Bison hunting - Knowledge (XXG)

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likely to survive harsh winters. Additionally, bison grazing helps to cultivate the prairie, making it ripe for hosting a diverse range of plants. Cattle, on the other hand, eat through vegetation and limit the ecosystem's ability to support a diverse range of species. Agricultural and residential development of the prairie is estimated to have reduced the prairie to 0.1% of its former area. The plains region has lost nearly one-third of its prime topsoil since the onset of the buffalo slaughter. Cattle are also causing water to be pillaged at rates that are depleting many aquifers of their resources. Research also suggests that the absence of native grasses leads to topsoil erosion—a main contributor to the

436:, where buffalo herds were driven over a cliff, reveals some techniques, which may or may not have been widely used. The method involves skinning down the back to get at the tender meat just beneath the surface, the area known as the "hatched area". After the removal of the hatched area, the front legs are cut off as well as the shoulder blades. Doing so exposes the hump meat (in the Wood Bison), as well as the meat of the ribs and the Bison's inner organs. After everything was exposed, the spine was then severed and the pelvis and hind legs were removed. Finally, the neck and head were removed as one. This allowed for the tough meat to be dried and made into 173: 313: 1555:

Montana's DOL officials, who slaughtered 1631 bison in the winter of 2007-2008 in a food search away from Yellowstone National Park. Founder Mike Mease commented in regards to DOL officials: "It's disheartening what they're doing to buffalo. It's marked with prejudice that exists from way back. I think the whole problem with white society is there's this fear of anything wild. They're so scared of anything they can't control, whereas the First Nations take pride in being part of it and protecting the wild because of its importance. Our culture is so far removed from that, and afraid of it."

462: 493: 842:"While I would not seriously regret the total disappearance of the buffalo from our western prairies, in its effect on the Indians, regarding it rather as a means of hastening their sense of dependence upon the products of the soil and their own labors, yet these encroachments by the whites upon the reservations set apart for the exclusive occupancy of the Indian is one prolific source of trouble in the management of the reservation Indians, and measures should be adopted to prevent such trespasses in the future, or very serious collisions may be the result." 1154:. Thus, when the buffalo began to disappear in great numbers, it was particularly harrowing to the tribes. As Crow Chief Plenty Coups described it: "When the buffalo went away, the hearts of my people fell to the ground, and they could not lift them up again. After this nothing happened. There was little singing anywhere." Spiritual loss was rampant; buffalo were an integral part of their society and they would frequently take part in ceremonies for each buffalo they killed to honor its sacrifice. To boost morale during this time, the 3228: 184: 252:

habitat but also kept the bison population regulated. In this theory, it was only when the original human population was devastated by wave after wave of epidemics (from diseases of Europeans) after the 16th century that the bison herds propagated wildly. In such a view, the seas of bison herds that stretched to the horizon were a symptom of an ecology out of balance, only rendered possible by decades of heavier-than-average rainfall. Other evidence of the arrival circa 1550–1600 in the

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high-ranking military officer, once said in a conversation with Frank H. Mayer: "Mayer, there's no two ways about it, either the buffalo or the Indian must go. Only when the Indian becomes absolutely dependent on us for his every need, will we be able to handle him. He's too independent with the buffalo. But if we kill the buffalo we conquer the Indian. It seems a more humane thing to kill the buffalo than the Indian, so the buffalo must go."

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next year, to settle the vexed Indian question, than the entire regular army has done in the last forty years. They are destroying the Indians' commissary. It is a well-known fact that an army losing its base of supplies is placed at a great disadvantage. Send them powder and lead, if you will; but for a lasting peace, let them kill, skin, and sell until the buffaloes are exterminated. Then your prairies can be covered with speckled cattle."

927:, killed over a hundred animals at a single stand and many thousands in their careers. One professional hunter killed over 20,000 by his count. The average prices paid the buffalo hunters from 1880 to 1884 were about as follows: For cow hides, $ 3; bull hides, $ 2.50; yearlings, $ 1.50; calves, $ 0.75 cents; and the cost of getting the hides to market brought the cost up to about $ 3.50 ($ 89.68 accounting for inflation) per hide. 3203: 776:, bison hunting served as a way to increase their economic stake in the area. Trappers and traders made their living selling buffalo fur; in the winter of 1872–1873, more than 1.5 million buffalo were put onto trains and moved eastward. In addition to the potential profits from buffalo leather, which was commonly used to make machinery belts and army boots, buffalo hunting forced Natives to become dependent on beef from cattle. 1538:

cattle ranchers, who fear that the small percentage of bison that carry brucellosis will infect livestock and cause cows to abort their first calves. However, there has never been a documented case of brucellosis being transmitted to cattle from wild bison. The management controversy that began in the early 1980s continues with advocacy groups arguing that the herd should be protected as a distinct population segment under the

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bison population but also improve solidarity and morale among their tribes. "We recognize the bison as a symbol of strength in unity," stated Fred Dubray, former president of the Inter-Tribal Bison Cooperative. "We believe that reintroduction of the buffalo to tribal lands will help heal the spirit of both the Indian people and the buffalo. To reestablish healthy buffalo populations is to reestablish hope for Indian people."

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15,000 bison and focus on reestablishing herds on tribal lands to promote culture, revitalize spiritual solidarity, and restore the ecosystem. Some Inter-Tribal Bison Council members argue that the bison's economic value is one of the main factors driving its resurgence. Bison serves as a low-cost substitute for cattle and can withstand the winters in the Plains region far easier than cattle.

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was matted on the head of the animal. The bison would continue to drop until either the herd sensed danger and stampeded or perhaps a wounded animal attacked another, causing the herd to disperse. If done properly a large number of bison would be felled at one time. Following up were the skinners, who would drive a spike through the nose of each dead animal with a

1131: 162: 1118:, founder of the Carlisle Indian School and a Tenth Cavalry lieutenant in the Red River War, discussed this strategy after his retirement: "The generation of the buffalo was ordered as a military measure because it was plain that the Indians could not be controlled on their reservations as long as their greatest resource, the buffalo, were so plentiful." 1166:

Plains tribes would dress up in their finery, sing bison songs, and attempt to simulate a bison hunt. These cattle hunts served as a way for the tribes to preserve their ceremonies, community, and morale. However, the U.S. government soon put a halt to cattle hunts, choosing to package the beef up for the Native Americans instead.

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more than 20 years assembling one of the largest collections of purebred bison on the continent (by the time of Allard's death in 1896, the herd numbered 300). In 1907, after U.S. authorities declined to buy the herd, Pablo struck a deal with the Canadian government and shipped most of his bison northward to the newly created

822:. On June 26, 1869, the Army Navy Journal reported: "General Sherman remarked, in conversation the other day, that the quickest way to compel the Indians to settle down to civilized life was to send ten regiments of soldiers to the plains, with orders to shoot buffaloes until they became too scarce to support the redskins." 1663:(250 to 400 individuals), though the licenses are limited and tightly controlled. A game ranger is also generally sent out with any hunters to help them find and select the bison to kill. In this way, hunting is used as a part of the wildlife management strategy and to help cull less desirable individuals. 1143:

covers that provide homes for people, utensils, shields, weapons, and parts were used for sewing with the sinew." In fact, many tribes had "buffalo doctors", who claimed to have learned from bison in symbolic visions. Also, many Plains tribes used the bison skull for confessions and blessing burial sites.

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The mass buffalo slaughter also seriously harmed the ecological health of the Great Plains region, in which many Indigenous People lived. Unlike cattle, bison were naturally fit to thrive in the Great Plains environment; bison's giant heads are naturally fit to drive through snow making them far more

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Plains Indians adopted a nomadic lifestyle, one which depended on bison location for their food source. Bison is high in protein levels and low in fat content and contributes to the wholesome diet of Native Americans. Additionally, they used every edible part of the bison—organs, brains, fetuses, and

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The last tribal hunt of the Omaha, December 1876 to March 1877. After more than 30 camp moves, the hunters finally found a herd 400 miles outside the Omaha Reservation (Nebraska). In 1912, Gilmore secured the account of the hunting expedition into Kansas from Francis La Flesche. La Flesche was one of

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The hunter would customarily locate the herd in the early morning, and station himself about 100 yd (91 m) from it, shooting the animals broadside through the lungs. Head shots were not preferred as the soft lead bullets would often flatten and fail to penetrate the skull, especially if mud

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According to Professor David Smits: "Frustrated bluecoats, unable to deliver a punishing blow to the so-called 'Hostiles', unless they were immobilized in their winter camps, could, however, strike at a more accessible target, namely, the buffalo. That tactic also made curious sense, for in soldiers'

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Thirty years ago millions of the great unwieldy animals existed on this continent. Innumerable droves roamed, comparatively undisturbed and unmolested ... Many thousands have been ruthlessly and shamefully slain every season for past twenty years or more by white hunters and tourists merely for their

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Already Castaneda noted the typical relations of two different plains people relying heavily on the same food source: "They ... are enemies of each other." The bison hunting resulted in the loss of land for many tribal nations. Indirectly, it often disturbed the rhythm of tribal life, caused economic

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for the Henry Mountains bison herd is 325 individuals. Some of the extra individuals have been transplanted, but most of them are not transplanted or sold, so hunting is the major tool used to control their population. "In 2009, 146 public once-in-a-lifetime Henry Mountain bison hunting permits were

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According to Rutgers University Professor Frank Popper, bison restoration brings better meat and ecological health to the plains region, in addition to restoring bison-native American relations. However, there is a considerable risk involved with restoring the bison population: brucellosis. If bison

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In 1873, Samuel Walking Coyote, a member of the Pend d'orville tribe, herded seven orphan calves along the Flathead Reservation west of the Rocky Mountain divide. In 1899, he sold 13 of these bison to ranchers Charles Allard and Michel Pablo for $ 2,000 in gold. Michel Pablo and Charles Allard spent

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Native Americans served as the caretakers of bison, so their forced movement towards bison-free reservation areas was particularly challenging. Upon their arrival to reservations, some tribes asked government officials if they could hunt cattle the way they hunted buffalo. During these cattle hunts,

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Much of the land delegated to Indigenous tribes during this westward expansion were barren tracts of land, far from any buffalo herds. These reservations were not sustainable for Natives, who relied on bison for food. One of these reservations was the Sand Creek Reservation in southeastern Colorado.

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Once amongst the tallest people in the world, the generations of bison-reliant people born after the slaughter lost their entire height advantage. By the early twentieth century, child mortality was 16 percentage points higher and the probability of reporting an occupation 19 percentage points lower

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in Wyoming started in October 1874. Going north, the men, women, and children crossed the border of the reservation. Scouts came back with news of buffalo near Gooseberry Creek. The hunters got around 125 bison. Fewer hunters left the reservation over the next two years and those who went focused on

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was too great. Yet these proposals were discouraged since it was recognized that the Plains Indians, some of the tribes often at war with the United States, depended on bison for their way of life. (Other buffalo-hunting tribes cannot tell of a single fight with the United States, namely tribes like

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Bison skins were used for industrial machine belts, clothing such as robes, and rugs. There was a huge export trade to Europe of bison hides. Old West bison hunting was very often a big commercial enterprise, involving organized teams of one or two professional hunters, backed by a team of skinners,

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and their allies on the southern plains were killing about 280,000 bison a year, which was near the limit of sustainability for that region. Firearms and horses, along with a growing export market for buffalo robes and bison meat had resulted in larger and larger numbers of bison killed each year. A

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crossed the Rocky Mountains from the west, just to be attacked by tribes as they entered the plains. They lost 21 people. The beaten hunting party returned in a "horrible condition" and "all nearly famished". Often, the attackers tried to capture dried meat, equipment, and horses during a fight. The

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In Montana, a public hunt was reestablished in 2005, with 50 permits being issued. The Montana Fish, Wildlife, and Parks Commission increased the number of tags to 140 for the 2006/2007 season. Advocacy groups claim that it is premature to reestablish the hunt, given the bison's lack of habitat and

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For some spokesmen, the resurgence of the bison population reflects a cultural and spiritual recovery from the effects of bison hunting in the mid-1800s. By creating groups such as the Inter-Tribal Bison Cooperative and the Buffalo Field Campaign, Native Americans are hoping to not only restore the

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off the plains. At the start of the 19th century, they claimed the buffalo ranges entirely to the Rocky Mountains and fought all conceived as intruders. The less numerical tribe peoples west of the continental divide did not accept this. Their ancestors had hunted on the Great Plains and they would

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Tribes forced away from the game-rich areas had to try their luck on the edges of the best buffalo habitats. Small tribes found it hard to do even that. Due to attacks in the 1850s and 1860s, the villages of Upper Missouri "hardly dared go into the plains to hunt buffalo". The Sioux would stay near

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Many conservation measures have been taken by Native American tribes to preserve and grow the bison population as well. Of these Native conservation efforts, the Inter-Tribal Bison Council was formed in 1990, composed of 56 tribes in 19 states. These tribes represent a collective herd of more than

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The end of the ranching era and the onset of the natural regulation era set into motion a chain of events that have led to the bison of Yellowstone Park migrating to lower elevations outside the park in search of winter forage. The presence of wild bison in Montana is perceived as a threat to many

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anthropology professor S. Neyooxet Greymorning stated: "The creation stories of where buffalo came from put them in a very spiritual place among many tribes. The buffalo crossed many different areas and functions, and it was utilized in many ways. It was used in ceremonies, as well as to make tipi

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The destruction of bison signaled the end of the Indian Wars, and consequently their movement towards reservations. When the Texas legislature proposed a bill to protect the bison, General Sheridan disapproved of it, stating, "These men have done more in the last two years, and will do more in the

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For a decade after 1873, there were several hundred, perhaps over a thousand, such commercial hide-hunting outfits harvesting bison at any one time, vastly exceeding the take by Native Americans or individual meat hunters. The commercial take arguably was anywhere from 2,000 to 100,000 animals per

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expedition staggered through the Southeast for four years in the early 16th century and saw hordes of people but apparently didn't see a single bison." Mann discussed the evidence that Native Americans not only created (by selective use of fire) the large grasslands that provided the bison's ideal

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Additionally, many smaller tribal groups aim to reintroduce bison to their native lands. The Ponca Tribe of Nebraska, which was restored in 1990, has a herd of roughly 100 bison in two pastures. Similarly, the Southern Ute Tribe in Colorado has raised nearly 30 bison in a 350-acre fenced pasture.

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hunter Bear Face recognized his arrows by one of three "arrow wings" made of a pelican feather. Castaneda wrote how it was possible to shoot an arrow right through a buffalo. The Pawnees had contests as to how many bison it was possible to kill with just one bowshot. The best result was three. An

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A Native American conservation effort that has been gaining ground is the Buffalo Field Campaign. Founded in 1996 by Mike Mease, Sicango Lakota, and Rosalie Little Thunder, the Buffalo Field Campaign hopes to get bison migrating freely in Montana and beyond. The Buffalo Field Campaign challenges

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Due to the roaming behavior of bison, their mass destruction came with relative ease to the European hunters. When one bison in a herd is killed, the other bison gather around it. Due to this pattern, the ability of a hunter to kill one bison often led to the destruction of a large herd of them.

888:, the West experienced a large boom in the colonist population—and a large decline in the bison population. As railways expanded, military troops and supplies were able to be transported more efficiently to the Plains region. Some railroads even hired commercial hunters to feed their laborers. 666:

during a large-scale attack in 1843, and the Pawnee never rebuilt it. More than 60 inhabitants lost their lives, including Chief Blue Coat. The otherwise numerous Small Robes band of the Piegan Blackfoot lost influence and some self-reliance after a severe River Crow attack on a moving camp at

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in Yellowstone and managed as livestock until the 1960s, when a policy of natural regulation was adopted by the park. Many of the national parks, in particular the Yellowstone National Park, are a direct result of the guilt that many felt regarding the buffalo slaughter of the Great Plains.

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As a consequence of the great bison slaughter, they became more heavily dependent on the U.S. Government and American traders for their needs. Many military men recognized the bison slaughter as a way of reducing the autonomy of Indigenous Peoples. For instance, Lieutenant Colonel Dodge, a

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were fired so much that buffalo hunters needed at least two or three rifles to allow the barrels cool off; The Fireside Book of Guns reports that the rifles were sometimes quenched in the winter snow to expedite the process. Dodge City saw railroad cars sent East filled with stacked hides.

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The railroad industry also wanted bison herds culled or eliminated. Herds of bison on tracks could damage locomotives when the trains failed to stop in time. Herds often took shelter in the artificial cuts formed by the grade of the track winding through hills and mountains in harsh winter

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secured bison, and drowned by chance, when the ice broke. A trader observed the young men "in the drift ice leap from piece to piece, often falling between, plunging under, darting up elsewhere and securing themselves upon very slippery flakes" before they brought the carcasses to land.

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Eighteen out of 30 prominent Poncas were killed in a surprise attack in 1824, "including the famous Smoke-maker". At a stroke, the small tribe stood without any experienced leaders. In 1859, the Poncas lost two chiefs when a combined group of enemies charged a hunting camp. Half a

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near the Missouri River confined the buffalo on the weakest ice at the end of winter. When it cracked, the current swept the animals down under thicker ice. The people hauled the drowned animals ashore when they emerged downstream. Although not hunted in a strict sense, the nearby

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in South Dakota was one of the earliest reintroductions of bison to North America. In 1899, Philip purchased a small herd (five of them, including the female) from Dug Carlin, Pete Dupree's brother-in-law, whose son Fred had roped five calves in the Last Big Buffalo Hunt on the

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A fast-hunting horse would usually be spared and first mounted near the bison. The hunter rode on a pack horse until then. Hunters with few horses ran beside the mount to the hunting grounds. Accidents, sometimes fatal, happened from time to time to both rider and horse.

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of Germany. From a natural level of 60 million in America, the bison population had been reduced by human activity to just 1,000 by the 1890s, and in 1904, 160 of those animals lived within Corbin Park. The Corbin herd was destroyed in the 1940s following an outbreak of

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described a hunt on the northern plains in 1691. First, the tribe surrounded a herd. Then they would "gather themselves into a smaller Compass Keeping ye Beast still in ye middle". The hunters killed as many as they could before the animals broke through the human ring.

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would write in his memoirs: "With my cavalry and carbined artillery encamped in front, I wanted no other occupation in life than to ward off the savage and kill off his food until there should no longer be an Indian frontier in our beautiful country." Later, President

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noted: "The train is 'slowed' to a speed about equal to that of the herd; the passengers get out fire-arms which are provided for the defense of the train against the Indians, and open from the windows and platforms of the cars a fire that resembles a brisk skirmish."

1254:. Scotty's goal was to preserve the animal from extinction. At the time of his death in 1911 at 53, Philip had grown the herd to an estimated 1,000 to 1,200 head of bison. A variety of privately owned herds had also been established, starting from this population. 107:. Bison hunting was an important spiritual practice and source of material for these groups, especially after the European introduction of the horse in the 16th through 19th centuries enabled new hunting techniques. The species' dramatic decline was the result of 275:

To Plains tribes, the buffalo is one of the most sacred animals, and they feel obligated to treat them with respect. When they are about to kill a buffalo, they will offer it a prayer. Failures in the hunt could have been attributed to poorly performed rituals.

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in 1867: "You know well that the game is getting very scarce and that you must soon have some other means of living; you should therefore cultivate the friendship of the white man, so that when the game is all gone, they may take care of you if necessary."

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The Sioux burned a village of Nuptadi Mandans in the last quarter of the 18th century. Other villages of the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara destroyed either completely or partially in attacks are two Hidatsa villages in 1834, Mitutanka on January 9, 1839 and

1361:. Extremely committed to saving this herd, she went as far as to rescue some young orphaned buffaloes and even bottle-fed and cared for them until adulthood. By saving these few plains bison, she was able to establish an impressive buffalo herd near the 1710:

In 2001, the United States government donated some bison calves from South Dakota and Colorado to the Mexican government for the reintroduction of bison to Mexico's nature reserves. These reserves included El Uno Ranch at Janos and Santa Elena Canyon,

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Hunters began arriving in masses, and trains would often slow down on their routes to allow for raised hunting. Men would either climb aboard the roofs of trains or fire shots at herds from outside their windows. As a description of this from

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was between two big hunting parties, Lakota and Pawnee. It cost the lives of a minimum of ten children, 20 men and 39 women from the Pawnee tribe, counting Chief Sky Chief. The battle was fought on U.S. ground more than 180 miles outside both

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Horses taken from the Spanish were well-established in the nomadic hunting cultures by the early 1700s, and Indigenous groups once living east of the Great Plains moved west to hunt the larger bison population. Intertribal warfare forced the

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will spread that disease to local domestic cattle. To date, no credible instance of bison-to-cattle transmission has ever been established, recorded or proven although there is some evidence of transmission between wild caribou and bison.

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is descended from a remnant population of 23 individual bison that survived the mass slaughter of the 19th century by hiding out in the Pelican Valley of Yellowstone Park. In 1902, a captive herd of 21 plains bison was introduced to the

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hunters increased Indigenous hunting pressure due to non-Indigenous demand for bison hides and meat, and cases of a deliberate policy by settler governments to destroy the food source of the Indigenous peoples during times of conflict.

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were forced to adapt their style of hunting. Andrew Isenberg argues that some Native people embraced the fur trade and that adapting their hunting methods to include hunting on horseback, added to the number of bison they could hunt.

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arrow stuck in the animal was preferred as the most lethal. It would inflict more damage with each jump and move. A white traveler credited the hunters with cutting up a bison and packing the meat on a horse in less than 15 minutes.

1674:. Approximately 100 bison are sold at an auction, and hunters are allowed to kill a half dozen bison. This hunting takes place on Antelope Island in December each year. Fees from the hunters are used to fund the maintenance of the 922:

reloaders, cooks, wranglers, blacksmiths, security guards, teamsters, and numerous horses and wagons. Men were even employed to recover and recast lead bullets taken from the carcasses. Many of these professional hunters, such as

693:). Bones were processed to be used for glue, fertilizer, dye/tint/ink, or were burned to create "bone char" which was an important component for sugar refining. In the 16th century, North America contained 25–30 million buffalo. 633:. Camps were left without leaders. In the course of a battle, tipis and hides could be cut to pieces and tipi poles broken. Organized bison hunts and camp moves were stopped by the enemy, and villages had to flee their homes. 1083:

in bison nations compared with nations that were never reliant on the bison. Throughout the latter half of the twentieth century and into the present, income per capita has remained 25% lower, on average, for bison nations.

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during times of conflict by removing their main food source. Without the bison, native people of the plains were often forced to leave the land or starve to death. One of the biggest advocates of this strategy was General

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The Kiowas have an early history in parts of present-day Montana and South Dakota. Here they fought the Cheyenne, "who challenged their right to hunt buffalo". Later, the Kiowas headed for the south together with the

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long and intense drought hit the southern plains in 1845, lasting into the 1860s, which caused a widespread collapse of the bison herds. In the 1860s, the rains returned and the bison herds recovered to a degree.

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of bison as a problem only because it may lead to retaliation from the Indians, and on the contrary, that he saw the extermination of the buffalo as potentially beneficial in the forced assimilation of Indians.

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Castaneda saw Indigenous women butchering bison with a flint fixed on a short stick. He admired how quickly they completed the task. Blood to drink was filled in emptied guts, which were carried around the neck.

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states that bison were killed by using a method that coyotes implemented. Coyotes will sometimes cut one bison off from the herd and chase it in a circle until the animal collapses or gives up due to exhaustion.

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and their allies", revealed a Flathead chief. A Kutenai gave this description of tribal hunts during buffalo days, "Across the mountains they went out on the prairie, but they were afraid of the Piegans."

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Commercial bison hunters also emerged at this time. Military forts often supported hunters, who would use their civilian sources near their military base. Though officers hunted bison for food and sport,

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drove bison over cliffs in the fall to secure the winter supply. Animals not killed in the fall were trapped and killed in a corral at the foot of the cliffs. The Blackfoot used pishkuns as late as the

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The US Army sanctioned and actively endorsed the wholesale slaughter of bison herds. The federal government promoted bison hunting for various reasons, primarily to pressure the native people onto the

671:) in 1845. "Their days of greatness were over." In 1852, an Omaha delegation visited Washington, D.C. It would "request the federal government's protection". Five different nations raided the Omaha. 602: 1333:

fluctuates between 550 and 700 and is one of the largest publicly owned bison herds in the nation. The herd contains some unique genetic traits and has been used to improve the genetic diversity of

154:(dry watercourse) that formed a dead-end, suggesting that Clovis hunters trapped the bison herd within the arroyo before killing them, showing continuity with the bison hunting tactics of the later 831: 994:

Subsequent settlers harvested bison bones to be sold for fertilizer. It was an important source of supplemental income for poorer farmers, which lasted from the early 1880s until the early 1890s.

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Though buffalo were being slaughtered in masses, many tribes perceived the buffalo as part of the natural world—something guaranteed to them by the Creator. For some Plains Indigenous peoples,

1443:"Of all the works of the late Mr. Austin Corbin, the preservation of that herd of bison was the one that would earn his country’s deepest gratitude. His experiment led to the founding of the 1078:. The bison population crash represented a loss of spirit, land, and autonomy for most Indigenous People at this time. The effects of the collapse have been wide-ranging and persistent: 636: 1303:

is one of the very few areas where wild bison were never completely extirpated. It is the only continuously wild bison herd in the United States. Numbering between 3,000 and 3,500, the

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Indian agents, with insufficient funds, accepted long hunting expeditions of the Flathead and Pend d'Oreille to the plains in the late 1870s. In the early 1880s, the buffalo were gone.

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The building of the railroads through Colorado and Kansas split the bison herd into two parts, the southern herd and the northern herd. The last refuge of the southern herd was in the

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Bison were also reintroduced to Alaska in 1928, and both domestic and wild herds are found in a few parts of the state. The state grants limited permits to hunt wild bison each year.

1770:"A neanderthal hunting camp in the central system of the Iberian Peninsula: A zooarchaeological and taphonomic analysis of the Navalmaíllo Rock Shelter (Pinilla del Valle, Spain)" 959:

As the great herds began to wane, proposals to protect the bison were discussed. In some cases, individual military officers attempted to end the mass slaughter of these buffalo.

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Jawort, Adrian (May 9, 2011). "Genocide by Other Means: U.S. Army Slaughtered Buffalo in Plains Indian Wars". Indian Country Today. Indian Country Today. Retrieved April 7, 2015.

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The nearest buffalo herd was over two hundred miles away, and many Cheyennes began leaving the reservation, forced to hunt livestock of nearby settlers and passing wagon trains.

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A good horseman could easily lance or shoot enough bison to keep his tribe and family fed, as long as a herd was nearby. The bison provided meat, leather, and sinew for bows.

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In the dog days, the women of a Blackfoot camp made a curved fence of ] tied together, front end up. Runners drove the game towards the enclosure, where hunters waited with

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When the bison stayed away and made hunting impossible, famine became a reality. The hard experience of starvation found its way into stories and myths. A folk tale of the

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and become the well-known horseback buffalo hunters. In addition to using bison for themselves, these Indigenous groups also traded meat and robes to village-based tribes.

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Working on foot, a few groups of Native Americans at times used fires to channel an entire herd of buffalo over a cliff, sometimes killing far more than they could use.

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population has been growing rapidly and is estimated at 350,000 compared to an estimated 60 to 100 million in the mid-19th century. Most current herds, however, are

2088: 241:. To the corn-growing village people, it was a valued second food source. However, there is now some controversy over their interaction. Charles C. Mann wrote in 3900: 3775: 5125: 5036: 1055:

in 1881. "His camp stayed close to the troops when they patrolled, so they hunted undisturbed by enemy tribes." Two years later, the buffalo were all but gone.

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Hunting is also allowed every year in the Henry Mountains bison herd in Utah. The Henry Mountains herd has sometimes numbered up to 500 individuals but the

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Military Reservation, North Dakota, at the start of the 1870s and hunted bison in the Yellowstone area until the game went scarce during the next decade.

834:

vetoed the act of Congress HR 921, which would have implemented protections against white overhunting of buffalo. Before this, Secretary of the Interior,

2192:

Mallory, Gerrick (1886): "The Corbusier Winter Counts Smithsonian Institution. 4th Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1882–83. Washington, p. 136.

1365:. Peaking at 250 in 1933, the last of the southern buffalo would become known as the Goodnight herd. The descendants of this southern herd were moved to 104: 284:

Before the introduction of horses, bison were herded into large chutes made of rocks and willow branches (drive lines) and trapped in a corral called a

4131: 739:

robes, and in sheer wanton sport, and their huge carcasses left to fester and rot, and their bleached skeletons to strew the deserts and lonely plains.

132:. Bison hunting has been practiced in North America since shortly after the first arrival of humans in the region. At Jake Bluff in northern Oklahoma, 4168: 658:

in 1862. The three tribes would routinely ask the U.S. army for assistance against stronger powers until the end of intertribal warfare in the area.

344:

pointing down the line with a pair of hindquarters in his hands, the Crows drove many bison over a cliff. A successful drive could give 700 animals.

268:

had to approach a herd in four legs. At each stop, the chiefs and the leader of the hunt would sit down and smoke and offer prayers for success. The

4634: 1510:

or partly crossbred with cattle. Today there are only four genetically unmixed, free-roaming, public bison herds and only two that are also free of

256:

includes the lack of places that southeast natives named after buffalo. Bison were the most numerous single species of large wild mammal on Earth.

1222: 1192: 1476:. This herd now numbers approximately 400 individuals and in the last decade, steps have been taken to expand this herd to the mountains of the 1070:

Following the Civil War, the U.S. had ratified roughly 400 treaties with the Plains tribes but went on to break much of these in pursuit of the

264:

Religion plays a big role in Native American bison hunting. Plains tribes generally believe that successful hunts require certain rituals. The

253: 4684: 4980: 4198: 3823: 3710: 3443: 3292: 3147: 3127: 2979: 2843: 744: 4658: 868: 4468:

The utilization of genetic markers to resolve modern management issues in historic bison populations: Implications for species conservation

1993:

Ewers, John C. (1988): "The last Bison Drive of the Blackfoot Indians". Indian Life On The Upper Missouri. Norman and London, pp. 157–168.

172: 4710: 4503: 1682: 3545:

Ostler, Jeffrey (Spring 2001): "'The Last Buffalo Hunt' And Beyond. Plains Sioux Economic Strategies In The Early Reservation Period".

1299:

formed naturally from a few bison that remained in the Yellowstone Park area after the great slaughter at the end of the 19th century.

429: 4013: 3975: 3937: 3848: 2933: 2064: 312: 3796:

Duval, Clay. "Bison Conservation: Saving an Ecologically and Culturally Keystone Species". Duke University. Retrieved April 13, 2015.

5118: 4333: 3307:

King, Gilbert (July 17, 2012). "Where the Buffalo No Longer Roamed". Smithsonian Magazine. The Smithsonian. Retrieved April 7, 2015.

1531: 1280: 3484:

Fox, Gregory L. (1988): A Late Nineteenth Century Village of a Band of Dissident Hidatsa: The Garden Coulee Site (32WI18). Lincoln.

400:

During winter, Chief One Heart's camp would maneuver the game out on slick ice, where it was easier to kill with hunting weapons.

1059: 663: 188: 1411:

from Oklahoma, Montana, Wyoming, Manitoba, and Texas, and donated bison to other American zoos and preserves. He also imported

1048: 4440: 2057:

If you've forgotten the names of the clouds, you've lost your way: an introduction to American Indian thought & philosophy

1396:(on the edge of the Blue Mountain Forest), by Austin Corbin, Jr. (d.1938), whose father, the banker and railroad entrepreneur 461: 4357: 4355:

Polzhien, R.O.; Strobeck, C.; Sheraton, J.; Beech, R. (1995). "Bovine mtDNA Discovered in North American Bison Populations".

3039: 2860: 1404:, the park for which comprised 26,000 acres, covering the townships of Cornish, Croydon, Grantham, Newport, and Plainfield. 1188: 871:, a few Native American tribes also partly contributed to the collapse of the bison in the southern Plains. By the 1830s the 777: 4394:"Conservation genomics: disequilibrium mapping of domestic cattle chromosomal segments in North American bison populations" 3563: 743:

Indigenous peoples whose lives depended on the Buffalo also continued to hunt, and they were faced with having to adapt to

3672: 1019: 492: 4281: 2949: 1895: 1400:(1827–1896) had established it. Known as the "Blue Mountain Forest Association", it was a limited membership proprietary 712:

Map of the extermination of the bison to 1889. This map is based on William Temple Hornaday's late-19th-century research.

560:

losses and hardship, and damaged tribal autonomy. As long as bison hunting went on, intertribal warfare was omnipresent.

5111: 4265: 3471:

Gilmore, Melvin R. (1931): "Methods of Indian Buffalo Hunts, with the Itinerary of the Last Tribal Hunt of the Omaha".

3398: 630: 2896: 2419:

Ewers, John C. (Oct. 1975): "Intertribal Warfare as a Precursor of Indian-White Warfare on the Northern Great Plains".

1242: 801:

and Wallace even had bets in their "buffalo shooting championship of the world", between "Medicine Bill" Comstock and "

576:, 1883. The scarcity of buffalo led Plains Indians to become dependent on US government rations as the source of food. 1968: 1623: 1527: 1304: 1296: 5067: 4220: 4579:"Molecular epidemiology of Brucella abortus isolates from cattle, elk, and bison in the United States, 1998 to 2011" 4243: 2758:

Scherer, Joanna Cohan (Fall 1997): "The 1852 Omaha Indian Delegation Daguerreotypes. A Preponderance of Evidence".

1675: 1667: 1660: 1656: 1602: 1515: 1488: 1465: 1366: 1338: 1330: 1322: 1247: 1225:" (published in book form in 1889), predicted that bison would be extinct within two decades. Hornaday founded the 4298: 3506:

Farr, William E. (Spring 2004): "Going to Buffalo. Indian Hunting Migrations across the Rocky Mountains. Part 2".

3493:

Farr, William E. (Spring 2004): "Going to Buffalo. Indian Hunting Migrations across the Rocky Mountains. Part 2".

2497:

Farr, William E. (Winter 2003): "Going to Buffalo. Indian Hunting Migrations across the Rocky Mountains. Part 1".

4793: 1627: 1473: 1300: 622:

lack of horses owing to raids reduced the chances of securing an ample amount of meat on the hunts. In 1860, the

626:

lost 100 horses, while the Mandan and Hidatsa saw the enemy disappear with 175 horses in a single raid in 1861.

3105:(3). Western Historical Quarterly, Utah State University on behalf of The Western History Association: 12–338. 2786: 1719:, which are located on the southern shore of the Rio Grande and the grasslands bordering Texas and New Mexico. 1464:, and on private ranches, with individuals taken from the existing main 'foundation herds'. An example is the 1264: 1218: 819: 4542: 2635:

Blaine, Garland James an Martha Royce Blaine (1977): "Pa-Re-Su A-Ri-Ra-Ke: The Hunters that were Massacred".

111:

due to the expansion of ranching and farming in western North America, industrial-scale hunting practiced by

5161: 3253: 1923: 1743: 1214: 893: 655: 210: 143: 48: 4166: 5547: 2835: 1728: 1539: 1444: 1226: 1058:

In June 1882, more than 600 Lakota and Yanktonai hunters located a big herd on the plains far west of the

984: 302:

In the case of a jump, large groups of people would herd the bison for several miles, forcing them into a

5216: 4914:

Isenberg, Andrew C. (1992). "Toward a Policy of Destruction: Buffaloes, Law, and the Market, 1803–1883".

4641: 3865: 2674:

Stewart, Frank H. (Nov. 1974): "Mandan and Hidatsa Villages in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries".

610:

continue the tradition at all cost. "When we go to hunt Bison, we also prepare for war with the Peeagans

5440: 2116:

Early Fur Trade On The Northern Plains. Canadian Traders Among the Mandan and Hidatsa Indians, 1738–1818

2103:

Early Fur Trade On The Northern Plains. Canadian Traders Among the Mandan and Hidatsa Indians, 1738–1818

1337:, however, as is the case with most bison herds, some genes from domestic cattle have been found in the 1139: 885: 317: 272:

performed the purifying Big Washing Ceremony before each tribal summer hunt to avoid scaring the bison.

456: 3254:"Page:U.S. Department of the Interior Annual Report 1873.djvu/8 - Wikisource, the free online library" 1851:

Rostlund, Erhard (December 1, 1960). "# The Geographic Range of the Historic Bison in the Southeast".

183: 4590: 4577:

Higgins J, Stuber T, Quance C, Edwards WH, Tiller RV, Linfield T, Rhyan J, Berte A, Harris B (2012).

4037: 2484:

Calloway, Colin G. (April 1982): "The Inter-tribal Balance of Power on the Great Plains, 1760–1850".

1519: 1382: 1051:

in Montana for a hunt north of Milk River in 1877. Chief Jerry Running Fisher enlisted as a scout at

919: 573: 151: 838:, had stated the following regarding complaints about whites hunting buffalo on native reservations: 5314: 5236: 5186: 4688: 3806:

Hubbard, Tasha (2014). "Buffalo Genocide in Nineteenth Century North America: 'Kill, Skin, Sell'".

2862:

Forty Years in the Old West: the Personal Narrative of a Cattleman Indian Fighter, and Army Officer

1309: 1233:, to found, stock, and protect bison sanctuaries. Notable early buffalo conservationists included: 1115: 1071: 794: 689:

1892: bison skulls await industrial processing at Michigan Carbon Works in Rogueville (a suburb of

668: 112: 5099:

Laduke, Winona. "All of Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life" (South End Press, 1999)

4099: 2545:

Howard, James H. (1965) "The Ponca Tribe". Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of American Ethnology.

1634:. This hunting is done because of fears that the Yellowstone bison, which are often infected with 708: 5552: 5410: 5059: 5023: 4995: 4986:

Rister, Carl Coke (1929). "The Significance of the Destruction of the Buffalo in the Southwest".

4895: 4866: 4837: 4662: 4432: 4374: 4080: 4072: 3741: 3733: 3416:

For the sake of lasting peace, let them kill, skin and sell until the buffaloes are exterminated.

3178: 3170: 3124: 3114: 3010: 3002: 2803: 2523:

U.S. Serial Set 1284, 39th Congress, 2nd Session, Vol. 2, House Executive Document No. 1, p. 315.

2175: 2167: 2082: 1876: 1769: 1492: 1230: 814: 765: 333: 61: 4878:

Flores, Dan (1991). "Bison Ecology and Bison Diplomacy: The Southern Plains from 1800 to 1850".

2925: 2919: 618: 4973:

Last Stand: George Bird Grinnell, the Battle to Save the Buffalo, and the Birth of the New West

3435: 3429: 1329:

and was founded from 12 animals that came from a private ranch in Texas in the late 1800s. The

1210:

paid numismatic tribute, starting in 1913, to the American bison and its rescue from extinction

963:, among others, spoke in favor of protecting the bison because he saw that the pressure on the 292:. Both pound and jump archaeological sites are found in several places in the U.S. and Canada. 5506: 5354: 5228: 5191: 5146: 4976: 4946: 4714: 4616: 4511: 4424: 4416: 4107: 4009: 4005: 3999: 3971: 3967: 3961: 3933: 3929: 3923: 3844: 3819: 3640: 3622: 3439: 3288: 2929: 2866: 2839: 2070: 2060: 1868: 1820: 1712: 1686: 1507: 1350: 1202: 1052: 482: 56: 5103: 4759: 4567:"American Buffalo: Spirit of a Nation". NPT. PBS. November 10, 1998. Retrieved April 7, 2015. 1605:, bison are hunted to protect disease-free public (reintroduced) and private herds of bison. 5486: 5445: 5301: 5271: 5151: 5051: 4887: 4858: 4829: 4606: 4598: 4472: 4408: 4366: 4064: 3811: 3725: 3612: 3602: 3162: 3106: 2994: 2831: 2795: 2159: 1860: 1812: 1781: 1670:

are rounded up to be examined and vaccinated. Then, most of them are turned loose to wander

1530:. The herd now numbers nearly 800 and roams a 14,000-acre (57 km) grassland expanse on 1447:

and was connected, directly or otherwise, with the formation of some of our national parks".

1362: 1354: 1075: 972: 939:

day depending on the season, though there are no statistics available. It was said that the

611: 606: 248: 226: 155: 88: 4931: 4736: 4325: 3097:

Smits, David D. (1994). "The Frontier Army and the Destruction of the Buffalo: 1865-1883".

5171: 4800: 4269: 4250: 4172: 3131: 2779:"Buffalo Hunt: International Trade and the Virtual Extinction of the North American Bison" 1738: 1691: 1671: 1370: 1358: 1326: 1162:, which consisted of hundreds of people dancing until 100 persons were lying unconscious. 1030: 980: 948: 835: 645: 359: 142:, which represented a bison herd of at least 22 individuals, which dates to around 12,838 92: 5281: 1522:. A founder population of 16 animals from the Wind Cave bison herd was re-established in 1349:

The last of the remaining "southern herd" in Texas were saved before extinction in 1876.

29:

This article is about the hunting of American Buffalo. For the reconnaissance drone, see

4594: 4370: 1622:

Though the number is usually several hundred, up to more than a thousand bison from the

5526: 5329: 5276: 5176: 5156: 4611: 4578: 4466: 1864: 1748: 1580:

Hunting of wild bison is legal in some states and provinces where public herds require

1503: 1461: 1412: 1408: 1334: 1251: 1207: 988: 826: 797:

made a far larger impact on the decline of the bison population. Officers stationed in

748: 585:

villages "and keep the bison away, so they could sell meat and hides to the Arikaras".

501: 238: 147: 138: 133: 125: 124:

Long before the arrival of humans in the Americas, bison hunting had been practiced by

84: 76: 30: 5087:

Zontek, Ken (1995). "Hunt, Capture, Raise, Increase: The People Who Saved the Bison".

1499:

is the largest private owner of bison with about 50,000 on several different ranches.

1138:

Most Native American tribes regard the bison as a sacred animal and religious symbol.

1011:

During the 1870s and 1880s, more and more tribes went on their last great bison hunt.

685: 5541: 5465: 5364: 5309: 5256: 5196: 5181: 5166: 4412: 4183: 4084: 4055:

Lueck, Dean (June 2002). "The Extermination and Conservation of the American Bison".

3316: 2825: 2807: 2179: 2150:

Lueck, Dean (June 2002). "The Extermination and Conservation of the American Bison".

1648: 1397: 1393: 987:

to slaughter the herds, to deprive the Indians of their source of food. By 1884, the

940: 805:" Cody. Some of these hunters would engage in mass bison slaughter to make a living. 544: 520: 386: 285: 269: 166: 96: 1785: 5521: 5496: 5481: 5430: 5261: 5241: 4436: 3458:

Patten, James I. (January–March 1993): "Last Great Hunt of Washakie and his Band".

1733: 1601:, where one of only two continuously wild herds of bison exist in North America at 1456:

Many other bison herds are in the process of being created or have been created in

1420: 1401: 1389: 960: 932: 924: 802: 773: 497: 372: 341: 337: 289: 265: 230: 214: 108: 5014:

Shaw, James H. (1995). "How Many Bison Originally Populated Western Rangelands?".

3403: 3047: 2874: 1655:

herds, and some bison hunting is permitted for both of them – the

504:, 1817–1818. "The Oglalas had an abundance of buffalo meat and shared it with the 229:, whose grazing and trampling pressure was a force that shaped the ecology of the 3282: 2028:

Ewers, John C. (1988): "A Blood Indian's Conception of Tribal Life in Dog Days".

1896:"The Presettlement Piedmont Savanna: A Model For Landscape Design and Management" 5501: 5201: 4162: 3841:

Nation to Nation: Treaties Between the United States and American Indian Nations

3679: 1800: 1635: 1511: 1487:

One of the largest privately owned herds, numbering 2,500, in the US, is on the

1477: 1457: 1425: 1386: 1159: 1150:

are known as the first people. Many tribes did not grasp the concept of species

1044: 1034: 976: 594: 470: 329: 129: 1816: 1626:

have been killed in some years when they wander north from the Lamar Valley of

5389: 5384: 5324: 5286: 5246: 4076: 3893:"Genocide by Other Means: U.S. Army Slaughtered Buffalo in Plains Indian Wars" 3815: 3768:"Genocide by Other Means: U.S. Army Slaughtered Buffalo in Plains Indian Wars" 3534:

Shared Symbols, Contested Meanings. Gros Ventre Culture and History, 1778–1984

3521:

Shared Symbols, Contested Meanings. Gros Ventre Culture and History, 1778–1984

3364:

Shared Symbols, Contested Meanings. Gros Ventre Culture and History, 1778–1984

2447:

The Village Indians of the Upper Missouri. The Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras

2171: 1899: 1496: 1151: 785: 698: 332:

historian has related some ways to get bison. With the help of songs, hazers,

206: 100: 17: 5008:

The North American Buffalo: A Critical Study of the Species in Its Wild State

4685:"Alaska Hunting and Trapping Information, Alaska Department of Fish and Game" 4659:"Alaska Hunting and Trapping Information, Alaska Department of Fish and Game" 4420: 4262: 4111: 3897:

indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2011/05/09/genocide-other-means-us-army-sl

3626: 3607: 3590: 2609:

Boller, Henry A. (1966): "Henry A. Boller: Upper Missouri River Fur Trader".

2074: 1872: 1824: 508:, who were short of food". A bison skin on a frame designates plenty of meat. 5374: 5369: 5319: 5291: 4392:

Halbert, N.D.; Ward, T.J.; Schnabel, R.D.; Taylor, J.F.; Derr, J.N. (2005).

3673:"Bison Conservation: Saving an Ecologically and Culturally Keystone Species" 1416: 1276: 1176: 798: 4950: 4620: 4428: 2870: 2799: 1431:

Baynes was famous for his tame bison, and for driving around the park in a

979:" a Federal bill to protect the dwindling bison herds, and in 1875 General 1801:"Jake Bluff: Clovis Bison Hunting on the Southern Plains of North America" 1130: 968:

the Assiniboine, the Hidatsa, the Gros Ventre, the Ponca and the Omaha).

597:

territory". In present-day Montana, the better-armed Blackfoot pushed the

447:

Each animal produces from 200 to 400 lb (91 to 181 kg) of meat.

191:

on the Southern Plains in 1542, compared the bison with "fish in the sea".

161: 136:

are associated with numerous butchered bones of the extinct bison species

5435: 5334: 5206: 4602: 3591:"The Slaughter of the Bison and Reversal of Fortunes on the Great Plains" 3204:"John M. Schofield, Forty-six years in the Army, Chapter XXIII, page 428" 1716: 1690:

issued." Most years, 50 to 100 licenses are issued to hunt bison in the

1432: 1284: 1015: 872: 847: 641: 590: 505: 486: 478: 437: 433: 303: 234: 222: 4999: 3617: 2778: 5516: 5511: 5460: 5455: 5266: 5251: 5027: 4899: 4476: 4378: 4302: 3351:

The Way to Independence. Memories of a Hidatsa Indian Family, 1840–1920

1880: 1631: 1598: 1581: 1523: 964: 864: 781: 690: 680: 598: 582: 411: 176: 80: 72: 44: 5063: 4870: 4841: 3737: 3557: 3555: 3174: 3118: 3006: 5450: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5379: 5339: 4820:

Dobak, William A. (1996). "Killing the Canadian Buffalo, 1821–1881".

3070:

Memory and Vision: Arts, Cultures, and Lives of Plains Indian People.

1950:

Murie, James R. (1981): "Ceremonies of the Pawnee. Part I: The Skiri

1026:

The final hunt of the Omaha in Nebraska took place in December 1876.

855:

minds the buffalo and the Plains Indian were virtually inseparable."

519:

To avoid disputes, each hunter used arrows marked in a personal way.

416: 218: 4891: 4792:(1929, new ed. University of Nebraska Press, 1997), classic history 2745:

Bedford, Denton R. (1975): "The Fight at "Mountains on Both Sides".

909:

conditions. As a result, bison herds could delay a train for days.

5055: 4928:

The Destruction of the Buffalo: An Environmental History, 1750–1920

4862: 4833: 4193: 4191: 4068: 3729: 3166: 3110: 2998: 2732:

Jensen, Richard E. (Winter 1994): "The Pawnee Mission, 1834-1846".

2163: 187:

Bison and Indians of De Bry, 1595. Pedro Castaneda, a soldier with

5394: 5349: 4272:. Americanbisonsocietyonline.org. Retrieved on September 16, 2011. 4144:

Staff (December 2011 – January 2012). "Restoring a Prairie Icon".

2512:

Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletin 59

2290:

Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletin 61

1652: 1563:

are introduced in large numbers, the risk of brucellosis is high.

1201: 1155: 1147: 1129: 996: 759: 707: 684: 635: 623: 567: 540: 528: 491: 460: 355: 311: 182: 171: 160: 150:(10,888 BC) At the time of deposition, the site was a steep-sided 55: 35: 5037:"The Frontier Army and the Destruction of the Buffalo, 1865–1883" 4760:"Restoring North America's Wild Bison to Their Home on the Range" 3711:"The Frontier Army and the Destruction of the Buffalo: 1865-1883" 3148:"The Frontier Army and the Destruction of the Buffalo: 1865-1883" 2980:"The Frontier Army and the Destruction of the Buffalo: 1865–1883" 2004:

From the Heart of the Crow Country. The Crow Indians' Own Stories

747:. While most struggled to continue their traditional ways, other 5359: 3589:

Feir, Donn L; Gillezeau, Rob; Jones, Maggie E C (May 30, 2023).

2921:

The Destruction of the Bison. An Environmental History 1750–1920

2373:

Tableau's Narrative of Loisel's Expedition to the Upper Missouri

1481: 1469: 629:

Conflicts between the bison-hunting tribes ranged from raids to

5107: 4849:

Dobak, William A. (1995). "The Army and the Buffalo: A Demur".

4244:

National Bison Range – Dept of the Interior Recovery Activities

1933: 1931: 5344: 3473:

Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts & Letters,

1472:

which was founded in 1941 with bison that were relocated from

697:

In the 19th century, European settlers hunted bison almost to

539:..." makes an Omaha myth certain. A fur trader noted how some 309:

The earliest evidence for buffalo jumps dates to around 1400.

4199:"The Birds' Best Friend: How Ernest Baynes Saved the Animals" 4134:, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved December 3, 2010. 3460:

Wind River Mountaineer. Fremont County's Own History Magazine

2579: 2577: 1969:"Buffalo Tales: The Near-Extermination of the American Bison" 535:..." "The people were without food and no game could be found 5215: 3431:

Calgar, Canada's frontier metropolis: an illustrated history

3328:

Page 9 T. Lindsay Baker, Billy R. Harrison, B. Byron Price,

205:

The modern American bison is split into two subspecies, the

4975:(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009. xvi, 286 pp. 4937:

Koucky, Rudolph W. (1983). "The Buffalo Disaster of 1882".

1002:

the Omaha scouts looking for a game. (Route approximately).

316:

Ulm Pishkun. Buffalo Jump, SW of Great Falls, Montana. The

3340:

Kennedy, Michael (1961): The Assiniboine. Norman, p. LVII.

2827:

Cherokee Outlet Cowboy: Recollectioons of Laban S. Records

1435:

pulled by a pair of bison. Amongst his published works is

1066:

Bison population crash and its effect on Indigenous people

221:. The plains subspecies became the dominant animal of the 3040:"The Military and United States Indian Policy 1865-1903" 3033: 3031: 288:, and then slaughtered or stampeded over cliffs, called 1567:

Bison conservation: a symbol of Native American healing

1437:

War Whoop and Tomahawk: The Story of Two Buffalo Calves

1353:'s wife Molly encouraged him to save some of the last 79:, also commonly known as the American buffalo) was an 4640:. Utah Division of Wildlife Resources. Archived from 4001:

All Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life

3963:

All Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life

3925:

All Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life

2598:

Autobiography of Red Cloud. War Leader of the Oglalas

1250:

in 1881 and taken them back home to the ranch on the

1134:

Skin effigy of a Buffalo used in the Lakota Sun Dance

734:

In 1889, an essay in a journal of the time observed:

593:, when "the Lakota (Teton Sioux) drove them from the 244:

1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus

4253:. Recovery.doi.gov. Retrieved on September 16, 2011. 3072:

Cody, WY: Buffalo Bill Historical Center, 2007: 211.

1799:

Bement, Leland C.; Carter, Brian J. (October 2010).

1287:

forming the nucleus of a herd that now numbers 650.

1062:. In this last hunt, they got around 5,000 animals. 5474: 5403: 5300: 5227: 5139: 3704: 3702: 3700: 3666: 3664: 3662: 1919: 1917: 644:. Pawnee reservation and relevant territories. The 543:were in want of meat at one time in 1804. Starving 64:, set to motion to illustrate the animal's movement 4807:Heads, Hides and Horns: The Compleat Buffalo Book. 564:Loss of land and disputes over the hunting grounds 4968:(Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1973) 1853:Annals of the Association of American Geographers 4504:"Restoration of Bison onto the American Prairie" 3287:. Yale University Press. pp. 294–299, 313. 3141: 3139: 3084:Wildlife issues in a changing world, 2nd edition 2114:Wood, Raymond W. and Thomas D. Thiessen (1987): 2101:Wood, Raymond W. and Thomas D. Thiessen (1987): 1659:(which contains 550 to 700 individuals) and the 2819: 2817: 2242:Kiowa Voices. Ceremonial Dance, Ritual and Song 1441: 1080: 736: 451:Horse introduction and changing hunting dynamic 237:and which were central to the survival of many 81:activity fundamental to the economy and society 4471:(PhD dissertation). Texas A&M University. 4326:"Strands of undesirable DNA roam with buffalo" 745:the arrival of European settlers in the Plains 5119: 4497: 4495: 4493: 3808:Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America 2585:Life of George Bent. Written From His Letters 2434:Life of George Bent. Written From His Letters 2288:Densmore, Frances (1918): Teton Sioux Music. 2255:Life of George Bent. Written From His Letters 2138:Life of George Bent. Written From His Letters 2055:Means, Russell; Johnson, Bayard (1939–2012). 1937:Fletcher, Alice C. and F. La Flesche (1992). 1385:(1868–1925) was appointed conservator of the 8: 4543:"American Bison and American Indian Nations" 3349:Gilman, Carolyn and M. J. Schneider (1987): 2973: 2971: 1033:and his group established themselves on the 675:19th-century bison hunts and near-extinction 3497:, Vol. 54, No. 1, pp. 26–43. pp. 39 and 41. 3276: 3274: 2772: 2770: 2768: 555:Diminishing herds and the effects on tribes 531:begins "Famine once struck the Kiowa People 5134:Game animals and shooting in North America 5126: 5112: 5104: 4004:. Cambridge, MA: South End Press. p. 3966:. Cambridge, MA: South End Press. p. 3928:. Cambridge, MA: South End Press. p. 3392: 3390: 2473:Kiowa Voices. Myth, Legends and Folktales. 2460:Kiowa Voices. Myth, Legends and Folktales. 2386:Chardon's Journal At Fort Clark, 1834–1839 2351:Kiowa Voices. Myth, Legends and Folktales. 2229:Chardon's Journal at Fort Clark, 1834–1839 2203:Two Leggings. The Making of a Crow Warrior 2087:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 1768:Moclán, Abel; et al. (October 2021). 1546:Native American bison conservation efforts 4610: 4152:(1). National Wildlife Federation: 20–25. 3616: 3606: 2865:. The Bobbs-Merrill Company. p. 82. 2663:Mandan Social and Ceremonial Organization 2624:Mandan Social and Ceremonial Organization 2362:Fletcher & La Flesche (1992), p. 148. 2279:Fletcher & La Flesche (1992), p. 272. 1952:Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology 764:Rath & Wright's buffalo hide yard in 217:on the prairies extending from Canada to 4809:(Texas Christian University Press, 1974) 3508:Montana, the Magazine of Western History 3495:Montana, the Magazine of Western History 3384:Fletcher & La Flesche (1992), p. 33. 3375:Fletcher & La Flesche (1992), p. 51. 2499:Montana, the Magazine of Western History 846:Demonstrating clearly that he saw white 201:Ecology, spread, interaction with humans 4966:The Bison of Yellowstone National Park. 4737:"Alaska bison hunt near Delta Junction" 3046:. Yale University Press. Archived from 2924:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1760: 1223:The Extermination of the American Bison 1193:History of bison conservation in Canada 3899:. Indian Country Today. Archived from 3810:. Duke University Press. p. 294. 2950:"American Buffalo: Spirit of a Nation" 2901:Overland Monthly and Out West Magazine 2736:, Vol. 75, No. 4, pp. 301–310, p. 307. 2080: 1962: 1960: 239:Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains 4961:(University of Nebraska Press, 1972). 4687:. Wc.adfg.state.ak.us. Archived from 4661:. Wc.adfg.state.ak.us. Archived from 3399:"Bison Back from Brink of Extinction" 3044:ICE Case Studies: The Buffalo Harvest 890:William Frederick "Buffalo Bill" Cody 225:of North America, where bison were a 179:hunting bison, George Catlin, c. 1832 7: 5010:(University of Toronto Press, 1951). 4910:(University of Nebraska Press, 1954) 4711:"Alaska Department of Fish and Game" 4547:Smithsonian Institution National Zoo 4165:, The Winkler Post, Molly Goodnight 3564:"Where the Buffalo No Longer Roamed" 3397:Bergman, Brian (February 16, 2004). 2762:Vol. 78, No. 3, pp. 116–121. p. 118. 2488:, Vol. 16., No. 1, pp. 25–47, p. 40. 1325:is an isolated bison herd on Utah's 827:Lieutenant General John M. Schofield 640:Massacre Canyon battlefield (1873), 211:boreal forests of what is now Canada 196:Native American plains bison hunting 4930:(Cambridge University press, 2000) 4465:Halbert, Natalie Dierschke (2003). 4371:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.09061638.x 4336:from the original on April 16, 2009 3510:, Vol. 54, No. 1, pp. 26–43. p. 43. 3414:– via Canadian Encyclopedia. 2510:Boas, Franz (1918): Kutenai Tales. 1683:Utah Division of Wildlife Resources 1357:bison that had taken refuge in the 103:in the late 19th century following 4713:. Adfg.state.ak.us. Archived from 4288:. Retrieved on September 16, 2011. 3866:"The Ghost Dance Among the Lakota" 3843:. Smithsonian Books. p. 101. 2749:, Vol. 8. No. 2, pp. 13–23, p. 22. 1865:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1960.tb00357.x 1491:in Oklahoma which is owned by the 1415:from Europe and Canada, including 1179:and black blizzards of the 1930s. 1158:and other tribes took part in the 306:that drove the herd over a cliff. 25: 4988:Southwestern Historical Quarterly 4324:Robbins, Jim (January 19, 2007). 4184:Texas Parks and Wildlife Magazine 4098:Hearst Magazines (January 1931). 3678:. Duke University. Archived from 2501:, Vol. 53, No. 4, pp. 2–21, p. 6. 2030:Indian Life On The Upper Missouri 1584:to maintain a target population. 1281:Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge 1271:Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge 1258:Michel Pablo & Charles Allard 1007:Early reservation era final hunts 485:and eventually cross west of the 4816:. (Chicago: Swallow Press, 1974) 4413:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02591.x 4263:American Bison Society > Home 3718:The Western Historical Quarterly 3434:. Windsor Publications. p. 3099:The Western Historical Quarterly 2987:The Western Historical Quarterly 2560:Counting Coup and Cutting Horses 2534:Counting Coup and Cutting Horses 2408:Counting Coup and Cutting Horses 2371:Tableau, Pierre-Antoine (1968): 1666:Every year all the bison in the 1630:into private and state lands of 1018:, around 1,800 Shoshones in the 892:, for example, was hired by the 780:, for example, reminded several 254:savannas of the eastern seaboard 4301:. Tedturner.com. Archived from 3562:King, Gilbert (July 17, 2012). 3146:Smits, David (September 1994). 2678:, Vol. 19, pp. 287–302, p. 296. 2486:The Journal of American Studies 1786:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.107142 1452:Modern bison resurgence efforts 1049:Fort Belknap Indian Reservation 481:to give up their cornfields at 3891:Jawart, Adrian (May 9, 2011). 3766:Jawort, Adrian (May 9, 2011). 2648:Standing Bear, Luther (1975): 2639:, Vol. 58, No. 3, pp. 342-358. 2002:Medicine Crow, Joseph (1992): 1189:Conservation of American bison 1102:placental membranes included. 983:pleaded to a joint session of 961:William F. "Buffalo Bill" Cody 955:Discussion of bison protection 778:General Winfield Scott Hancock 120:Prehistoric and native hunting 1: 3317:"Value of the Buffalo to Man" 2897:"In the Prime of the Buffalo" 2824:Records, Laban (March 1995). 2475:Part II. Fort Worth, p. xxvi. 2423:, Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 397-410. 2231:. Lincoln and London, p. 159. 2205:. Lincoln and London, p. 158. 1941:. Lincoln and London, p. 281. 1020:Wind River Indian Reservation 768:, shows 40,000 buffalo hides. 664:Pawnee village was set ablaze 349:Driving herds into enclosures 5044:Western Historical Quarterly 4851:Western Historical Quarterly 4822:Western Historical Quarterly 4635:"Once-In-A-Lifetime Permits" 4036:Ley, Willy (December 1964). 3709:Smits, David (Autumn 1994). 3645:New Perspectives on The West 3462:, Vol. IX, No. 1, pp. 31–34. 3155:Western Historical Quarterly 2978:Smits, David (Autumn 1994). 2836:University of Oklahoma Press 2613:, Vol. 33, pp. 106–219, 204. 2449:. Lincoln and London, p. 40. 2421:Western Historical Quarterly 2388:. Lincoln and London, p. 52. 2353:Part II. Fort Worth, p. 127. 2327:. Lincoln and London, p. 80. 2270:. Lincoln and London, p. 40. 2244:. Part I. Fort Worth, p. 15. 2118:. Norman and London, p. 239. 2105:. Norman and London, p. 265. 2019:. Lincoln and London, p. 73. 1715:, and Boquillas del Carmen, 1619:wildlife status in Montana. 886:Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 424:Butchering methods and yield 4880:Journal of American History 4502:Patel, Moneil (June 1997). 3536:. Ithaca and London, p. 63. 3523:. Ithaca and London, p. 33. 3366:. Ithaca and London, p. 67. 3229:"On This Day: June 6, 1874" 2462:Part II. Fort Worth, p. 79. 2340:. Vol. I. New York, p. 297. 2336:Murray, Charles A. (1974): 2314:. Norman and London, p. 81. 2218:. Vol. I. New York, p. 386. 2214:Murray, Charles A. (1974): 2059:. Porcupine, South Dakota. 1624:Yellowstone Park Bison Herd 1528:American Prairie Foundation 1439:(1929). Baynes commented: 1305:Yellowstone Park bison herd 1297:Yellowstone Park Bison Herd 1023:elk, deer, and other game. 941:.50 caliber (12.7mm) rifles 859:Native American involvement 667:"Mountains on Both Sides" ( 99:, before the animal's near- 5569: 4790:The Hunting of the Buffalo 4249:February 20, 2013, at the 3595:Review of Economic Studies 3281:Hämäläinen, Pekka (2008). 2705:Meyer (1977), pp. 105–106. 2661:Bowers, Alfred W. (1991): 2622:Bowers, Alfred W. (1991): 2558:McGinnis, Anthony (1990): 2532:McGinnis, Anthony (1990): 2406:McGinnis, Anthony (1990): 2310:Blaine, Martha R. (1990): 2032:. Norman and London, p. 9. 1973:National Humanities Center 1817:10.7183/0002-7316.75.4.907 1774:Quaternary Science Reviews 1676:Antelope Island State Park 1668:Antelope Island bison herd 1661:Henry Mountains bison herd 1657:Antelope Island bison herd 1603:Wood Buffalo National Park 1516:Henry Mountains bison herd 1489:Tallgrass Prairie Preserve 1466:Henry Mountains bison herd 1367:Caprock Canyons State Park 1339:Antelope Island Bison Herd 1331:Antelope Island bison herd 1323:Antelope Island bison herd 1186: 678: 454: 105:US expansion into the West 87:peoples who inhabited the 28: 5213: 3816:10.1215/9780822376149-014 3549:, Vol. 21, No. 2, p. 115. 2918:Isenberg, Andrew (2000). 2907:(83): 515. November 1889. 2397:Castaneda (1966), p. 210. 2323:Walker, James R. (1982): 2312:Pawnee Passage, 1870–1875 2266:Walker, James R. (1982): 2127:Castaneda (1966), p. 112. 2015:Lowie, Robert H. (1983): 1837:Castaneda, Pedro (1966). 1628:Yellowstone National Park 1474:Yellowstone National Park 1301:Yellowstone National Park 991:was close to extinction. 467:Indians hunting the bison 165:A bison hunt depicted by 5035:Smits, David D. (1994). 4964:Meagher, Margaret Mary. 4583:Appl. Environ. Microbiol 4282:"Where the Buffalo Roam" 4223:Corbin’s “Animal Garden” 4106:. Hearst Magazines: 1–. 4057:Journal of Legal Studies 4040:. For Your Information. 3870:PBS Archives of the West 3532:Fowler, Loretta (1987): 3519:Fowler, Loretta (1987): 3362:Fowler, Loretta (1987): 3038:Wooster, Robert (1988). 2956:. PBS. November 10, 1998 2787:American Economic Review 2583:Hyde, George E. (1987): 2432:Hyde, George E. (1987): 2338:Travels in North America 2301:Castaneda (1966), p. 71. 2253:Hyde, George E. (1987): 2216:Travels in North America 2152:Journal of Legal Studies 2136:Hyde, George E. (1987): 1924:Sheppard Software, Bison 1685:has determined that the 1277:New York Zoological Park 1265:Elk Island National Park 1219:New York Zoological Park 1198:Beginnings of resurgence 820:William Tecumseh Sherman 367:People surrounding herds 233:as strongly as periodic 42:Crow Indian Buffalo Hunt 4959:The Time of the Buffalo 4758:staff (March 3, 2010). 4739:. Outdoorsdirectory.com 3998:Laduke, Winona (1999). 3960:Laduke, Winona (1999). 3922:Laduke, Winona (1999). 2859:Wheeler, Homer (1925). 2549:195. Washington, p. 30. 2384:Chardon, F. A. (1997): 2227:Chardon, F. A. (1997): 2201:Nabokov, Peter (1982): 1839:The Journey of Coronado 1381:In 1904 the naturalist 1215:William Temple Hornaday 1183:Resurgence of the bison 894:Kansas Pacific Railroad 656:Like-a-Fishhook Village 432:archaeological site in 405:Driving bison under ice 381:Exhausting single bison 49:Milwaukee Public Museum 5340:Cougar (mountain lion) 5221: 5089:Great Plains Quarterly 4916:Great Plains Quarterly 4908:The Great Buffalo Hunt 4234:Quoted in Kronenwetter 4221:Mary T. Kronenwetter, 4171:June 17, 2012, at the 4042:Galaxy Science Fiction 3864:Parker, Z. A. (1890). 3608:10.1093/restud/rdad060 3547:Great Plains Quarterly 2800:10.1257/aer.101.7.3162 2777:Taylor, Scott (2011). 2600:. Chelsea, pp. 136–140 2471:Boyd, Maurice (1983): 2458:Boyd, Maurice (1983): 2445:Meyer, Roy W. (1977): 2349:Boyd, Maurice (1983): 2240:Boyd, Maurice (1981): 2041:Kelsey, Henry (1929): 2006:. New York, pp. 86–99. 1894:Juras, Philip (1997). 1729:American Bison Society 1540:Endangered Species Act 1449: 1445:American Bison Society 1229:in 1905, supported by 1227:American Bison Society 1211: 1135: 1085: 1003: 844: 809:Government involvement 769: 741: 731: 729: Range as of 1889 723: Range as of 1870 694: 650: 577: 509: 473: 322: 192: 180: 169: 65: 51: 5219: 4799:June 5, 2011, at the 4647:on November 11, 2010. 4268:May 30, 2013, at the 3839:Harjo, Suzan (2014). 3208:www.perseus.tufts.edu 3130:July 6, 2020, at the 2723:Howard (1965), p. 31. 2714:Howard (1965), p. 27. 2696:Meyer (1977), p. 119. 2676:Plains Anthropologist 2652:. Lincoln, pp. 53–55. 2596:Paul, Eli R. (1997): 2571:Meyer (1977), p. 108. 2292:. Washington, p. 439. 1243:James "Scotty" Philip 1237:James "Scotty" Philip 1205: 1187:Further information: 1140:University of Montana 1133: 1000: 840: 763: 756:Commercial incentives 711: 688: 639: 571: 495: 464: 315: 186: 175: 164: 60:A group of images by 59: 39: 5192:Snipe (common snipe) 5172:Ring-necked pheasant 5083:and 26 (1995) 203-8. 5006:Roe, Frank Gilbert. 4939:North Dakota History 4926:Isenberg, Andrew C. 4788:Branch, E. Douglas. 4603:10.1128/AEM.00045-12 4358:Conservation Biology 4305:on December 15, 2010 4038:"The Rarest Animals" 3772:Indian Country Today 3568:Smithsonian Magazine 2747:The Indian Historian 2687:Meyer (1977), p. 97. 2650:My People, the Sioux 2611:North Dakota History 2536:. Evergreen, p. 122. 2514:. Washington, p. 53. 1967:Krech III, Shepard. 1841:. Ann Arbor, p. 205. 1744:Buffalo Hunters' War 1678:and the bison herd. 1576:21st century hunting 1520:Wind Cave bison herd 1508:genetically polluted 1407:Corbin Sr. imported 1383:Ernest Harold Baynes 1060:Standing Rock Agency 880:Railroad involvement 795:professional hunters 772:For settlers of the 717: Original range 574:Standing Rock Agency 483:Biesterfeldt village 395:Driving bison on ice 5187:Sharp-tailed grouse 5157:Hungarian partridge 4595:2012ApEnM..78.3674H 4100:"Popular Mechanics" 3475:Vol. 14, pp. 17–32. 3428:Foran, Max (1982). 3353:. St. Paul, p. 228. 3284:The Comanche Empire 3233:archive.nytimes.com 3082:Moulton, M (1995). 2562:. Evergreen, p. 97. 1275:Also, in 1907, the 1241:The famous herd of 1206:The reverse of the 1116:Richard Henry Pratt 1097:Loss of food source 1072:settler-colonialist 971:In 1874, President 815:Indian reservations 669:Judith Gap, Montana 5411:American alligator 5222: 4762:. Ens-newswire.com 4717:on August 24, 2010 4691:on October 1, 2009 4665:on August 21, 2009 4330:The New York Times 4201:. August 29, 2013. 4044:. pp. 94–103. 1975:. Brown University 1805:American Antiquity 1493:Nature Conservancy 1231:Theodore Roosevelt 1212: 1136: 1004: 913:Commercial hunting 896:for this reason. 770: 766:Dodge City, Kansas 732: 695: 651: 578: 572:Ration Day at the 510: 474: 457:Métis buffalo hunt 323: 249:Hernando De Soto's 193: 181: 170: 66: 62:Eadweard Muybridge 52: 5535: 5534: 5507:Waterfowl hunting 5355:White-tailed deer 5220:Waterfowl hunters 4981:978-0-8032-2680-7 4805:Barsness, Larry. 4514:on April 15, 2015 4401:Molecular Ecology 4146:National Wildlife 4104:Popular Mechanics 3825:978-0-8223-5779-7 3570:. The Smithsonian 3445:978-0-89781-055-5 3294:978-0-300-12654-9 3258:en.wikisource.org 2845:978-0-8061-2694-4 2665:. Moscow, p. 360. 2626:. Moscow, p. 177. 2257:. Norman, p. 200. 2043:The Kelsey Papers 1687:carrying capacity 1351:Charles Goodnight 1279:sent 15 bison to 1221:'s 1887 report, " 1170:Ecological effect 1126:Spiritual effects 1053:Fort Assinniboine 925:Buffalo Bill Cody 646:last major battle 260:Religious rituals 247:, pages 367 ff, " 128:in Eurasia, like 16:(Redirected from 5560: 5487:Big-game hunting 5272:Northern pintail 5128: 5121: 5114: 5105: 5096: 5082: 5080: 5078: 5073:on July 25, 2011 5072: 5066:. Archived from 5041: 5031: 5003: 4971:Punke, Michael. 4954: 4923: 4903: 4874: 4845: 4814:The Buffalo Book 4772: 4771: 4769: 4767: 4755: 4749: 4748: 4746: 4744: 4733: 4727: 4726: 4724: 4722: 4707: 4701: 4700: 4698: 4696: 4681: 4675: 4674: 4672: 4670: 4655: 4649: 4648: 4646: 4639: 4631: 4625: 4624: 4614: 4574: 4568: 4565: 4559: 4558: 4556: 4554: 4539: 4533: 4530: 4524: 4523: 4521: 4519: 4510:. Archived from 4499: 4488: 4487: 4485: 4483: 4462: 4456: 4455: 4453: 4451: 4446:on July 10, 2012 4445: 4439:. 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Archived from 3715: 3706: 3695: 3694: 3692: 3690: 3685:on March 8, 2012 3684: 3677: 3668: 3657: 3656: 3654: 3652: 3637: 3631: 3630: 3620: 3610: 3601:(3): 1634–1670. 3586: 3580: 3579: 3577: 3575: 3559: 3550: 3543: 3537: 3530: 3524: 3517: 3511: 3504: 3498: 3491: 3485: 3482: 3476: 3469: 3463: 3456: 3450: 3449: 3425: 3419: 3418: 3413: 3411: 3394: 3385: 3382: 3376: 3373: 3367: 3360: 3354: 3347: 3341: 3338: 3332: 3326: 3320: 3314: 3308: 3305: 3299: 3298: 3278: 3269: 3268: 3266: 3264: 3250: 3244: 3243: 3241: 3239: 3225: 3219: 3218: 3216: 3214: 3200: 3194: 3193: 3191: 3189: 3183: 3177:. Archived from 3152: 3143: 3134: 3122: 3094: 3088: 3087: 3079: 3073: 3068:Hanson, Emma I. 3066: 3060: 3059: 3057: 3055: 3050:on April 3, 2015 3035: 3026: 3025: 3023: 3021: 3015: 3009:. Archived from 2984: 2975: 2966: 2965: 2963: 2961: 2946: 2940: 2939: 2915: 2909: 2908: 2893: 2887: 2886: 2884: 2882: 2877:on April 3, 2015 2873:. Archived from 2856: 2850: 2849: 2832:Norman, Oklahoma 2821: 2812: 2811: 2794:(7): 3162–3195. 2783: 2774: 2763: 2760:Nebraska History 2756: 2750: 2743: 2737: 2734:Nebraska History 2730: 2724: 2721: 2715: 2712: 2706: 2703: 2697: 2694: 2688: 2685: 2679: 2672: 2666: 2659: 2653: 2646: 2640: 2637:Nebraska History 2633: 2627: 2620: 2614: 2607: 2601: 2594: 2588: 2587:. Norman, p. 26. 2581: 2572: 2569: 2563: 2556: 2550: 2543: 2537: 2530: 2524: 2521: 2515: 2508: 2502: 2495: 2489: 2482: 2476: 2469: 2463: 2456: 2450: 2443: 2437: 2436:. Norman, p. 16. 2430: 2424: 2417: 2411: 2404: 2398: 2395: 2389: 2382: 2376: 2375:. Norman, p. 72. 2369: 2363: 2360: 2354: 2347: 2341: 2334: 2328: 2321: 2315: 2308: 2302: 2299: 2293: 2286: 2280: 2277: 2271: 2264: 2258: 2251: 2245: 2238: 2232: 2225: 2219: 2212: 2206: 2199: 2193: 2190: 2184: 2183: 2147: 2141: 2140:. Norman, p. 12. 2134: 2128: 2125: 2119: 2112: 2106: 2099: 2093: 2092: 2086: 2078: 2052: 2046: 2045:. Ottawa, p. 13. 2039: 2033: 2026: 2020: 2017:The Crow Indians 2013: 2007: 2000: 1994: 1991: 1985: 1984: 1982: 1980: 1964: 1955: 1954:, No. 27, p. 98. 1948: 1942: 1935: 1926: 1921: 1912: 1911: 1909: 1907: 1902:on June 17, 2008 1898:. Archived from 1891: 1885: 1884: 1848: 1842: 1835: 1829: 1828: 1796: 1790: 1789: 1765: 1532:American Prairie 1363:Palo Duro Canyon 1291:Yellowstone Park 1106:Loss of autonomy 1076:Manifest Destiny 973:Ulysses S. Grant 869:Pekka Hämäläinen 832:Ulysses S. Grant 728: 722: 716: 538: 534: 465:Illustration of 227:keystone species 156:Folsom tradition 21: 5568: 5567: 5563: 5562: 5561: 5559: 5558: 5557: 5538: 5537: 5536: 5531: 5470: 5399: 5330:Bison (buffalo) 5296: 5223: 5211: 5162:Prairie chicken 5135: 5132: 5102: 5086: 5076: 5074: 5070: 5039: 5034: 5013: 4985: 4936: 4913: 4892:10.2307/2079530 4877: 4848: 4819: 4801:Wayback Machine 4784: 4782:Further reading 4778: 4776: 4775: 4765: 4763: 4757: 4756: 4752: 4742: 4740: 4735: 4734: 4730: 4720: 4718: 4709: 4708: 4704: 4694: 4692: 4683: 4682: 4678: 4668: 4666: 4657: 4656: 4652: 4644: 4637: 4633: 4632: 4628: 4589:(10): 3674–84. 4576: 4575: 4571: 4566: 4562: 4552: 4550: 4541: 4540: 4536: 4531: 4527: 4517: 4515: 4501: 4500: 4491: 4481: 4479: 4464: 4463: 4459: 4449: 4447: 4443: 4396: 4391: 4390: 4386: 4354: 4353: 4349: 4339: 4337: 4323: 4322: 4318: 4308: 4306: 4297: 4296: 4292: 4280: 4276: 4270:Wayback Machine 4261: 4257: 4251:Wayback Machine 4242: 4238: 4233: 4229: 4219: 4215: 4210: 4206: 4197: 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3187: 3185: 3184:on July 6, 2020 3181: 3150: 3145: 3144: 3137: 3132:Wayback Machine 3125:history.msu.edu 3096: 3095: 3091: 3081: 3080: 3076: 3067: 3063: 3053: 3051: 3037: 3036: 3029: 3019: 3017: 3016:on July 6, 2020 3013: 2982: 2977: 2976: 2969: 2959: 2957: 2948: 2947: 2943: 2936: 2917: 2916: 2912: 2895: 2894: 2890: 2880: 2878: 2858: 2857: 2853: 2846: 2823: 2822: 2815: 2781: 2776: 2775: 2766: 2757: 2753: 2744: 2740: 2731: 2727: 2722: 2718: 2713: 2709: 2704: 2700: 2695: 2691: 2686: 2682: 2673: 2669: 2660: 2656: 2647: 2643: 2634: 2630: 2621: 2617: 2608: 2604: 2595: 2591: 2582: 2575: 2570: 2566: 2557: 2553: 2544: 2540: 2531: 2527: 2522: 2518: 2509: 2505: 2496: 2492: 2483: 2479: 2470: 2466: 2457: 2453: 2444: 2440: 2431: 2427: 2418: 2414: 2405: 2401: 2396: 2392: 2383: 2379: 2370: 2366: 2361: 2357: 2348: 2344: 2335: 2331: 2322: 2318: 2309: 2305: 2300: 2296: 2287: 2283: 2278: 2274: 2265: 2261: 2252: 2248: 2239: 2235: 2226: 2222: 2213: 2209: 2200: 2196: 2191: 2187: 2149: 2148: 2144: 2135: 2131: 2126: 2122: 2113: 2109: 2100: 2096: 2079: 2067: 2054: 2053: 2049: 2040: 2036: 2027: 2023: 2014: 2010: 2001: 1997: 1992: 1988: 1978: 1976: 1966: 1965: 1958: 1949: 1945: 1939:The Omaha Tribe 1936: 1929: 1922: 1915: 1905: 1903: 1893: 1892: 1888: 1850: 1849: 1845: 1836: 1832: 1798: 1797: 1793: 1767: 1766: 1762: 1757: 1739:Buffalo Commons 1725: 1708: 1700: 1692:Henry Mountains 1672:Antelope Island 1645: 1616: 1611: 1595: 1590: 1578: 1569: 1548: 1526:in 2005 by the 1454: 1379: 1371:Quitaque, Texas 1359:Texas Panhandle 1347: 1345:Molly Goodnight 1327:Antelope Island 1319: 1317:Antelope Island 1293: 1273: 1260: 1239: 1200: 1195: 1185: 1172: 1128: 1108: 1099: 1090: 1068: 1031:Crow Flies High 1009: 981:Philip Sheridan 957: 949:Texas Panhandle 915: 902:Harper's Weekly 882: 861: 836:Columbus Delano 811: 758: 749:Plains cultures 730: 726: 724: 720: 718: 714: 683: 677: 619:Pend d'Oreilles 566: 557: 536: 532: 459: 453: 426: 360:bows and arrows 336:of stones (cf. 282: 262: 203: 198: 122: 93:Interior Plains 89:vast grasslands 34: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5566: 5564: 5556: 5555: 5550: 5540: 5539: 5533: 5532: 5530: 5529: 5527:Upland hunting 5524: 5519: 5514: 5509: 5504: 5499: 5494: 5489: 5484: 5478: 5476: 5472: 5471: 5469: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5407: 5405: 5401: 5400: 5398: 5397: 5392: 5387: 5382: 5377: 5372: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5306: 5304: 5298: 5297: 5295: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5233: 5231: 5225: 5224: 5214: 5212: 5210: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5147:Bobwhite quail 5143: 5141: 5137: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5130: 5123: 5116: 5108: 5101: 5100: 5097: 5084: 5056:10.2307/971110 5032: 5022:(5): 148–150. 5011: 5004: 4983: 4969: 4962: 4955: 4934: 4932:online edition 4924: 4911: 4904: 4875: 4863:10.2307/970189 4857:(2): 197–203. 4846: 4834:10.2307/969920 4817: 4812:Dary David A. 4810: 4803: 4794:online edition 4785: 4783: 4780: 4774: 4773: 4750: 4728: 4702: 4676: 4650: 4626: 4569: 4560: 4534: 4525: 4489: 4457: 4384: 4347: 4316: 4290: 4274: 4255: 4236: 4227: 4213: 4204: 4187: 4176: 4155: 4136: 4132:American Bison 4124: 4090: 4077:10.1086/340410 4069:10.1086/340410 4063:(2): 609–652. 4047: 4028: 4015:978-0896085992 4014: 3990: 3977:978-0896085992 3976: 3952: 3939:978-0896085992 3938: 3914: 3883: 3856: 3850:978-1588344786 3849: 3831: 3824: 3798: 3789: 3758: 3730:10.2307/971110 3724:(3): 312–338. 3696: 3658: 3641:"Black Kettle" 3632: 3581: 3551: 3538: 3525: 3512: 3499: 3486: 3477: 3464: 3451: 3444: 3420: 3386: 3377: 3368: 3355: 3342: 3333: 3321: 3309: 3300: 3293: 3270: 3245: 3220: 3195: 3167:10.2307/971110 3161:(3): 312–338. 3135: 3111:10.2307/971110 3089: 3074: 3061: 3027: 2999:10.2307/971110 2993:(3): 312–338. 2967: 2941: 2935:978-0521771726 2934: 2910: 2888: 2851: 2844: 2813: 2764: 2751: 2738: 2725: 2716: 2707: 2698: 2689: 2680: 2667: 2654: 2641: 2628: 2615: 2602: 2589: 2573: 2564: 2551: 2538: 2525: 2516: 2503: 2490: 2477: 2464: 2451: 2438: 2425: 2412: 2399: 2390: 2377: 2364: 2355: 2342: 2329: 2325:Lakota Society 2316: 2303: 2294: 2281: 2272: 2268:Lakota Society 2259: 2246: 2233: 2220: 2207: 2194: 2185: 2172:10.1086/340410 2164:10.1086/340410 2158:(2): 609–652. 2142: 2129: 2120: 2107: 2094: 2066:978-1482068108 2065: 2047: 2034: 2021: 2008: 1995: 1986: 1956: 1943: 1927: 1913: 1886: 1859:(4): 395–407. 1843: 1830: 1811:(4): 907–933. 1791: 1759: 1758: 1756: 1753: 1752: 1751: 1749:European bison 1746: 1741: 1736: 1731: 1724: 1721: 1707: 1704: 1699: 1696: 1651:maintains two 1644: 1641: 1615: 1612: 1610: 1607: 1594: 1591: 1589: 1586: 1577: 1574: 1568: 1565: 1547: 1544: 1504:American bison 1462:national parks 1453: 1450: 1413:exotic species 1409:American bison 1378: 1375: 1346: 1343: 1335:American bison 1318: 1315: 1292: 1289: 1272: 1269: 1259: 1256: 1252:Cheyenne River 1238: 1235: 1208:buffalo nickel 1199: 1196: 1184: 1181: 1171: 1168: 1127: 1124: 1107: 1104: 1098: 1095: 1089: 1086: 1067: 1064: 1029:Hidatsa rebel 1008: 1005: 989:American Bison 956: 953: 918:gun cleaners, 914: 911: 881: 878: 860: 857: 810: 807: 757: 754: 725: 719: 713: 676: 673: 565: 562: 556: 553: 502:American Horse 452: 449: 430:Olsen–Chubbuck 425: 422: 408: 407: 398: 397: 384: 383: 370: 369: 352: 351: 300: 299: 281: 278: 261: 258: 202: 199: 197: 194: 148:Before Present 139:Bison antiquus 126:archaic humans 121: 118: 113:non-Indigenous 85:Plains Indians 77:American bison 31:Ryan Model 147 24: 18:Buffalo hunter 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5565: 5554: 5551: 5549: 5548:Bison hunting 5546: 5545: 5543: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5518: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5503: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5493: 5492:Bison hunting 5490: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5479: 5477: 5473: 5467: 5466:Snowshoe hare 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5441:Gray squirrel 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5408: 5406: 5402: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5365:Mountain goat 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5310:Bighorn sheep 5308: 5307: 5305: 5303: 5299: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5257:Greater scaup 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5234: 5232: 5230: 5226: 5218: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5197:Spruce grouse 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5182:Ruffed grouse 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5167:Mourning dove 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5144: 5142: 5138: 5129: 5124: 5122: 5117: 5115: 5110: 5109: 5106: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5085: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5050:(3): 313–38. 5049: 5045: 5038: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5012: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4984: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4967: 4963: 4960: 4957:McHugh, Tom. 4956: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4935: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4912: 4909: 4906:Gard, Wayne. 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4886:(2): 465–85. 4885: 4881: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4823: 4818: 4815: 4811: 4808: 4804: 4802: 4798: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4786: 4781: 4779: 4761: 4754: 4751: 4738: 4732: 4729: 4716: 4712: 4706: 4703: 4690: 4686: 4680: 4677: 4664: 4660: 4654: 4651: 4643: 4636: 4630: 4627: 4622: 4618: 4613: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4573: 4570: 4564: 4561: 4549:. Smithsonian 4548: 4544: 4538: 4535: 4529: 4526: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4498: 4496: 4494: 4490: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4469: 4461: 4458: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4395: 4388: 4385: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4359: 4351: 4348: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4320: 4317: 4304: 4300: 4294: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4278: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4264: 4259: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4245: 4240: 4237: 4231: 4228: 4225: 4224: 4217: 4214: 4208: 4205: 4200: 4194: 4192: 4188: 4185: 4180: 4177: 4174: 4170: 4167: 4164: 4159: 4156: 4151: 4147: 4140: 4137: 4133: 4128: 4125: 4117:September 16, 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4094: 4091: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4051: 4048: 4043: 4039: 4032: 4029: 4017: 4011: 4007: 4003: 4002: 3994: 3991: 3979: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3964: 3956: 3953: 3941: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3926: 3918: 3915: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3887: 3884: 3871: 3867: 3860: 3857: 3852: 3846: 3842: 3835: 3832: 3827: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3802: 3799: 3793: 3790: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3762: 3759: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3712: 3705: 3703: 3701: 3697: 3681: 3674: 3671:Duval, Clay. 3667: 3665: 3663: 3659: 3646: 3642: 3636: 3633: 3628: 3624: 3619: 3614: 3609: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3585: 3582: 3569: 3565: 3558: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3542: 3539: 3535: 3529: 3526: 3522: 3516: 3513: 3509: 3503: 3500: 3496: 3490: 3487: 3481: 3478: 3474: 3468: 3465: 3461: 3455: 3452: 3447: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3432: 3424: 3421: 3417: 3406: 3405: 3400: 3393: 3391: 3387: 3381: 3378: 3372: 3369: 3365: 3359: 3356: 3352: 3346: 3343: 3337: 3334: 3331: 3325: 3322: 3318: 3313: 3310: 3304: 3301: 3296: 3290: 3286: 3285: 3277: 3275: 3271: 3259: 3255: 3249: 3246: 3234: 3230: 3224: 3221: 3209: 3205: 3199: 3196: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3149: 3142: 3140: 3136: 3133: 3129: 3126: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3093: 3090: 3085: 3078: 3075: 3071: 3065: 3062: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3034: 3032: 3028: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2981: 2974: 2972: 2968: 2955: 2951: 2945: 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2217: 2211: 2208: 2204: 2198: 2195: 2189: 2186: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2146: 2143: 2139: 2133: 2130: 2124: 2121: 2117: 2111: 2108: 2104: 2098: 2095: 2090: 2084: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2062: 2058: 2051: 2048: 2044: 2038: 2035: 2031: 2025: 2022: 2018: 2012: 2009: 2005: 1999: 1996: 1990: 1987: 1974: 1970: 1963: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1947: 1944: 1940: 1934: 1932: 1928: 1925: 1920: 1918: 1914: 1901: 1897: 1890: 1887: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1847: 1844: 1840: 1834: 1831: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1795: 1792: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1764: 1761: 1754: 1750: 1747: 1745: 1742: 1740: 1737: 1735: 1732: 1730: 1727: 1726: 1722: 1720: 1718: 1714: 1705: 1703: 1697: 1695: 1693: 1688: 1684: 1679: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1664: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1649:State of Utah 1642: 1640: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1620: 1613: 1609:United States 1608: 1606: 1604: 1600: 1592: 1587: 1585: 1583: 1575: 1573: 1566: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1545: 1543: 1541: 1535: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1500: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1485: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1451: 1448: 1446: 1440: 1438: 1434: 1429: 1427: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1405: 1403: 1399: 1398:Austin Corbin 1395: 1394:New Hampshire 1391: 1388: 1384: 1377:Austin Corbin 1376: 1374: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1344: 1342: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1316: 1314: 1311: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1290: 1288: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1270: 1268: 1266: 1257: 1255: 1253: 1249: 1244: 1236: 1234: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1209: 1204: 1197: 1194: 1190: 1182: 1180: 1178: 1169: 1167: 1163: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1144: 1141: 1132: 1125: 1123: 1119: 1117: 1112: 1105: 1103: 1096: 1094: 1087: 1084: 1079: 1077: 1073: 1065: 1063: 1061: 1056: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1041: 1038: 1036: 1032: 1027: 1024: 1021: 1017: 1014:Led by Chief 1012: 1006: 999: 995: 992: 990: 986: 982: 978: 977:pocket vetoed 974: 969: 966: 962: 954: 952: 950: 945: 942: 936: 934: 928: 926: 921: 912: 910: 906: 903: 897: 895: 891: 887: 879: 877: 874: 870: 866: 863:According to 858: 856: 852: 849: 843: 839: 837: 833: 828: 823: 821: 816: 808: 806: 804: 800: 796: 790: 787: 783: 779: 775: 774:Plains region 767: 762: 755: 753: 750: 746: 740: 735: 710: 706: 702: 700: 692: 687: 682: 674: 672: 670: 665: 659: 657: 649:reservations. 647: 643: 638: 634: 632: 627: 625: 620: 617:In 1866, the 615: 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 592: 586: 584: 575: 570: 563: 561: 554: 552: 550: 546: 542: 530: 525: 522: 517: 513: 507: 503: 499: 494: 490: 488: 484: 480: 472: 468: 463: 458: 450: 448: 445: 441: 439: 435: 431: 423: 421: 418: 413: 406: 403: 402: 401: 396: 393: 392: 391: 388: 382: 379: 378: 377: 374: 368: 365: 364: 363: 361: 358:, as well as 357: 350: 347: 346: 345: 343: 339: 335: 331: 326: 319: 314: 310: 307: 305: 298: 297:Buffalo jumps 295: 294: 293: 291: 290:buffalo jumps 287: 286:buffalo pound 279: 277: 273: 271: 267: 259: 257: 255: 250: 246: 245: 240: 236: 235:prairie fires 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 212: 208: 200: 195: 190: 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