1996). "Stability of food allergens to digestion in vitro".

2934: 2645: 2515: 2451:, Tourasse NJ, Økstad OA (2009). "What sets Bacillus anthracis apart from other Bacillus species?". 1533:

may deposit them in an aquatic ecosystem. Fish species are not susceptible to Bt toxins if exposed.

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Stone GD (2011). "Field versus Farm in Warangal: Bt Cotton, Higher Yields, and Larger Questions".

3757: 6588: 6460: 6243: 6190: 6022: 5933: 5740: 5665: 5614: 5474: 5425: 5378: 5332: 5112: 4979: 4942:"Mirid bug outbreaks in multiple crops correlated with wide-scale adoption of Bt cotton in China" 4846: 4480: 4196: 4135: 4095:. International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA). 27 August 2010. 3730: 3488: 3010: 2737: 2407: 2211: 700: 654: 60: 3436:"Microbial Pest Control Agents: Use Patterns, Registration Requirements, and Mammalian Toxicity" 6739: 4215:"Bt Plant-Incorporated Protectants October 15, 2001 Biopesticides Registration Action Document" 3547:, Adams LF, "Production of bacillus thuringiensis integrants", published 1999-09-21 2756: 1908:

Isolation of Entomopathogenic Gram Positive Spore Forming Bacteria Effective Against Coleoptera

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larvae growth due to their detrimental pest activities in Africa and Southern Europe. However,

940:-common family with members of ≈330kb length. They differ from pXO1 by replacement of the pXO1 6824: 6796: 6669: 6452: 6423: 6380: 6337: 6298: 6235: 6182: 6040: 5925: 5884: 5843: 5794: 5758: 5657: 5606: 5541:"A proposed new biological standard for bioassay of bacterial insecticides vs. Spodoptera spp" 5492: 5417: 5370: 5324: 5104: 4971: 4922: 4838: 4803: 4692: 4633: 4515: 4472: 4437: 4402: 4352: 4317: 4266: 4127: 4024: 3985: 3802: 3687: 3637: 3480: 3443: 3435: 3336: 3276: 3245: 3196: 3137: 3077: 3028: 2871: 2809: 2757:"A review of recent development of Bacillus thuringiensis ICP genetically engineered microbes" 2698: 2472: 2399: 2361: 2324: 2320: 2313: 2293: 2244: 2111: 2010: 1983: 1973: 1886: 1630: 1238: 1205: 898: 710: 6801: 6137:

Structural basis of transcription inhibition by the nucleoside-analog inhibitor thuringiensin

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Höfte H, de Greve H, Seurinck J, Jansens S, Mahillon J, Ampe C, et al. (December 1986).

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have suggested that a mutation in the membrane transporter ABCC2 can confer resistance to Bt

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Concerns over the safety of consumption of genetically modified plant materials that contain

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leaves (bottom dish) protect it from extensive damage caused to unprotected peanut leaves by

956: 6444: 6413: 6405: 6370: 6362: 6329: 6288: 6278: 6225: 6172: 6141: 6014: 5915: 5874: 5833: 5825: 5786: 5748: 5730: 5711:"Absence of detectable transgenes in local landraces of maize in Oaxaca, Mexico (2003-2004)" 5649: 5598: 5552: 5482: 5464: 5409: 5362: 5314: 5249: 5240:

Krishna VV, Qaim M (2012). "Bt cotton and sustainability of pesticide reductions in India".

5222: 5136: 5096: 5069: 5042: 4961: 4912: 4904: 4873: 4830: 4793: 4730: 4682: 4672: 4625: 4617: 4581: 4548: 4507: 4464: 4429: 4394: 4386: 4344: 4307: 4297: 4258: 4188: 4119: 3792: 3784: 3722: 3677: 3472: 3414: 3328: 3235: 3227: 3216:"Parasporin, a human leukemic cell-recognizing parasporal protein of Bacillus thuringiensis" 3186: 3176: 3127: 3119: 3067: 3059: 3018: 3000: 2861: 2851: 2799: 2791: 2729: 2688: 2464: 2391: 2353: 2103: 1965: 1938: 1911: 1854: 1674: 1579: 1489: 1013: 1006: 992: 520: 2491: 2028: 988:

but so far not found elsewhere – including in other members of the species group – are the

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paper published in 2002 claimed that the previous paper's conclusion was the result of an

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to enable adaptation to particular environmental niches has occurred or is even possible.

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Pathogens of invertebrates: application in biological control and transmission mechanisms

1333:, Cry34Ab1, Cry35Ab1, mCry3A, and VIP, and the engineered crops include corn and cotton. 6159:

Crickmore N, Berry C, Panneerselvam S, Mishra R, Connor TR, Bonning BC (November 2021).

5726: 5645: 5594: 5460: 5310: 4957: 4877: 4789: 4668: 4025:"Seeds of Doubt: An activist's controversial crusade against genetically modified crops" 3821: 3718: 3172: 3115: 2996: 2847: 2468: 1665:

in 2001 reported Bt-containing maize genes were found in maize in its center of origin,

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have been addressed in extensive dietary risk assessment studies. As a toxic mechanism,

6418: 6393: 6375: 6350: 6293: 6262: 6230: 6209: 5986: 5838: 5813: 5753: 5710: 4917: 4892: 4312: 4285: 4029: 3959: 3797: 3772: 3682: 3665: 3132: 3099: 3072: 3047: 3023: 2980: 1768: 1744: 1583: 1473: 1388: 915: 837: 595: 430: 6765: 6333: 5073: 4734: 4247:"Toxicological considerations for protein components of biological pesticide products" 4153: 4074: 3100:"Vip3C, a novel class of vegetative insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis" 2903: 2866: 2831: 2107: 2076: 1969: 1148:

is then reduced after ingestion, resulting in Cry5Ba toxin production and host death.

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decomposes differently due to the transgenic toxins, resulting in alterations to the

1044: 6026: 5445:"Monarch larvae sensitivity to Bacillus thuringiensis- purified proteins and pollen" 5429: 4484: 4200: 3492: 2741: 1771:. It is unknown how common this is, because these infections are always taken to be 1379:. The results have not been entirely positive however: The intended result - better 6674: 6464: 5618: 5336: 5226: 5116: 4983: 3734: 3631: 3584: 3294: 2795: 2693: 2676: 2411: 1505: 1311: 1299: 1192:

under trade names such as DiPel and Thuricide. Because of their specificity, these

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Ortiz-García S, Ezcurra E, Schoel B, Acevedo F, Soberón J, Snow AA (August 2005).

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Beegle CC, Yamamoto T (1992). "Invitation Paper (C.p. Alexander Fund): History Of

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Tabshnik BE (January 1994). "Evolution of Resistance to Bacillus Thuringiensis".

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Mizuki E, Park YS, Saitoh H, Yamashita S, Akao T, Higuchi K, Ohba M (July 2000).

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using purified Bt protein resulted in no detectable production of toxin-specific

1157: 6721: 6641: 5560: 4908: 4537:"Cry1Ab Protein Does Not Persist in Soil After 3 Years of Sustained Bt Corn Use" 4511: 2357: 1530: 1416: 1384: 1189: 1075: 1063: 1056: 989: 978: 977:

There is still insufficient information to determine whether chromosome-plasmid

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