1598:
reestablished some control over Epirus and
Thessaly. Throughout his reign, he was also able to work with competent administrators such as John Kantakouzenos who, along with many of the nobles, supported Andronikos during the civil war with Andronikos II. However, numerous reversals against Byzantium's enemies such as Serbia and the rising Ottomans at battles such as Pelekanon further drained the power Byzantium had in comparison to its neighbors. This would be a situation that would not be helped by his sudden death in the 1340s which resulted in a civil war between the regency of John V(a coalition of Anna of Savoy, Alexios Apokaukos and the patriarch of Constantinople, John XIV) and the nobility who promoted John Kantakouzenos as emperor. In addition, diplomacy became less useful, as Byzantium's enemies realized that the Emperor had not the military or even economic might to back his word. While there was a general decline in the Empire's fortunes, Andronikos III's death would be the
2424:
1577:, Serbian forces took five key forts from Byzantium in 1334 and forced it to recognize the new borders. Andronikos was then forced to recognize Serbian rule in Macedonia. In addition, Andronikos faced a further reversal when leading his army at Rousokastron where he was defeated by the Bulgarians under their leader Ivan Alexander. Nevertheless, Andronikos was able to bring back Epirus into the fold in 1341 through the use of diplomacy. The result was that while the Empire was reduced to its European territories, it had succeeded in bringing much of Greece under its control. Unfortunately for the newly expanded Byzantium,
591:
2118:
902:
1679:, a nominal ally established by Andronikos III. The Regency of John V relied on Turkish mercenaries as well. However, Kantakouzenos began to draw support from the Ottoman Sultan Orhan, who wed Kantakouzenos' daughter in 1345. By 1347, Kantakouzenos had triumphed and entered Constantinople. However, in his hour of victory, he came to an accord with Anna and her son, John V: John V (now 15 years of age) and Kantakouzenos would rule as co-emperors, though John V would be the junior in this relationship. This unlikely partnership was not destined to last long.
94:
2264:. John VII was a favorite of Bayezid so Manuel II was in a dangerous position. He eventually sealed an agreement. However, the Ottoman Sultan became infuriated by Manuel II's attempts to reconcile his nephew John VII. Manuel was concerned that John VII might once again launch a coup against him so wished to end the threat diplomatically. Bayezid ordered Manuel's execution, but then reduced his furious response and instead demanded that Constantinople build another Mosque and that a colony of Turks be established.
2615:
who had been opened up to
Byzantium by the maritime expansions of Genoa and Venice came to appreciate their achievements, facilitating the Renaissance. As such these scholars found themselves in Italian institutions, expressing their Greco-Roman culture for pay. Immigration to Italy was made less attractive by the idea of abandoning the Orthodox faith to practice Catholicism. Nonetheless, a significant and increasing number of Greeks began travelling to Italy, first temporarily to Italian colonies such as
1846:
630:
115:
566:
1481:
brother Manuel
Palaiologos had been accidentally murdered by Andronikos III's companions over a competitive love affair. His father (Michael IX), the son of Andronikos II, died of shock as a result of his son's death. Andronikos III did not take his disinheritance lightly — organizing an armed opposition, he succeeded in drawing support with promises of generous tax cuts, even beyond those enacted by Andronikos II. Andronikos II was powerless to stop the young usurper; he granted him
1160:
2633:
1307:
2244:
1523:
1663:, sparked the civil conflict when he convinced the Empress that John V's rule was threatened by the ambitions of Kantakouzenos. In September 1341, while Kantakouzenos was in Thrace, Kalekas declared himself as regent and launched a vicious attack on Kantakouzenos, his supporters and family. In October, Anna ordered Kantakouzenos to resign his command. Kantakouzenos not only refused, but declared himself Emperor at
1614:
168:
2336:
2409:
Manuel II Palaiologos re-established
Byzantium as a vassal of the Ottomans — 300,000 silver coins were to be paid to the Sultan on annual basis. That the Empire managed to accomplish this at its lowest ebb is remarkable. Nonetheless, until the 1450s, the Ottomans would not make any concerted efforts to overcome the walls of Constantinople, and the city retained a tenuous security for the next two decades.
2808:
5626:
2975:" that would cut a swathe through Asia Minor and allow Byzantine troops to re-occupy the empire's ancient heartlands. However, by the late 14th century, the Byzantine Empire did not possess sufficient resources for the task, and in any case such Western undertakings would have required Byzantium to submit to Rome. If the price for political freedom was religious freedom, certain emperors such as
2907:
2503:. Murad II was in no position to stop these troublesome westerners since he was overwhelmed with problems by easterners in Anatolia, the core of the Ottoman realm. Therefore, Murad hastily concluded a peace treaty in the Balkans. The Hungarians soon broke the treaty, but at Varna a hastily assembled Ottoman army crushed the Crusaders and left the Balkans at the mercy of Ottoman vengeance.
2535:
178:
158:
1472:, thereby further reducing Byzantium's military capability. While these solved some problems that Michael VIII had left for his son, it unraveled his father's attempts at restoring the power of the Byzantine Empire; where Michael VIII had attempted to deal with problems outside the Empire, Andronikos aimed to solve the internal problems resulting from his father's reign.
2229:, where he "donated" religious relics made of precious metals to them for their support. John refused to give up his right to rule as Emperor of Byzantium until his death in 1408. By then however, the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid had recognized Manuel II Palaiologos as co-emperor of Byzantium alongside his father John V, and finally, when John V died in 1391, as sole Emperor.
1786:
thinking of ways to stave off defeat. Amadeo returned to Europe via Rome and brought with him
Byzantine envoys. The Pope again was uninterested, but called for John V to visit him. In 1369, when the Ottomans finally captured Adrianople (though some sources indicate 1365), John V rushed to Rome and confessed his Catholic faith both privately and at a public spectacle.
1704:, one of the few islands in the Aegean still under Byzantine control, while Kantakouzenos made his son Matthew co-emperor. John V would not give up so easy however, and in 1354 Ottoman troops began crossing over into Thrace in his support. The citizens of Constantinople became gripped with fear and in November of that same year, John V launched a successful coup with
1082:
1590:
1747:
2992:
severely weakened the empire from within, leaving it disastrously exposed to outside attack. Furthermore, the empire's military system had become increasingly disorganised and chaotic, following the demise of the theme system in the 11th–13th centuries. The result was persistent failure and defeat on every frontier.
2188:, useless. Again, prison break became the next event with John V and Manuel escaping Constantinople, offering the Ottoman Sultan higher tribute than normally paid, in return for help in taking over Constantinople. Andronikos IV, having been beaten yet again, evaded capture and slipped into the Genoese district of
2995:
Byzantium could only lose and decline for so long before it destroyed her; by the late 14th century, the situation had become so severe that
Byzantium surrendered her political independence. By the mid 15th century, restoring both the religious and the political freedom of Byzantium was ultimately an
2982:
The proximate cause of the problem lay in
Byzantium's numerous enemies, who combined during the course of the 14th century to overwhelm what remained of the empire's core territories. With each passing decade, the Byzantine Empire became weaker and lost more land. There were fewer resources available
1014:
in 1243. The
Palaiologoi were engaged on several fronts, often continually, while the empire's supply of food and manpower dwindled. In this period, the Byzantine Empire found itself continually at war, both civil and interstate, with most interstate conflicts being with other Christian empires. Most
2614:
Despite much chaos in the Empire, the
Byzantines experienced a revival in culture and art within their domain. Towards the 14th century, as the Empire entered into a phase of terminal crisis, such achievements became less valued. All was not lost for these seemingly rejected scholars — many in Italy
2572:
Mehmed II assembled a huge army to assail
Constantinople's landward walls — some sources suggest 80,000 soldiers, while others suggest figures as high as 100,000 or even 200,000, including camp followers. A major feature of the Ottoman army was its high-quality artillery. Among others, it featured a
2506:
John VIII died in 1448. His reign lasted two decades. His achievement was the continued survival of the Empire. Yet Byzantium was now hanging by a thread. With insufficient military manpower for its own defense, an economy ruined by years of warfare, a depopulated capital, and insufficient territory
2392:
The Byzantines were the first to make a move when John VIII and his advisors made a risky decision by inciting a rebellion within the Ottoman Sultanate. In August 1421, they backed a man named Mustafa who claimed to be a long lost son of Bayezid the Thunderbolt. In Europe, Mustafa's rebellion worked
2272:
Manuel's next steps were bold and seemingly foolish — not only did he refuse to pay the Sultan tribute, he refused to answer the Sultan's messages and Bayezid set about laying siege to Constantinople. In 1394, his siege began and would continue for eight years. Manuel II realized that while the city
2204:
With Thessalonica surrendering in 1387 and his position rather hopeless, Manuel returned to John V and, with the Sultan's assent, began making conciliatory offers to his father. John V realized that accepting his second son back would cause his grandson to rebel in turn, and therefore he simply kept
1785:
arrived at and seized the fortress of Gallipoli from the Ottomans and handed it back to the Byzantines, hoping that this would stem the tide of Turkish emigration into Thrace. However, the Turks had by now firmly established themselves in Thrace. Amadeo and John spent much time between 1367 and 1369
1769:
and Michael VIII, John V now turned to the Pope and offered the promise of a Union of the two Churches in the hopes of receiving military assistance. As a guarantee of compliance, John V offered his son, Manuel. In the past, Byzantium's cry for assistance were answered with mixed results — pillaging
1597:
Although ultimately unsuccessful, the reign of Andronikos III was one of the last bright spots in Byzantine history, as the Empire's position was becoming increasingly precarious. Andronikos was able to score some successes in his life as he campaigned vigorously against the Genoese with success and
1480:
Andronikos II's policies were not successful in dealing with Byzantium's external problems; however, it would be threats from within the Empire that led to his abdication — in 1320 Andronikos III, the young (in his twenties) grandson of Andronikos II was disinherited by the Emperor. Andronikos III's
1459:
Andronikos II ordered the Union of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches to be canceled, a move which pleased many. But he also ordered drastic reductions in the military, and effectively disbanded the navy, which his father had worked hard to build up. As a result, tax reductions throughout the Empire
1393:
Unlike his father, Andronikos II recognized the gravity of the situation in Asia Minor, and tried to drive out the Turks, utilizing a variety of methods. His first action was to move his court to Asia Minor, where he could better oversee the construction of fortifications and raise troop morale. His
1337:
and the ostensible union of the two Churches did little to avert Catholic aggression, while at the same time the Orthodox population, led by large parts of the priesthood, denounced Michael VIII as a traitor. His death in 1282 came as a relief to many, and his body was denied an Orthodox funeral, as
1271:
arranged a pact, whereby Charles would receive land in the East in return for assisting a new military expedition to Constantinople. A delay on Charles' end meant that Michael VIII was given enough time to negotiate a union between the Church of Rome and that of Constantinople in 1274, thus removing
2590:
Constantine's rule is hard to assess due to the shortness of his reign. As a Despot, he had shown ability, but the fall of the Empire to the Turks was by his time inevitable, no matter how able and energetic an Emperor sat on the throne. What is most remembered of him is the stubborn defence of his
2454:
1391. John VIII was still hopeful that he could emulate his Father's success and more. Like his predecessors, his attempts were in vain. And just like his predecessors, he relied too heavily on a Pope not willing to give, but only take; take that is, the Church of a wretched state surrounded by the
1729:
The lands ravaged and depopulated by the civil war were filled up by arriving Turks who colonised the land through a mixture of conquest and trade. The result was that Byzantium's power was undermined beyond all recovery — two hundred years ago Byzantium could rely on the people living in the lands
1695:
Kantakouzenos had a son, Matthew Kantakouzenos — and any hope of keeping peace between John V and Matthew became more remote as the two grew older and more independent. John V wed Kantakouzenos' daughter, thus becoming his son in law, in a move designed to bind the two families, but it was destined
1502:
Andronikos II attempted to solve Byzantium's internal problems more than his father had. The solutions he chose however had severe repercussions. They undermined the military and financial basis of the state, and the disasters suffered by his foreign policy failures further worsened the situation.
2200:
and Epirus, thus "expanding" the Empire, at least nominally, and thereby catching the Ottoman Sultan's attention. Murad I besieged Thessalonica in 1383, beginning a siege that would last until 1387. Meanwhile, Andronikos IV died and his son, John VII, began quarreling with his grandfather, John V.
2884:
As the Empire descended into chaos, it could not spare any finances in its efforts to defend its borders. Study in the fields of science and mathematics naturally disappeared from the minds of those whose lands were raided and seized. It was due to this lack of patronage that led many scholars to
2880:
in order to survive. The most important source was from the Imperial court, especially before the destructive civil wars that were characterized by Andronikos III and his son John V. Other sources were from minor courts, from the wealthy, and from the Church, if not from individual Church clergy,
2408:
Manuel II was now out of tricks to save the erroneous rule of his son, John VIII. In September 1423, Thessalonika was surrendered to the Venetians, no doubt hoping to draw in the Western Powers into a new crusade and, if not, at least their wealth would enable them to defend it. In February 1424,
1437:
in Spain and now, for an extraordinarily high price, they drove the Turks back in Asia Minor. Once again, these successes were nullified when their leader, Roger de Flor, was assassinated on his way to meet Andronikos; the Catalans then revolted against imperial authority, and began pillaging and
2525:
Constantine's reign was short; from 1448 (some sources say 1449) until 1453. Constantine XI, like many of his predecessors who took the Union between Eastern and Western Christendom seriously, lived as a Catholic. Not much is known of his reign, except that he died with his soldiers in the final
1625:
swept through its diminished lands. The first outbreak occurred in 1347, and between the 1360s and 1420s, eight further outbreaks of plague are recorded. Cities were full of social unrest between the corrupt wealthy (who had been exploiting the tax system for their own benefit) and the countless
1222:
were all strengthened against a possible new expedition by the Latin West. Many hospitals, hospices, markets, baths, streets and churches were built, some with private patronage. Even a new Mosque was built to compensate for the one burnt during the Fourth Crusade. These attempts were costly and
2581:
engineer who had originally offered his services to Constantine, who rejected them for lack of money. After the rejection of terms of surrender by Constantine, the siege began on April 2, 1453, with Ottoman cannon firing from April 6. The defenders were few, but the mighty walls allowed them to
2251:
Manuel II's reign saw another temporary respite for the Byzantines. For an Empire in such trouble, he succeeded in retaking some territory and held it to the end of his reign. His limited success largely came through the resurrection of Mongol Power in the East and the great friendship achieved
2347:
considerably changed the mood within Constantinople. The rewards reaped by the Empire were outstanding considering that only a short time had passed since the city (and possibly the Empire itself) stood on the brink of destruction. John VII appeared to have achieved numerous other benefits for
2167:
and the two worked towards fomenting revolution in their peoples. Consequently, both the Byzantine and Ottoman rulers were facing their sons and as a result, coordinated efforts were made to defeat both. John V had his eldest son, Andronikos IV, along with the latter's son, John VII, partially
2991:
However, the most serious problems arose from the internal political and military organisation of the empire. The empire's political system, based as it was around an autocratic and semi-divine emperor who exercised absolute power, had become obsolete, while the civil wars the system produced
2582:
withstand the siege for some time. Finally however, on May 29, the Ottomans achieved a breach, and the city fell. Constantine XI charged at the oncoming Ottoman army; the last Roman Emperor died fighting, and since his body was never recognized, is assumed to have been buried in a mass grave.
1290:
For the remainder of his life, Michael campaigned to drive the Latins out of Greece and the Balkans, and secure his position versus the Bulgarians. He was largely successful, regaining several islands in the Aegean, and establishing a foothold in the Peloponnese, that would grow to become the
1346:
Michael VIII was a very energetic, ambitious and capable emperor who had enlarged and preserved the Empire and had once again made Byzantium a power to be reckoned with in the region. His army, however, was still small, and diplomacy was relied upon more than ever. An extortionate tax system
2987:
and Arabs), by the later 14th century the empire no longer possessed any significant territories (such as Asia Minor) to form the basis of a recovery. As a result, many attempts at driving back the Ottomans and Bulgarians failed, while the lack of territory, revenue and manpower meant that
2773:. As a result, Persian tables were used more often, even if in conjunction with Ptolemy's. The acceptance of Arab astronomy was made harder by the fact that it had to be translated, and only entered through "lowlier social channels", namely by men who travelled between Constantinople and
1670:
There were not nearly enough troops to defend Byzantium's borders at the time and there certainly was not enough for the two factions to split; consequently, foreigner mercenaries were brought in. Kantakouzenos hired Turks and Serbs — his main supply of Turkish mercenaries came from the
1329:
army, and while it was not as effective, it was just as burdensome on the treasury. The result was that heavy taxes were levied on the peasantry, something that the Ottomans would later use to their advantage, winning over these poverty-stricken peasants with promises of lower taxes.
2303:
The seemingly insurmountable pressure was ultimately relieved as a result of events in Anatolia. Bayezid, his position in Europe secure, turned his attentions to Anatolia and attempted to bring the various Turcoman tribes under formal Ottoman control. These actions greatly offended
2640:
The Fourth Crusade saw the destruction of many homes in Constantinople and much of the city on fire. It is difficult to determine what books were burned in the libraries of Constantinople, though one can only imagine that few would be available today were it not for the works of
2348:
Byzantium. The first was a non-aggression treaty between the local Christian powers (who were also free from Ottoman servitude), meaning that the disasters of Andronikos III's later rule would not be repeated. Next were a treaty between Byzantium and the successor of Bayezid,
1377:
in 1282 and raids against Macedonia were launched throughout the 1290s. Byzantine counter-attacks failed to stop these, and as a result Andronikos was forced to resort to diplomacy, marrying his 5-year-old daughter to the Serbian King and ceding a number of forts from
2483:, not only at the terms at which the Byzantine Church had to stoop to, but also at the non-existent aid to Byzantium. One can safely say that the most notable effect of the Union was the increased resentment between Byzantium's populace and the Imperial government.
1451:
2175:
Unfortunately for John V, Andronikos IV and his son John VII escaped. With Genoan and Turkish aid, they returned to Constantinople and succeeded in overthrowing John V, imprisoning him and Manuel. In exchange for Ottoman aid, Andronikos IV handed the fortress of
1604:
for the Empire — his 10-year-old son was led by a regency that was torn apart in dynastic rivalries which led to the Second Palaiologan Civil War and the recognition of John Kantakouzenos as emperor and a catastrophe from which Byzantium would never recover.
1347:
supported his ambitious and successful foreign policies of expansion, as well as his numerous bribes and gifts to various potentates. He had put Byzantium on the road of recovery, but his achievements were still perilously fragile, as events would soon show.
1634:— the fortress of Gallipoli was destroyed in 1354 by such an earthquake and the Ottoman Turks lost no time in taking it and establishing a bridgehead in Europe. Meanwhile, the Serbs continued pressing south, removing any nominal Imperial control in Epirus.
2623:
before returning to Byzantium, then as the Empire began to fail horribly, in more permanent manner. The Fall of Constantinople was marked by large numbers of Greek refugees escaping Turkic rule into Europe via Italy and thus accelerating the Renaissance.
2380:
Manuel II Palaiologos was 70 years of age in 1421 and believed that the time had come for him to retire and give his eldest son, John VIII, the opportunity to rule with a more aggressive manner than he had done so. At the same time, a far less restrained
2401:, the latter falling in 1430. Murad II was unable to take Constantinople by force. Nonetheless, the situation in the Capital was dire enough for Manuel II to come out of retirement and incite yet another rebellion in Asia Minor under Murad II's brother,
2192:
with his family and hostages. John V, only interested in securing his throne and stability, came to conclude a pact with Andronikos IV in 1381, recognizing him as heir with John VII as heir apparent, thus removing Manuel from the line of succession.
1688:
2393:
well and he gathered some support. However, in August 1422, Murad II had this rebellion crushed and Mustafa received the traditional execution (hanging) shortly after, something any rebel would have expected. Murad II was enraged and had an
1151:. Palaiologos was a leading noble of military standing and the main figure of the regency of John IV, who had used this role to propel himself to the throne, and set the stage for his becoming sole Emperor of the restored Byzantine Empire.
2799:
Such works, while being non-Christian and in many cases non-Hellenistic, were cultivated by the Greek Orthodox ecclesiastics. Both Choniades and Metochites established themselves in the Greek Orthodox Church; the former becoming Bishop of
1493:
Despite the calamities of the civil war, Andronikos III was about to revitalise the Empire. Although Asia Minor was at this point destined to fall to the Turks, it had been in a worse position in 1091 and yet still recovered by Byzantium.
1398:, was an able commander, campaigning with some success against the Turks in the Meander Valley. Unfortunately Byzantium was robbed of his services when he staged an unsuccessful coup, leading to his blinding. Next Andronikos sent his son,
2858:
Others went so far as to suggest that Byzantium would not live forever — a fundamental belief for every subject of the Byzantine Orthodox Church. Metochites did not see Byzantine civilization as superior to others and even considered the
2220:
John VII's rebellion succeeded initially, taking Constantinople from John V, but Manuel countered by rousing the rest of the empire and its few remaining military assets and turned them against John VII. Manuel also received aid from the
1667:, allegedly to protect John V's rule from Kalekas. Whether or not Kantakouzenos wished to be Emperor is not known, but the provocative actions of the Patriarch forced Kantakouzenos to fight to retain his power and started the civil war.
1530:
The rule of Andronikos III is characterized as the last genuine attempt to restore Byzantine fortunes. His attempts came close to fruition, but the many hostile neighbors of Byzantium eventually took their toll on an Empire in decline.
1489:
in 1321, the title of co-emperor in 1322, and after a small war where the Bulgarians and Serbians played the two sides against each other, Andronikos II was forced to abdicate and retire as a monk to a monastery, where he died in 1332.
2564:
succeeded his father Murad. Upon his succession to the throne, he received a demand by Constantine XI for subsidies, coupled with a threat to rebel if these were not met. Mehmed II responded with these bold declarations by building a
2371:
had emerged as the victor. However, the Byzantines had made sure to support the victor and Mehmed I did not forget the kindness of the Byzantines and was able to "control" his Turk subjects from expanding into Byzantine territory.
2875:
Philosophers had to find ways of bringing food to the table. The most common occupation in the Byzantine Empire would have either been agriculturally-based or, earlier in the Empire, trade-based. In contrast, philosophers needed
1324:
Michael VIII's foreign policy relied heavily on diplomacy; nevertheless, his construction projects and military campaigns against the remaining Latins were extensive as well as expensive; the Nicaean army was modeled around the
2405:. Initial rebel success, including a siege of Bursa was too much for Murad II to ignore so the siege of Constantinople was lifted to deal with this threat, and to the Byzantines' greatest despair, dealt with it successfully.
2785:, who acquainted themselves with this science. By the mid 14th century, when Byzantium was overwhelmed with troubles, the tables of Ptolemy were deemed by professionals as inadequate and slowly abandoned for Persian tables.
1534:
His first concern was that of Asia Minor. Nicaea, until 1261 the capital of the Empire, was under siege by Ottoman Turks. In the summer of 1329, Andronikos III launched a relief attempt which culminated in a defeat at the
1310:
Middle East c. 1263 KEY: Lighter red - Byzantine Empire; Dark red and magenta - other Greek states; Light green - Turkic lands; Dark green - Ottoman domain by the 1300s, dotted line indicates conquests up to 1326; Yellow
2507:
to provide a basis for recovery, the Empire's position was becoming untenable. John was severely constrained by his circumstances, and proved unable to improve the fortunes of the state. He was succeeded by his brother
1699:
In 1353, Kantakouzenos was still hopeful that peace would be maintained, but in that year, John V launched a military attack on Matthew, thereby re-igniting the civil war. John V was demoted and exiled to the island of
1720:
sometime between 1361 and 1383, though other sources indicate 1391 a possible date. At 25 years, John V had managed to establish himself firmly as ruler of the Empire, at the cost of bleeding out all its resources.
1209:
and their successors, the Latin Empire, had done much to reduce Byzantium's finest city to an underpopulated wreck. Michael VIII began the task of restoring many monasteries, public buildings and defence works. The
3795:
1893:
677:
1454:
Andronikos II's debasement of the Byzantine currency, along with his co-rule with his father, his son and his grandson as well as his own sole rule, resulted in the minting of several different coins during his
1295:. The downside however was that Michael's efforts in the West absorbed most of the Empire's manpower and resources, and neglected the Asian provinces, where a new and fateful threat was rising: the beylik of
2835:. His works on computational astronomy using Hebrew and Persian tables were overshadowed by the neo-pagan beliefs he adopted in his old age. He proclaimed his belief in the "Seven Wise Men", the message of
2146:
930:
1715:
was his brother-in-law, he was able to obtain troops from him, but had barely begun his campaign when he was captured in the summer of 1356. He was forced to renounce his claims in 1357 and exiled to the
2928:
1543:
or the other few remaining forts in Asia Minor suffer the same fate, Andronikos III sought to pay off the Ottomans with tribute — the Ottomans did not stop at this and seized Nicomedia as well in 1337.
2315:
Manuel, who was still in Europe, arrived in 1403 to a welcoming sight — Constantinople free from Ottoman siege. John VII had remained loyal, handing back control of the capital to Manuel. In addition,
4505:
2719:. As the Empire's borders shrunk, so too had its cultural diversity. By the late 13th century, the Empire consisted almost exclusively of traditionally Greek territory (inhabited by Greeks since
1189:
had already been taken by Nicaea in 1246. Following the capture of Constantinople, Michael ordered the blinding of John IV in December 1261, so as to become sole emperor. As a result, Patriarch
2983:
to deal with the Empire's opponents. Her power base was consequently ruined. While the empire had experienced difficulties before (in the 8th century much of Byzantium's lands were occupied by
2971:, there were high hopes that the Turks would be driven out of Europe. The Byzantines that pinned their dreams of restoration on the West had hoped that they could reap the benefits of another "
1547:
Despite this, Andronikos III scored a few successes in the Aegean: in 1329, Chios was recovered, and in 1335, Andronikos arranged an alliance involving financial indemnities with the Turkic
1730:
of Anatolia, Greece, Macedonia and several large islands like Cyprus and Crete. Now the population under its control was limited to the few remaining cities in Byzantine possession, namely
2364:. The importance of the latter should not be underestimated as these would serve in the future as refuge for any seeking to escape Ottoman expansion, even if only as a temporary refuge.
1797:
In 1371, the Serbs mustered their strength and prepared to launch an attack to drive back the Turks from Thrace. In a crushing victory, the Ottomans annihilated the Serbian army at the
2312:
Bayezid in 1402 near Ankara. The defeat caused a panic amongst the Turks in Anatolia, who frantically began crossing over to Europe, with the assistance of Venetian and Genoese ships.
5658:
1757:
now had to face the serious threat the Ottomans posed to Byzantium. In the 1360s, the Turks continued to drive through Thrace, taking Byzantine, Bulgarian and Serbian settlements.
1046:
and a few other isolated exclaves, which only nominally recognized the Emperor as their lord. Nonetheless, Byzantine diplomacy, political intrigue and the invasion of Anatolia by
4738:
2139:
923:
1781:, and her nephew (being John V's cousin) was concerned for the safety of his Greek counterpart. Sailing from Venice in June 1366 with dreams of initiating yet another Crusade,
1626:
landless peasants burdened by the demands of the government. Religious controversy, the cancer of Byzantium in the 7th and 8th centuries, once again emerged in the form of the
1581:(ruling Serbia from 1331) decided to take these lands as well from Byzantium. The death of Andronikos III and the resulting chaos left the Empire in no position to fight back.
1774:
had been largely beneficial and no doubt John V envisioned a repeat of such a Crusade. This time, however, the Papacy was unmoved by the calamity facing the Byzantine Empire.
5653:
2209:. Eventually, John VII did rebel against his grandfather — news of Manuel's arrival at Constantinople and John V's reconciliation talks with him prompted John VII to head to
2552:
before his ascension to the throne. From this position, he had continued the aggressive policies of his father and his brothers against the Ottomans and their vassals, the
1738:. The immigration of Turks would be decisive in the survival of the Empire as it gave her most dire enemy, the Ottomans, a new power base, not in Asia but now in Europe.
3718:
1621:
The Byzantine Empire entered into a new era of decay in 1341. The Empire was ravaged by multiple serious disasters — alongside wars and civil wars, renewed epidemics of
1573:
In Europe, Andronikos III had mixed results; Thessaly returned to Imperial rule in 1333, but Serbia once again began expanding southwards: led by the Byzantine renegade
1279:. The Greek Church was excommunicated, and Charles was given renewed papal support for the invasion of Constantinople. In order to counter this, Michael VIII subsidized
2132:
916:
2284:
The situation was dire; so much so that John VII, Manuel's dire opponent, was left in charge of Constantinople. He made one grand tour of Europe in 1399, stopping at
2281:, Bayezid force-marched his army to a stunning yet costly victory. Thousands were killed, but now Bayezid was able to turn his armies fully against Constantinople.
5614:
1243:
invasions in ca. 1240. As a result, the greatest threat to Byzantium was not the Muslims but their Christian counterparts in the West — Michael VIII knew that the
3869:
3674:
1948:
732:
2385:, son of Mehmed I, came to the Ottoman throne in May of that year. With two men uninterested in diplomacy on the thrones of Byzantium and the Ottoman Sultanate,
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5673:
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3812:
1958:
1907:
992:
had begun conducting raids and expanding into Byzantine territory in Asia Minor by 1263, just two years after the enthronement of the first Palaiologos emperor
742:
691:
2749:', instead of Romans. This enthusiasm for the glorious past, contained elements that were also present in the movement that led to the creation of the modern
1845:
629:
3827:
3822:
2893:, who between them had travelled to Florence, Pavia, Rome, Padua and Milan. The end of the Byzantine Empire coincided with the beginning of the Renaissance.
2716:
2196:
Naturally, Manuel felt betrayed by this move which demoted him from co-emperor. Returning to Thessalonica in 1382, he rebelled and established his rule over
1922:
1917:
706:
701:
4903:
3889:
3864:
1968:
1943:
752:
727:
3681:
Raybaud, L. P. (1968) Le gouvernement et l’administration centrale de l’empire Byzantin sous les premiers Paléologues (1258-1354). Paris, pp. 202–206
2657:. New editions of poets, such as Hesiod and Pindar, were made and their metric systems were reconstructed with competence. They wrote about such works as
2591:
city against the odds, and his death in battle, through which he entered popular legend. Despite his Catholic confession, he is viewed as a saint by many
2159:
John V's rule was an unhappy one, resulting in his vassalage to Murad I. However, it must have been even worse when his eldest son and heir to the throne
5254:
5237:
3894:
3874:
2427:
1973:
1953:
1132:, a Turkic force was repelled and an earlier assault on Nicaea led to the death of the Seljuk Sultan. In the west, the Latins were unable to expand into
757:
737:
4953:
4799:
4771:
4415:
4407:
3884:
3817:
1963:
1912:
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Nevertheless, in 1371 John V returned empty-handed, having humiliated himself and done nothing to improve the deteriorating situation in the Balkans.
747:
696:
5149:
4510:
1828:
612:
2423:
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Bentley, Jerry H., and Herb F. Ziegler. Traditions & Encounters a Global Perspective on the Past. 3rd ed. Vol. 1. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006.
2300:; in England, he was well received and treated to a jousting tournament. However, Manuel was unable to secure any help from Western Christendom.
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were willing to pay it. In the long run though, the Byzantines were not prepared to surrender their ancient customs and beliefs willingly.
1653:
1460:
were possible, earning him greater popularity while seriously undermining Byzantium's abilities to deal with its opponents. He debased the
1194:
5154:
2323:
as a gesture of goodwill and in an effort to curry favour at a time the Ottoman Empire was weakened by the war with Timur and effectively
4145:
1630:
controversy, which eventually became a doctrine of the Eastern Orthodox church. There were numerous earthquakes, destroying Byzantium's
1370:
5483:
4896:
3200:
Shepherd, William R. "The Byzantine Empire in 1265." Perry–Castañeda Library. 1926. University of Texas Libraries. June 15, 2007. See
2277:. At first, the situation was not so dire — a massive counter-attack by the West was to be launched as the Crusade of Nicopolis. In a
146:
93:
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4150:
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Editors of Britannica, editor. "Andronicus III Palaeologus", Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., June 11, 2018,
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1708:
aid. Kantakouzenos now abdicated and retired to a monastery, where he would write his memoirs and thoughts until his death in 1383.
1066:
2495:
began launching successful campaigns against the Turks in Serbia, leading to the Serbian Despot and the Albanian resistance leader
114:
1085:
After 1204, the Byzantine Empire was partitioned into various successor states, with the Latin Empire in control of Constantinople
4647:
3704:
3647:
1438:
raiding cities in Thrace, leaving Asia Minor open to Turkish incursions. After this, Andronikos turned to diplomacy, asking the
1303:. Nevertheless, the border was kept relatively secure, and no significant losses occurred in Asia Minor during Michael's reign.
1223:
crippling taxes were placed on the peasantry. Nonetheless, the city grew new cultural and diplomatic contacts, notably with the
5619:
5441:
3973:
3741:
3035:
2499:
into direct opposition with their former masters. This led to one of the last great Crusades of a united Western Christendom —
2463:
Uniting the Church of Byzantium with that of Rome was a simple matter, since all the bargaining chips were in the hands of the
2056:
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840:
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Matthew Kantakouzenos, no doubt disappointed with his father's failure, continued to resist John V. Since the Ottoman Sultan
5190:
3691:
2308:, leader of the Timurid Empire, who saw Anatolia as within his sphere of influence. In response, Timur invaded Anatolia and
2475:
dispute arose from semantic confusion. Few on Byzantium's side were impressed with the Union between 1438 and 1439 held in
5446:
5436:
5351:
5106:
4891:
3020:
3015:
1034:
The loss of land in the East to the Turks and in the West to the Bulgarians coincided with two disastrous civil wars, the
2967:
The end of the Byzantine Empire did not seem inevitable to contemporaries. As late as 1444, a mere nine years before the
2723:). Consequently, this Greek culture soon came to dominate the Empire and the works of the Classical age such as those of
5663:
5520:
5488:
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5073:
4881:
4420:
3030:
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494:
99:
3134:
5244:
4886:
4733:
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4241:
3010:
3005:
2827:
Not all thinkers were welcome in Byzantium. Some who opened their minds to other beliefs would have strayed from the "
1712:
1312:
1101:, and Trebizond, with a multitude of Frankish and Latin possessions occupying the remainder, nominally subject to the
2491:
In the late 1440s, the Ottomans experienced difficulty in bringing their Christian vassals in the Balkans into line.
1173:
In 1261, while the bulk of the Latin Empire's military forces were absent from Constantinople, the Byzantine General
951:
dynasty in the period between 1261 and 1453, from the restoration of Byzantine rule to Constantinople by the usurper
1061:
However, the Palaiologan period witnessed a renewed flourishing in art and the letters, in what has been called the
5564:
5510:
5249:
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1512:
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310:
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who characterized the interest in Science and Mathematics at the time. Astronomy was also a field of interest, as
1287:, a revolt that overthrew the Angevin King of Sicily and installed Peter III of Aragon as King of Sicily in 1281.
5424:
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4804:
4589:
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4367:
2160:
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1356:
854:
401:
341:
1159:
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illustrates with his proposal to modify the calendar before changes were put in place by the Gregorian reform.
2181:
2037:
1503:
Dissatisfaction from his failure, his old age and a "reckless grandson" culminated in his enforced abdication.
1224:
1168:
1148:
1129:
993:
952:
821:
329:
197:
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rebelled against his father in 1373. Curiously, this rebellion coincided with the rebellion of Murad I's son,
1927:
1691:
Byzantine coins showing John V and his co-emperor & guide Kantakouzenos during their peaceful co-existence
1011:
711:
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5053:
4779:
4599:
4485:
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between Manuel II and Mehmed I. However, he lived long enough to see his son undo much of his achievements.
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1395:
1334:
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2003:
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511:
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258:
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Moreover, some prominent personalities also proposed the change of the Imperial title to 'Emperor of the
1113:
was initially the strongest of the three Greek states, the Nicaeans succeeded in taking back the city of
1010:
zeal, the prospect of economic gain, and the desire to seek refuge from the Mongols after the disastrous
5272:
5126:
4316:
4226:
4190:
4075:
3805:
3800:
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John Joseph Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), 79.
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2471:
head of the Byzantine Church ordered the Byzantine Church to accept Papal primacy and declared that the
2418:
2238:
2169:
1901:
1897:
1326:
1042:
which allowed the Turks to occupy the peninsula. By 1380, the Byzantine Empire consisted of the capital
685:
681:
457:
445:
389:
271:
254:
4863:
2349:
2320:
1000:, which had formed the very heart of the shrinking empire, was systematically lost to numerous Turkic
5515:
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5319:
5078:
5043:
4926:
4858:
4393:
4336:
3585:
Madden, Thomas F. Crusades the Illustrated History. 1st ed. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan P, 2005
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against Bulgaria was a challenge that kept the Latins occupied for the duration of the Latin Empire.
423:
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4341:
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2848:
2812:
2793:
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2222:
2032:
2023:
1536:
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1110:
1098:
1070:
1055:
1028:
816:
807:
193:
189:
120:
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who was in Asia Minor, confirming Byzantium's freedom from paying tribute. The Empire also gained
5503:
5493:
5367:
5038:
4921:
4838:
4701:
4053:
4033:
4013:
4003:
3769:
3668:
2890:
1782:
1766:
1754:
1256:
1244:
377:
244:
234:
1283:'s attempts to seize Sicily from Charles. Michael's efforts paid off with the outbreak of the
17:
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3514:
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2828:
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on the European side of the Bosporus in order to better control traffic through the Bosporus.
2095:
1798:
1705:
1660:
1411:
1182:
879:
303:
276:
2367:
Bayezid's sons lost no time fighting each other for their father's shattered realm. By 1413,
1361:
Andronikos II was the son of Michael VIII. He ascended the throne in 1282, at the age of 24.
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2018:
1600:
1442:
of Persia to send troops to attack the Turks, but negotiations for such an alliance failed.
1284:
1236:
1144:
1094:
944:
802:
557:
293:
2867:
as more enlightened in some aspects, such as morality, than his Christian co-religionists.
5574:
5407:
5387:
5382:
5337:
5327:
5287:
5282:
5227:
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4614:
4531:
4526:
4266:
4256:
4092:
4086:
4070:
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4038:
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3692:
Byzantine & Christian Museum, The Palaiologan period: The final flowering of Byzantium
3652:
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2704:
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2357:
1701:
1648:
John V, ten years old at his ascension, was guided by a regency consisting of his mother,
1418:
1403:
1369:
Andronikos II was tied down with events in the West and the East. The Serbians under King
1268:
223:
2769:'s tables for calculations. However, these proved to be inaccurate when compared to Arab
2566:
1275:
Unfortunately for Michael VIII, the new union was seen as a fake by Clement's successor,
2715:
In the past, at its full height, the Byzantine Empire was composed of many territories,
2534:
1050:
allowed Byzantium to survive until 1453. The last remnants of the Byzantine Empire, the
5412:
5292:
5025:
4784:
4678:
4664:
4463:
4326:
4167:
3922:
3615:
2520:
2508:
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2105:
2100:
1989:
1631:
1622:
1522:
1306:
1206:
1125:
1121:
1114:
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at Constantinople. In addition, the disintegration of the Byzantine Empire allowed the
1090:
1043:
1020:
985:
972:
968:
960:
889:
884:
773:
584:
515:
210:
71:
1613:
1450:
167:
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5175:
4913:
4848:
4821:
4706:
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2402:
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could endure a half-hearted blockade, it did not have the military assets to man the
2085:
1778:
1771:
1649:
1578:
1426:
1264:
869:
249:
2335:
5093:
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5048:
4853:
4831:
4686:
3934:
3929:
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2976:
2807:
2692:
2316:
2008:
1998:
1993:
1863:
1731:
1664:
1252:
1215:
1211:
1186:
1109:, the Serbs, and the various Turcoman emirates of Anatolia to make gains. Although
1102:
1024:
977:
956:
792:
782:
777:
647:
571:
498:
2164:
1214:, looted in the Crusade of 1204, was refurbished to Greek Orthodox tradition. The
3635:
Parker, Geoffrey. Compact History of the World. 4th ed. London: Times Books, 2005
2636:
Classical literature that was studied included mythical figures such as Dionysus.
2595:, and many legends were created about the ultimate fate of the last Constantine.
5594:
5569:
5063:
4873:
4640:
4246:
4231:
3588:
Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium. 1st ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2002
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over to the Ottomans, thus rendering the only genuine European aid, provided by
1035:
948:
280:
239:
1750:
Byzantium (in red) in 1369, after the Ottomans conquered the city of Adrianople
4868:
4728:
4718:
4551:
4541:
4251:
2728:
2679:
2496:
2442:
1746:
1687:
1462:
1422:
1399:
1227:. Both had common enemies; Latin aggression, and later on, the Ottoman Turks.
989:
1801:, and in its aftermath, many surviving lords submitted to the Ottoman Sultan
5417:
5297:
4789:
4657:
4604:
4536:
2877:
2847:
was burnt by the Patriarch of Constantinople. Plethon's ashes repose in the
2836:
2789:
2770:
2724:
2670:
2666:
2561:
2431:
2261:
2177:
1888:
1627:
1540:
1439:
1430:
1407:
1276:
1039:
672:
177:
157:
1777:
Fortunately for John V, he had other European connections — his mother was
3696:
3638:
Turnbull, Stephen. The Ottoman Empire 1326 – 1699. New York: Osprey, 2003.
1147:, a boy of 10 years. However, John IV was overshadowed by his co-emperor,
1081:
4943:
4843:
4794:
4652:
4584:
4372:
2840:
2746:
2735:
2696:
2684:
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2436:
2382:
2368:
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1676:
1559:
1551:
1486:
1387:
1133:
997:
3475:
The Crusades: Islam and Christianity in the Struggle for World Supremacy
2172:, the second son of John V, was made co-emperor and heir to the throne.
1589:
1093:, the Byzantine Empire had fractured into the Greek successor-states of
5309:
5195:
5136:
4635:
4609:
4287:
2860:
2832:
2774:
2766:
2658:
2492:
2476:
1809:
from the defeated Serbs, John V swore allegiance as a vassal to Murad.
1802:
1593:
The Byzantine Empire in 1340 a year before the death of Andronikos III.
1567:
1468:
1383:
1296:
1007:
288:
3605:
Midway Through the Plunge: John Cantacuzenus and the Fall of Byzantium
2360:. As an added bonus, Imperial authority was asserted over a number of
2168:
blinded, while Murad I defeated his son, Savci, and had him executed.
5232:
4938:
4713:
4579:
2864:
2852:
2831:", as the Byzantines would have seen it. One such example is that of
2816:
2801:
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2700:
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2285:
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2189:
1806:
1563:
1482:
1374:
1260:
1248:
1240:
1178:
1137:
139:
55:
3648:
Historical Dynamics in a Time of Crisis: Late Byzantium, 1204–1453
3641:
Haldon, John. Byzantium at War 600 – 1453. New York: Osprey, 2000.
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1521:
1449:
1434:
1379:
1305:
1300:
1158:
1047:
1002:
229:
2988:
Byzantium's armies became increasingly obsolete and outnumbered.
2247:
Byzantium in 1389. Thrace was lost in the previous three decades.
5217:
1548:
1390:
as a "dowry". Nonetheless, the Serbs continued their expansion.
5543:
4974:
4759:
4451:
4118:
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3700:
3294:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andronicus-III-Palaeologus
1433:, these hardy mercenaries were used to skirmishing against the
2900:
2260:
Manuel II's first priority was to establish an agreement with
1672:
1555:
1006:, whose raids evolved into conquering expeditions inspired by
3661:
The Byzantine provincial administration under the Palaiologoi
2511:. The new emperor would be Byzantium's last sovereign ruler.
1652:, John VI Kantakouzenos and the Patriarch of Constantinople (
133:
40:
2450:
Manuel II's final years saw his gains wasted and the Empire
1844:
1734:
and Constantinople and the surrounding countryside, and the
628:
2796:
published his thoughts using Persian and Ptolemaic tables.
2434:(1438). The legend reads, in Greek: "John the Palaiologos,
1539:
on June 10, and in 1331, the city fell. Not wishing to see
1193:
excommunicated Michael, but he was deposed and replaced by
1849:
Territorial development of the Byzantine Empire (330–1453)
633:
Territorial development of the Byzantine Empire (330–1453)
2356:
and coastal land of the Black Sea from Constantinople to
2687:
and the Greek Anthology of epigrams. Works assembled by
1177:
used the opportunity to seize the city with 600 troops.
1124:
was successful in holding its own against its Latin and
984:
From the start, the regime faced numerous problems. The
2843:. Consequently, his work on a modified Greek Pantheon,
1805:. Byzantium was in no better position and after taking
2885:
flee to the West. Remarkable travels were recorded by
2792:
were translated into Greek as early as 1309. In 1352,
2753:
state, in 1830, after four centuries of Ottoman rule.
1526:
Byzantium at the beginning of Andronikos III's reign.
1466:
currency and heavily taxed the military elite of the
981:, this period is known as the late Byzantine Empire.
3655:, Great Ages of Man Byzantium, Time-Life Books, 1975
3188:
Battle a Visual Journey Through 5000 Years of Combat
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2804:and the latter the head of the Patriarchal school.
2717:
stretching from modern-day Iraq to modern-day Spain
1255:in Constantinople. The situation became worse when
1251:would no doubt launch another attempt to establish
508:
491:
479:
463:
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287:
267:
216:
206:
32:
3614:
3495:(2nd ed.). London: Penguin. pp. 365–371.
3477:(2nd ed.). London: Robinson. pp. 234–35.
1683:Reign and fall of John VI Kantakouzenos, 1347–1357
1417:Not giving up, Andronikos hired the 6,500 strong "
3563:History of the Byzantine Empire, 324-1453, Vol. 2
2665:. Countless works are also included, such as the
2538:Constantine XI depicted in semi-classical armour.
1770:Crusaders would sack both friend and foe but the
1272:papal support for an invasion of Constantinople.
2811:Plethon's final resting place was moved to the
2455:Ottomans, soon-to-be Christendom's direst foe.
4087:Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands)
3513:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 79–80.
1239:was in chaos and decentralized ever since the
5659:States and territories disestablished in 1453
3712:
2788:Despite this, Persian works such as those on
2296:, Paris and London, where he met the English
2140:
1609:The rise and fall of Kantakouzenos, 1341–1357
1406:to attack the Turks who were laying siege to
924:
27:Period of Byzantine history from 1261 to 1453
8:
3621:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
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3269:
3267:
3257:
3255:
3253:
3251:
3249:
3247:
3245:
3235:
3233:
3231:
3229:
3219:
3217:
3215:
3213:
3211:
3209:
3120:
3118:
2935:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1143:In 1261, the Empire of Nicaea was ruled by
63:
5654:States and territories established in 1261
5540:
4991:
4982:
4971:
4767:
4756:
4468:
4459:
4448:
4306:
4133:
4126:
4115:
3749:
3736:
3719:
3705:
3697:
3673:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3163:
3161:
3159:
3157:
3155:
3145:
3143:
3108:
3106:
3087:
3085:
3083:
3081:
3079:
2881:although only bishops had such resources.
2428:Medal of the Emperor John VIII Palaiologos
2147:
2133:
1822:
931:
917:
606:
176:
166:
156:
29:
3539:Constantinople 1453: The end of Byzantium
3190:. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 93.
2955:Learn how and when to remove this message
2217:, to seek aid in order to topple John V.
141:Basileus Basileōn, Basileuōn Basileuontōn
135:Βασιλεὺς Βασιλέων, Βασιλεύων Βασιλευόντων
2731:were meticulously copied and annotated.
2604:Second Byzantine/Palaiologan Renaissance
2268:Rebellion; Byzantium survives, 1394–1402
1612:
1588:
1373:had begun invading the Balkans and took
1080:
3057:
2076:
2069:
1981:
1935:
1880:
1855:
1836:
1825:
1338:a result of his policies towards Rome.
860:
853:
765:
719:
664:
639:
620:
609:
3666:
3617:Byzantium: faith and power (1261–1557)
2556:, but had been forced to back down by
1813:Third Palaiologan Civil War, 1373–1379
1659:The Patriarch, aided by the ambitious
3486:
3484:
3026:Byzantium under the Justinian Dynasty
2319:was handed back to the Byzantines by
1069:to the West also helped to spark the
507:
490:
486:
462:
450:
438:
428:
416:
406:
394:
382:
370:
358:
346:
334:
322:
318:
308:
7:
5679:15th century in the Byzantine Empire
5674:14th century in the Byzantine Empire
5669:13th century in the Byzantine Empire
2933:adding citations to reliable sources
2213:and then to the new Ottoman Sultan,
1351:Andronikos II Palaiologos, 1282–1328
2573:number of "super-cannons" built by
1155:Michael VIII Palaiologos, 1261–1282
3561:Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Vasiliev
2757:Persian science enters, circa 1300
2339:Manuel II lived to 75 years of age
25:
5585:Greek scholars in the Renaissance
3565:. Univ of Wisconsin Press, 1952,
3541:. Osprey Publishing. p. 13.
3041:Family tree of Byzantine emperors
2695:can be found in the libraries of
2430:during his visit to Florence, by
1617:Byzantine Empire in the year 1350
955:following its recapture from the
5624:
3511:The Fall of Constantinople, 1453
3133:Lowe, Steven, and Martin Baker.
2905:
2233:Manuel II Palaiologos, 1391–1420
2116:
1819:Byzantine civil war of 1373–1379
1644:Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347
900:
589:
564:
550:
147:King of Kings, Ruling Over Kings
113:
92:
3974:Decline of the Byzantine Empire
3796:Constantinian–Valentinianic era
3493:Byzantium: The Decline and Fall
3048:dynasty and related family tree
3036:Byzantium under the Macedonians
2683:, edits and "rediscoveries" on
2057:Decline of the Byzantine Empire
1894:Constantinian–Valentinianic era
1838:History of the Byzantine Empire
1067:migration of Byzantine scholars
841:Decline of the Byzantine Empire
678:Constantinian–Valentinianic era
622:History of the Byzantine Empire
18:Byzantium under the Palaiologoi
5059:Great Palace of Constantinople
4800:Patriarchate of Constantinople
2599:Learning under the Palaiologoi
1410:, but they were beaten at the
1015:commonly, these comprised the
971:. Together with the preceding
1:
3021:Byzantium under the Isaurians
3016:Byzantium under the Heraclian
2734:Notable philosophers include
1201:Restoration of Constantinople
1038:, and the 1354 earthquake at
101:
5684:Fall of the Byzantine Empire
5521:University of Constantinople
5102:Arch of Galerius and Rotunda
4252:Chartoularios tou vestiariou
3941:Byzantine successor states (
3491:Norwich, John Julius (199).
3073:John Joseph Saunders, pp. 79
3031:Byzantium under the Komnenoi
2530:Defiance, defence and defeat
2331:Ottoman Interregnum, 1402–13
495:Reconquest of Constantinople
140:
56:
5191:Saint Catherine's Monastery
4247:Chartoularios tou sakelliou
4242:Logothetes tou stratiotikou
3011:Byzantium under the Doukids
3006:Byzantium under the Angeloi
2628:Restoration of the Classics
2497:George Kastrioti Skanderbeg
2395:army sent to Constantinople
2123:Byzantine Empire portal
2015:Byzantine successor states
1793:Ottoman vassalage of John V
1299:, who by 1263 had captured
1058:, fell shortly afterwards.
907:Byzantine Empire portal
799:Byzantine successor states
5700:
5580:Neo-Byzantine architecture
4201:Comes sacrarum largitionum
3473:Hindley, Geoffrey (2004).
2607:
2541:
2526:fight for Constantinople.
2518:
2416:
2236:
1816:
1641:
1638:The civil war of 1341–1347
1562:, and was able to recover
1513:Andronikos III Palaiologos
1510:
1354:
1166:
1163:Hyperpyron of Michael VIII
134:
41:
5607:
5550:
5539:
5150:Sant'Apollinare in Classe
4994:
4981:
4970:
4766:
4755:
4471:
4458:
4447:
4136:
4125:
4114:
3748:
3735:
3137:21 Feb. 1992. 29 May 2007
2823:by his Italian disciples.
2376:Resumption of hostilities
2161:Andronikos IV Palaiologos
1507:Andronikos III, 1328–1341
1357:Andronikos II Palaiologos
529:
525:
487:
475:
319:
153:
129:
88:
83:
4724:Droungarios of the Fleet
3613:Evans, Helen C. (2004).
2677:, Nonnus of Panaopolis'
2467:West. John VIII, as the
1936:Middle period (717–1204)
1476:Civil War and abdication
1169:Michael VIII Palaiologos
1149:Michael VIII Palaiologos
1130:Battle of Meander Valley
1063:Palaiologian Renaissance
953:Michael VIII Palaiologos
720:Middle period (717–1204)
198:Principality of Theodoro
182:Byzantine Empire in 1453
172:Byzantine Empire in 1341
162:Byzantine Empire in 1261
5238:Early Byzantine mosaics
4600:Domestic of the Schools
3659:Maksimović, L. (1988).
2667:tragedians of Sophocles
2548:Constantine XI was the
2275:walls of Constantinople
2215:Bayezid the Thunderbolt
1982:Late period (1204–1453)
1396:Alexios Philanthropenos
1335:Second Council of Lyons
1315:; Purple - Latin states
1220:walls of Constantinople
1117:from the Latin Empire.
1017:Second Bulgarian Empire
766:Late period (1204–1453)
5555:Byzantine commonwealth
4317:Praetorian prefectures
4237:Logothetes tou genikou
4211:Quaestor sacri palatii
4206:Comes rerum privatarum
3979:Fall of Constantinople
3918:Sack of Constantinople
2969:Fall of Constantinople
2824:
2637:
2544:Fall of Constantinople
2539:
2447:
2345:defeat of the Ottomans
2340:
2248:
2062:Fall of Constantinople
2050:Despotate of the Morea
2004:Principality of Achaea
1881:Early period (330–717)
1850:
1765:Like his predecessors
1751:
1736:Despotate of the Morea
1692:
1618:
1594:
1575:Syrgiannes Palaiologos
1527:
1456:
1371:Stefan Uroš II Milutin
1316:
1293:Despotate of the Morea
1175:Alexios Strategopoulos
1164:
1086:
1052:Despotate of the Morea
1023:, the remnants of the
965:Fall of Constantinople
846:Fall of Constantinople
834:Despotate of the Morea
788:Principality of Achaea
665:Early period (330–717)
634:
512:Fall of Constantinople
259:South Slavic languages
196:in light blue and the
64:
5255:Komnenian renaissance
5250:Macedonian period art
5155:Sant'Apollinare Nuovo
5127:Walls of Thessaloniki
4227:Logothetes tou dromou
3842:Twenty Years' Anarchy
3806:Valentinianic dynasty
3801:Constantinian dynasty
2810:
2635:
2608:Further information:
2537:
2519:Further information:
2426:
2419:John VIII Palaiologos
2417:Further information:
2338:
2246:
2239:Manuel II Palaiologos
2237:Further information:
1928:Twenty Years' Anarchy
1902:Valentinianic dynasty
1898:Constantinian dynasty
1848:
1749:
1690:
1616:
1592:
1525:
1453:
1402:, and the Heteriarch
1309:
1162:
1084:
975:and the contemporary
712:Twenty Years' Anarchy
686:Valentinianic dynasty
682:Constantinian dynasty
632:
255:Old Anatolian Turkish
217:Common languages
5452:Units of measurement
5186:Panagia Gorgoepikoos
5079:Pammakaristos Church
4927:Corpus Juris Civilis
4878:Missionary activity
4337:Exarchate of Ravenna
4163:Imperial bureaucracy
3608:. Byzantine Emporia.
3186:Grant, R.G. (2005).
2929:improve this section
2777:. Such men included
2691:at the Monastery of
2643:Demetrius Triclinius
2413:John VIII takes over
959:, founded after the
5664:Palaiologos dynasty
4976:Culture and society
4839:Ecumenical councils
4342:Exarchate of Africa
4332:Quaestura exercitus
4196:Magister officiorum
4191:Praetorian prefects
3834:Byzantine Dark Ages
3602:Duval, Ben (2019).
3100:Madden, pp. 110–113
2849:Tempio Malatestiano
2813:Tempio Malatestiano
2794:Theodore Metochites
2783:George Chrysokokkes
2740:Nicephorus Gregoras
2689:Theodore Metochites
2647:Manuel Moschopoulos
2550:Despot of the Morea
2223:Knights of St. John
2205:Manuel in exile in
1725:Turkish immigration
1537:Battle of Pelekanon
1429:. Originating from
1281:Peter III of Aragon
1071:Italian Renaissance
1056:Empire of Trebizond
1029:Knights Hospitaller
194:Empire of Trebizond
190:Despotate of Epirus
5393:Flags and insignia
5039:Baths of Zeuxippus
4922:Codex Theodosianus
4812:Oriental Orthodoxy
3770:Later Roman Empire
2996:impossible cause.
2891:Manuel Chrysoloras
2825:
2638:
2540:
2448:
2341:
2249:
1851:
1783:Amadeo VI of Savoy
1767:Alexios I Komnenos
1755:John V Palaiologos
1752:
1693:
1619:
1595:
1528:
1457:
1317:
1267:in 1266. In 1267,
1257:Charles I of Anjou
1165:
1128:opponents. At the
1087:
1012:Battle of Köse Dağ
963:(1204), up to the
635:
192:in dark blue, the
5641:
5640:
5603:
5602:
5560:Byzantine studies
5535:
5534:
5531:
5530:
5346:Alexander Romance
5204:
5203:
5181:Nea Moni of Chios
5044:Blachernae Palace
4966:
4965:
4962:
4961:
4932:Code of Justinian
4780:Eastern Orthodoxy
4751:
4750:
4747:
4746:
4673:
4672:
4547:Scholae Palatinae
4443:
4442:
4439:
4438:
4408:Foreign relations
4402:
4401:
4296:
4295:
4110:
4109:
4106:
4105:
3909:(1204–1453)
3520:978-0-521-39832-9
3135:"Seljuks of Rum".
2965:
2964:
2957:
2887:John Argyropoulos
2829:one true Religion
2781:and his follower
2779:Gregory Choniades
2256:Vassalage to 1394
2157:
2156:
1799:Battle of Maritsa
1742:John V, 1354–1391
1661:Alexios Apokaukos
1570:from the Latins.
1412:Battle of Bapheus
947:was ruled by the
941:
940:
605:
604:
601:
600:
597:
596:
577:
576:
465:• 1448–1453
453:• 1425–1448
441:• 1391–1425
431:• 1390–1391
409:• 1379–1390
397:• 1376–1379
385:• 1347–1354
373:• 1341–1376
361:• 1328–1341
349:• 1295–1320
337:• 1282–1328
325:• 1261–1282
304:Absolute monarchy
277:Roman Catholicism
274:(Predominantly),
201:
57:Basileía Rhōmaíōn
16:(Redirected from
5691:
5628:
5541:
5484:Imperial Library
5430:Byzantine Greeks
5171:Daphni Monastery
5122:Panagia Chalkeon
5117:Hagios Demetrios
5084:Prison of Anemas
5034:Basilica Cistern
4992:
4983:
4972:
4827:West Syriac Rite
4817:Alexandrian Rite
4768:
4761:Religion and law
4757:
4692:Maritime themata
4648:Palaiologan army
4501:Military manuals
4469:
4460:
4449:
4307:
4283:Megas logothetes
4134:
4127:
4116:
3989:By modern region
3910:
3857:
3856:(717–1204)
3788:
3750:
3737:
3728:Byzantine Empire
3721:
3714:
3707:
3698:
3678:
3672:
3664:
3632:
3620:
3609:
3574:
3559:
3553:
3552:
3531:
3525:
3524:
3507:Runciman, Steven
3503:
3497:
3496:
3488:
3479:
3478:
3470:
3464:
3461:
3452:
3449:
3443:
3440:
3427:
3424:
3411:
3408:
3393:
3390:
3377:
3374:
3353:
3350:
3339:
3336:
3325:
3322:
3316:
3313:
3296:
3290:
3284:
3281:
3262:
3259:
3240:
3237:
3224:
3221:
3204:
3198:
3192:
3191:
3183:
3177:
3174:
3168:
3165:
3150:
3147:
3138:
3131:
3125:
3122:
3113:
3110:
3101:
3098:
3092:
3089:
3074:
3071:
3065:
3062:
2960:
2953:
2949:
2946:
2940:
2909:
2901:
2707:and even Paris.
2655:Maximos Planudes
2501:Crusade of Varna
2389:was inevitable.
2149:
2142:
2135:
2121:
2120:
2119:
1823:
1761:Plea to the West
1654:John XIV Kalekas
1285:Sicilian Vespers
1237:Sultanate of Rum
1218:harbour and the
1145:John IV Laskaris
1136:; consolidating
945:Byzantine Empire
933:
926:
919:
905:
904:
903:
607:
593:
592:
581:
580:
568:
567:
558:Empire of Nicaea
554:
553:
547:
546:
531:
530:
187:
183:
180:
173:
170:
163:
160:
143:
137:
136:
117:
106:
103:
96:
75:
67:
65:Imperium Romanum
60:
59:
52:
44:
43:
42:Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων
34:Byzantine Empire
30:
21:
5699:
5698:
5694:
5693:
5692:
5690:
5689:
5688:
5644:
5643:
5642:
5637:
5634:
5599:
5575:Cyrillic script
5546:
5527:
5472:
5456:
5356:
5338:Digenes Akritas
5314:
5259:
5200:
5164:Other locations
5159:
5131:
5088:
5020:
5009:Cross-in-square
4977:
4958:
4908:
4762:
4743:
4669:
4619:
4615:Varangian Guard
4558:
4532:East Roman army
4527:Late Roman army
4515:
4454:
4435:
4398:
4377:
4346:
4292:
4271:
4267:Epi ton deeseon
4257:Epi tou eidikou
4215:
4179:
4121:
4102:
4089:
3992:
3990:
3983:
3969:Palaiologan era
3911:
3908:
3899:
3870:Nikephorian era
3858:
3855:
3846:
3789:
3787:(330–717)
3786:
3777:
3757:
3744:
3731:
3725:
3688:
3665:
3658:
3653:Philip Sherrard
3629:
3612:
3601:
3598:
3596:Further reading
3582:
3577:
3560:
3556:
3549:
3533:
3532:
3528:
3521:
3505:
3504:
3500:
3490:
3489:
3482:
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3471:
3467:
3462:
3455:
3450:
3446:
3441:
3430:
3425:
3414:
3409:
3396:
3391:
3380:
3375:
3356:
3351:
3342:
3337:
3328:
3323:
3319:
3314:
3299:
3291:
3287:
3282:
3265:
3260:
3243:
3238:
3227:
3222:
3207:
3199:
3195:
3185:
3184:
3180:
3175:
3171:
3166:
3153:
3148:
3141:
3132:
3128:
3123:
3116:
3111:
3104:
3099:
3095:
3090:
3077:
3072:
3068:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3002:
2961:
2950:
2944:
2941:
2926:
2910:
2899:
2873:
2765:had to rely on
2759:
2713:
2711:Greek Byzantium
2651:Thomas Magister
2630:
2612:
2606:
2601:
2588:
2554:Duchy of Athens
2546:
2532:
2523:
2517:
2489:
2461:
2459:Union with Rome
2452:status quo ante
2446:of the Romans".
2421:
2415:
2399:to Thessalonika
2378:
2333:
2321:Prince Suleyman
2270:
2258:
2241:
2235:
2153:
2117:
2115:
2110:
2045:Palaiologan era
1949:Nikephorian era
1832:
1821:
1815:
1795:
1763:
1744:
1727:
1685:
1646:
1640:
1611:
1587:
1520:
1515:
1509:
1500:
1478:
1448:
1446:Domestic policy
1419:Catalan Company
1404:George Mouzalon
1367:
1359:
1353:
1344:
1322:
1269:Pope Clement IV
1233:
1203:
1171:
1157:
1079:
937:
901:
899:
894:
829:Palaiologan era
733:Nikephorian era
616:
590:
565:
551:
518:
501:
466:
454:
442:
432:
420:
410:
398:
386:
374:
362:
350:
338:
326:
294:Byzantine Greek
275:
272:Greek Orthodoxy
263:
202:
185:
184:
181:
174:
171:
164:
161:
144:
138:
125:
124:
123:
121:Byzantine eagle
118:
110:
109:
104:
97:
79:
78:
69:
54:
53:
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5697:
5695:
5687:
5686:
5681:
5676:
5671:
5666:
5661:
5656:
5646:
5645:
5639:
5638:
5636:
5635:
5633:
5632:
5622:
5617:
5611:
5608:
5605:
5604:
5601:
5600:
5598:
5597:
5592:
5587:
5582:
5577:
5572:
5567:
5562:
5557:
5551:
5548:
5547:
5544:
5537:
5536:
5533:
5532:
5529:
5528:
5526:
5525:
5524:
5523:
5513:
5508:
5507:
5506:
5496:
5491:
5486:
5481:
5475:
5473:
5471:
5470:
5467:
5461:
5458:
5457:
5455:
5454:
5449:
5444:
5439:
5434:
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5432:
5422:
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5415:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
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5357:
5355:
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5349:
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5341:
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5324:
5322:
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5315:
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5312:
5307:
5306:
5305:
5300:
5295:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5269:
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5261:
5260:
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5242:
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5220:
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5212:
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5202:
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5178:
5173:
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5161:
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5157:
5152:
5147:
5141:
5139:
5133:
5132:
5130:
5129:
5124:
5119:
5114:
5109:
5107:Byzantine Bath
5104:
5098:
5096:
5090:
5089:
5087:
5086:
5081:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5061:
5056:
5051:
5046:
5041:
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4785:Byzantine Rite
4776:
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4665:Grand domestic
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4168:Medieval Greek
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3923:Fourth Crusade
3914:
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3880:Macedonian era
3877:
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3813:Theodosian era
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3686:External links
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1623:bubonic plague
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1115:Constantinople
1103:Latin Emperors
1091:Fourth Crusade
1089:Following the
1078:
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1044:Constantinople
1021:Serbian Empire
973:Nicaean Empire
969:Ottoman Empire
961:Fourth Crusade
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5361:Everyday life
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4849:Monophysitism
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4739:Naval battles
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4262:Protasekretis
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3890:Komnenian era
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3828:Heraclian era
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3823:Justinian era
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3460:
3458:
3454:
3451:Mango, p. 264
3448:
3445:
3442:Mango, p. 273
3439:
3437:
3435:
3433:
3429:
3426:Mango, p. 272
3423:
3421:
3419:
3417:
3413:
3410:Mango, p. 271
3407:
3405:
3403:
3401:
3399:
3395:
3392:Mango, p. 270
3389:
3387:
3385:
3383:
3379:
3376:Mango, p. 269
3373:
3371:
3369:
3367:
3365:
3363:
3361:
3359:
3355:
3352:Mango, p. 268
3349:
3347:
3345:
3341:
3338:Mango, p. 267
3335:
3333:
3331:
3327:
3324:Mango, p. 266
3321:
3318:
3315:Mango, p. 265
3312:
3310:
3308:
3306:
3304:
3302:
3298:
3295:
3289:
3286:
3283:Mango, p. 263
3280:
3278:
3276:
3274:
3272:
3270:
3268:
3264:
3261:Mango, p. 262
3258:
3256:
3254:
3252:
3250:
3248:
3246:
3242:
3239:Mango, p. 261
3236:
3234:
3232:
3230:
3226:
3223:Mango, p. 260
3220:
3218:
3216:
3214:
3212:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3197:
3194:
3189:
3182:
3179:
3173:
3170:
3167:Mango, p. 258
3164:
3162:
3160:
3158:
3156:
3152:
3149:Mango, p. 257
3146:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3130:
3127:
3121:
3119:
3115:
3112:Mango, p. 256
3109:
3107:
3103:
3097:
3094:
3091:Mango, p. 254
3088:
3086:
3084:
3082:
3080:
3076:
3070:
3067:
3064:Mango, p. 255
3061:
3058:
3052:
3047:
3046:Kantakouzenos
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3003:
2999:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2986:
2980:
2978:
2974:
2973:First Crusade
2970:
2959:
2956:
2948:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2924:
2923:
2919:
2914:This section
2912:
2908:
2903:
2902:
2896:
2894:
2892:
2888:
2882:
2879:
2870:
2868:
2866:
2862:
2856:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2809:
2805:
2803:
2797:
2795:
2791:
2786:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2761:At the time,
2756:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2743:
2741:
2737:
2732:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2710:
2708:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2681:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2634:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2618:
2611:
2603:
2598:
2596:
2594:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2576:
2570:
2568:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2545:
2536:
2529:
2527:
2522:
2514:
2512:
2510:
2504:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2486:
2484:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2445:
2444:
2439:
2438:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2420:
2412:
2410:
2406:
2404:
2403:Kucuk Mustafa
2400:
2396:
2390:
2388:
2384:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2365:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2346:
2337:
2330:
2328:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2313:
2311:
2307:
2301:
2299:
2298:King Henry IV
2295:
2291:
2287:
2282:
2280:
2276:
2267:
2265:
2263:
2255:
2253:
2245:
2240:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2225:stationed at
2224:
2218:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2202:
2199:
2194:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2173:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2150:
2145:
2143:
2138:
2136:
2131:
2130:
2128:
2127:
2124:
2114:
2113:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2083:
2081:
2080:
2075:
2072:
2068:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2046:
2043:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2016:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1986:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1969:Komnenian era
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1941:
1940:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1923:Heraclian era
1921:
1919:
1918:Justinian era
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1889:Tetrarchy era
1887:
1886:
1885:
1884:
1879:
1872:
1871:
1867:
1866:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1859:
1854:
1847:
1843:
1842:
1839:
1835:
1830:
1824:
1820:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1784:
1780:
1779:Anna of Savoy
1775:
1773:
1772:First Crusade
1768:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1748:
1741:
1739:
1737:
1733:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1707:
1703:
1697:
1689:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1674:
1668:
1666:
1665:Didymoteichon
1662:
1657:
1655:
1651:
1650:Anna of Savoy
1645:
1637:
1635:
1633:
1629:
1624:
1615:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1602:
1601:coup de grâce
1591:
1584:
1582:
1580:
1579:Stephen Dusan
1576:
1571:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1550:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1532:
1524:
1517:
1514:
1506:
1504:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1488:
1484:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1470:
1465:
1464:
1452:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1427:Roger de Flor
1424:
1420:
1415:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1391:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1372:
1364:
1362:
1358:
1350:
1348:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1331:
1328:
1319:
1314:
1308:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1288:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1273:
1270:
1266:
1265:Hohenstaufens
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1230:
1228:
1226:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1208:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1170:
1161:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1146:
1141:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1083:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1059:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1032:
1030:
1027:and even the
1026:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1004:
999:
995:
991:
987:
982:
980:
979:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
934:
929:
927:
922:
920:
915:
914:
912:
911:
908:
898:
897:
891:
888:
886:
883:
881:
878:
876:
873:
871:
868:
867:
865:
864:
859:
856:
852:
847:
844:
842:
839:
835:
832:
831:
830:
827:
823:
820:
818:
815:
813:
809:
806:
804:
801:
800:
798:
794:
791:
789:
786:
784:
781:
780:
779:
775:
772:
771:
770:
769:
764:
759:
756:
754:
753:Komnenian era
751:
749:
746:
744:
741:
739:
736:
734:
731:
729:
726:
725:
724:
723:
718:
713:
710:
708:
707:Heraclian era
705:
703:
702:Justinian era
700:
698:
695:
693:
690:
687:
683:
679:
676:
674:
673:Tetrarchy era
671:
670:
669:
668:
663:
656:
655:
651:
650:
649:
646:
645:
644:
643:
638:
631:
627:
626:
623:
619:
614:
608:
588:
586:
583:
582:
579:
573:
570:
563:
562:
559:
556:
549:
548:
545:
544:
541:
538:
536:
533:
532:
528:
524:
520:
517:
513:
503:
500:
496:
482:
478:
474:
471:
468:
459:
456:
447:
444:
434:
425:
422:
412:
403:
402:Andronikos IV
400:
391:
388:
379:
376:
367:
364:
355:
352:
343:
342:Andronikos II
340:
331:
328:
314:
312:
305:
302:
298:
295:
292:
290:
286:
282:
278:
273:
270:
266:
260:
256:
253:
251:
250:Old Bulgarian
248:
246:
243:
241:
238:
236:
233:
231:
228:
225:
222:
221:
219:
215:
212:
209:
205:
199:
195:
191:
179:
169:
159:
152:
148:
142:
132:
128:
122:
116:
108:
95:
87:
82:
73:
66:
62:
58:
50:
49:Ancient Greek
39:
38:
31:
19:
5344:
5112:Hagia Sophia
5094:Thessalonica
5069:Hagia Sophia
5049:Chora Church
4987:Architecture
4864:Great Schism
4854:Paulicianism
4832:Miaphysitism
4687:Karabisianoi
3991:or territory
3968:
3951:Thessalonica
3935:Latin Empire
3930:Frankokratia
3905:
3865:Isaurian era
3852:
3783:
3768:
3764:Roman Empire
3754:
3663:. Amsterdam.
3660:
3616:
3606:
3603:
3557:
3538:
3529:
3510:
3501:
3492:
3474:
3468:
3447:
3320:
3288:
3196:
3187:
3181:
3172:
3129:
3096:
3069:
3060:
2994:
2990:
2981:
2977:Michael VIII
2966:
2951:
2942:
2927:Please help
2915:
2883:
2874:
2857:
2844:
2826:
2798:
2787:
2763:astrologists
2760:
2744:
2733:
2714:
2678:
2674:
2673:, Ptolemy's
2639:
2613:
2589:
2571:
2547:
2524:
2505:
2490:
2468:
2462:
2451:
2449:
2441:
2435:
2407:
2391:
2379:
2366:
2342:
2325:split in two
2317:Thessalonica
2314:
2302:
2283:
2271:
2259:
2250:
2219:
2203:
2195:
2174:
2158:
2044:
2028:Thessalonica
1999:Latin Empire
1944:Isaurian era
1868:
1864:Roman Empire
1796:
1788:
1776:
1764:
1753:
1732:Thessalonica
1728:
1710:
1698:
1694:
1669:
1658:
1647:
1620:
1599:
1596:
1572:
1546:
1533:
1529:
1501:
1492:
1479:
1467:
1461:
1458:
1416:
1392:
1368:
1360:
1345:
1332:
1323:
1289:
1274:
1234:
1216:Kontoskalion
1212:Hagia Sophia
1204:
1187:Thessalonica
1172:
1142:
1119:
1088:
1060:
1033:
1025:Latin Empire
1001:
994:Michael VIII
983:
978:Frankokratia
976:
957:Latin Empire
942:
828:
812:Thessalonica
783:Latin Empire
728:Isaurian era
652:
648:Roman Empire
572:Latin Empire
540:Succeeded by
539:
534:
419:• 1390
330:Michael VIII
131:Motto:
130:
5595:Megali Idea
5570:Byzantinism
5273:Agriculture
5064:Hagia Irene
4897:Kievan Rus'
4874:Mount Athos
4697:Cibyrrhaeot
4641:Vestiaritai
4496:Mercenaries
4373:Catepanates
4232:Sakellarios
4151:Family tree
4076:Mesopotamia
3895:Angelid era
3875:Amorian era
2610:Renaissance
2560:. In 1451,
2354:Mount Athos
1974:Angelid era
1954:Amorian era
1469:pronoiarioi
1036:Black Death
949:Palaiologos
758:Angelid era
738:Amorian era
535:Preceded by
281:Sunni Islam
240:Old Catalan
145:(English: "
105: 1350
5648:Categories
5590:Third Rome
5516:University
5499:Philosophy
5489:Inventions
5352:Historians
5320:Literature
5303:Varangians
5145:San Vitale
5074:Hippodrome
5054:City Walls
4954:Mutilation
4949:Hexabiblos
4869:Bogomilism
4859:Iconoclasm
4729:Megas doux
4719:Greek fire
4702:Aegean Sea
4575:Kleisourai
4552:Excubitors
4542:Bucellarii
4394:Despotates
4363:Kleisourai
4302:Provincial
4146:Coronation
4120:Governance
3885:Doukid era
3818:Leonid era
3628:1588391132
3580:References
2897:Conclusion
2729:Theocritus
2680:Dionysiaca
2586:Conclusion
2443:autokrator
2091:Government
1994:Latin rule
1964:Doukid era
1913:Leonid era
1463:hyperpyron
1423:Almogavars
1400:Michael IX
1259:conquered
1253:Latin rule
1107:Bulgarians
1077:Background
990:Asia Minor
875:Government
778:Latin rule
748:Doukid era
697:Leonid era
354:Michael IX
300:Government
289:Demonym(s)
283:(Minority)
257:and other
226:(official)
200:in violet.
5418:Octoechos
5298:Silk Road
4790:Hesychasm
4658:Paramonai
4605:Hetaireia
4537:Foederati
4426:Diplomacy
4421:Diplomats
4327:Provinces
4156:Empresses
3959:Trebizond
3755:Preceding
3669:cite book
2916:does not
2878:patronage
2871:Patronage
2837:Zoroaster
2790:astrolabe
2775:Trebizond
2771:astronomy
2725:Sophocles
2721:Antiquity
2675:Geography
2671:Euripides
2579:Hungarian
2562:Mehmed II
2432:Pisanello
2262:Bayezid I
2178:Gallipoli
2165:Savcı Bey
2033:Trebizond
1856:Preceding
1696:to fail.
1628:Hesychasm
1541:Nicomedia
1440:Ilkhanids
1431:Catalonia
1425:, led by
1414:in 1302.
1408:Nicomedia
1394:General,
1327:Komnenian
1277:Martin IV
1263:from the
1245:Venetians
1225:Mamelukes
1183:Macedonia
1040:Gallipoli
817:Trebizond
640:Preceding
497:from the
458:John VIII
446:Manuel II
268:Religion
245:Aromanian
84:1261–1453
5511:Scholars
5504:Rhetoric
5494:Medicine
5469:Learning
5368:Calendar
5245:Painters
4944:Basilika
4882:Bulgaria
4844:Arianism
4795:Hayhurum
4772:Religion
4734:Admirals
4653:Allagion
4585:Droungos
4491:Generals
4453:Military
4416:Treaties
4322:Dioceses
4141:Emperors
4054:Sardinia
4034:Dalmatia
4014:Bulgaria
4004:Anatolia
3963:Theodoro
3957: /
3953: /
3945: /
3573:, p. 582
3537:(2000).
3509:(1990).
3000:See also
2945:May 2019
2845:The Laws
2841:Fatalism
2747:Hellenes
2736:Planudes
2697:Istanbul
2685:Plutarch
2593:Orthodox
2567:fortress
2558:Murad II
2481:Florence
2473:Filioque
2469:de facto
2437:basileus
2383:Murad II
2369:Mehmed I
2350:Süleyman
2310:defeated
2198:Thessaly
2077:By topic
2071:Timeline
2038:Theodoro
1870:Dominate
1829:a series
1827:Part of
1487:appanage
1388:Strumica
1247:and the
1195:Joseph I
1191:Arsenios
1134:Anatolia
1054:and the
998:Anatolia
861:By topic
855:Timeline
822:Theodoro
654:Dominate
613:a series
611:Part of
516:Ottomans
424:John VII
235:Armenian
5620:Outline
5565:Museums
5465:Science
5442:Slavery
5398:Gardens
5378:Cuisine
5310:Dynatoi
5278:Coinage
5265:Economy
5233:Mosaics
5196:Mystras
5137:Ravenna
4999:Secular
4887:Moravia
4636:Pronoia
4610:Akritai
4595:Tagmata
4570:Themata
4511:Revolts
4481:Battles
4389:Kephale
4358:Themata
4288:Mesazon
4130:Central
4066:Maghreb
4019:Corsica
4009:Armenia
3999:Albania
3742:History
2937:removed
2922:sources
2861:infidel
2833:Plethon
2767:Ptolemy
2705:Vatican
2659:Scholia
2493:Hungary
2477:Ferrara
2096:Economy
1803:Murad I
1702:Tenedos
1568:Phocaea
1313:Cilicia
1297:Osman I
1008:Islamic
967:to the
880:Economy
514:to the
510:•
493:•
480:History
390:John VI
311:Emperor
207:Capital
5630:Portal
5545:Impact
5425:People
5373:Cities
5223:Enamel
5004:Sacred
4939:Ecloga
4805:Saints
4714:Dromon
4590:Bandon
4580:Tourma
4563:Middle
4486:Beacon
4368:Bandon
4351:Middle
4220:Middle
4175:Senate
4098:Thrace
4081:Serbia
4059:Sicily
4044:Greece
4029:Cyprus
3947:Epirus
3943:Nicaea
3853:Middle
3730:topics
3625:
3569:
3545:
3517:
2865:Tatars
2853:Rimini
2817:Rimini
2802:Tabriz
2703:, the
2701:Oxford
2663:Pindar
2621:Cyprus
2286:Venice
2227:Rhodes
2207:Lemnos
2190:Galata
2182:Amadeo
2170:Manuel
2024:Epirus
2019:Nicaea
2009:others
1831:on the
1807:Serres
1706:Genoan
1585:Legacy
1564:Lesbos
1498:Legacy
1485:as an
1483:Thrace
1455:reign.
1375:Skopje
1342:Legacy
1261:Sicily
1249:Franks
1241:Mongol
1179:Thrace
1138:Thrace
1126:Seljuk
1111:Epirus
1099:Epirus
1095:Nicaea
1065:. The
1019:, the
1003:ghazis
808:Epirus
803:Nicaea
793:others
615:on the
499:Latins
483:
435:John V
413:John V
378:John V
315:
100:Flag (
68:
45:
5615:Index
5447:Death
5437:Women
5408:Music
5388:Dress
5383:Dance
5328:Novel
5288:Trade
5283:Mints
5228:Glass
5218:Icons
5014:Domes
4892:Serbs
4707:Samos
4520:Early
4310:Early
4184:Early
4093:Syria
4071:Malta
4049:Italy
4039:Egypt
4024:Crete
3955:Morea
3784:Early
3053:Notes
2985:Avars
2821:Italy
2751:Greek
2693:Chora
2617:Crete
2575:Orban
2487:Varna
2358:Varna
2306:Timur
2294:Milan
2290:Padua
2211:Genoa
2186:Savoy
1718:Morea
1713:Orhan
1677:Aydın
1560:Aydın
1435:Moors
1421:" of
1380:Ohrid
1301:Sogut
1048:Timur
986:Turks
230:Latin
224:Greek
72:Latin
5413:Lyra
5293:silk
4904:Jews
4679:Navy
4624:Late
4464:Army
4431:Wars
4382:Late
4276:Late
3906:Late
3675:link
3623:ISBN
3567:ISBN
3543:ISBN
3515:ISBN
2920:any
2918:cite
2889:and
2839:and
2727:and
2669:and
2661:and
2653:and
2577:, a
2479:and
2440:and
2397:and
2343:The
2106:Navy
2101:Army
1992:and
1566:and
1549:Emir
1384:Stip
1333:The
1235:The
1205:The
1185:and
1120:The
943:The
890:Navy
885:Army
776:and
521:1453
504:1261
279:and
188:The
5210:Art
4914:Law
2931:by
2851:of
2815:in
2619:or
2387:war
2184:of
2086:Art
1675:of
1673:Bey
1656:).
1558:of
1556:Bey
1386:to
1382:to
988:of
870:Art
5650::
3671:}}
3667:{{
3483:^
3456:^
3431:^
3415:^
3397:^
3381:^
3357:^
3343:^
3329:^
3300:^
3266:^
3244:^
3228:^
3208:^
3154:^
3142:^
3117:^
3105:^
3078:^
2863:"
2855:.
2819:,
2699:,
2649:,
2645:,
2327:.
2292:,
2288:,
1900:–
1554:,
1197:.
1181:,
1097:,
1073:.
1031:.
996:.
684:–
149:")
102:c.
3965:)
3961:–
3949:–
3836:"
3832:"
3720:e
3713:t
3706:v
3677:)
3631:.
3551:.
3523:.
3203:.
2958:)
2952:(
2947:)
2943:(
2939:.
2925:.
2859:"
2148:e
2141:t
2134:v
2026:/
1904:)
1896:(
1311:-
932:e
925:t
918:v
810:/
688:)
680:(
107:)
74:)
70:(
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47:(
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