538:) saw a long series of crises and a severe weakening of imperial authority and military power. This included a succession crisis and a series of weak Emperors under the increasing influence of bureaucrats in Constantinople. At the same time the efforts to restrain the ambitious provincial aristocrats kept at bay during Basil II reign failed. With the successes of the previous century, the Byzantine state had acquired more land and wealth. The spoils of war saw the enrichment of the military aristocracy. More and more land owned by free peasants came under the control of the
1092:
893:, had a huge army of 75,000 troops sent to relieve Antioch; his unsuccessful siege of Edessa (a city that had recently fallen to the Crusaders) allowed the Crusaders time to capture Antioch on 3 June 1098, a day before Kerbogah's arrival. Despite this, Kerbogah's troops were able to breach the citadel where vicious and desperate fighting allowed the Crusaders to repulse his offensive. At this point, one of the Crusaders present, Stephen of Blois deserted and reaching Alexius Comnenus warned him that the Crusaders were destroyed and the
696:
50:
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implications than the casualties would suggest – there was no more
Byzantine reconquest in Asia Minor after 1176, leaving the process begun by Alexios incomplete at best. For the Seljuks, the acquisition of Danishmend territory gave them a victory though once again the Seljuks had to contend with neighbouring disputes leading to the peace treaty as requested by both leaders. By the terms of the treaty, Manuel was obliged to remove the armies and fortifications posted at
513:
947:, directed much of his attention to Hungary, Italy, Serbia and the Crusader states rather than Anatolia. While Manuel was largely successful in defeating attacks on the empire and holding the Balkans, his policy in Italy was a failure and the lavish expenditure of his rule has been criticised, most notably by the Byzantine historian Choniates. During this period, the Seljuk Turks were able to subdue their enemies, the Danishmends, under
932:. John Comnenus was able to use this to his advantage as he undertook a series of campaigns in Anatolia and Syria. John successfully captured the southern coast of Anatolia as far as Antioch, defeated an attempt by the Gabras family to form a breakaway state in Trebizond, and recaptured the ancestral home of the Comnenus family at Kastamonu. Despite this, Turkish resistance was strong and John did not capture the Seljuk capital at
1051:
940:
recruiting new divisions and establishing new castles, fortifications and training camps in
Byzantine territory. However, the scale of resources poured into his campaigns in Syria was far greater than in Anatolia, suggesting that John viewed prestige as more important than long-term conquest. In 1143, a fatal hunting accident to the emperor John robbed the Byzantines of the opportunity to achieve further progress.
478:. Crusader assistance to the Byzantine Empire was mixed with treachery and looting, although substantial gains were made in the First Crusade. Within a hundred years of Manzikert, the Byzantines had successfully driven back the Seljuk Turks from the coasts of Asia Minor and extended their influence right down to Palestine and even Egypt. Later, the Byzantines were unable to extract any more assistance, and the
618:
774:
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963:, which he was bound to do under an earlier agreement with Manuel, the emperor declared war in 1176 and led a very large army estimated at around 30,000 men into Seljuk territory with the intent of taking its capital Iconium. However, the Byzantine force was ambushed in a mountain pass with consequent heavy losses to both sides. This battle, the
914:
545:
power and likelihood of the aristocrats to launch rebellions by freeing the yeomanry of military duty in place of providing tax revenue. This further put strain on the manpower needed to defend imperial territory. The factions increasingly relied on mercenaries, but these highly ambitious soldiers were unreliable and lawless.
1099:
The war also gave
Western Christendom the opportunity to launch expeditions/pilgrimages to visit/liberate the Holy Land from Muslim Rule. In time, these Crusaders would establish their own fiefs in the Holy Land, ruling with interests coinciding, but more often in conflict with, the Byzantine Empire,
764:
to be undertaken in order to capture
Jerusalem and, in the process, assist the Byzantine Empire which could no longer guard Christendom in the East from Islamic aggression. Though the Crusades would assist the Byzantine Empire in reconquering many vital Anatolian towns, it also led to the dissolution
552:
By 1070 during the march on
Manzikert, the Byzantine state was in a very precarious position largely of its own making, even on the verge of collapse and failed to secure the Empire against external threats. The biggest threat to the Empire since the Arab invasions were the Turks. The Turks were much
1023:
However, the continuous warfare did have a serious effect upon Manuel's vitality; he declined in health and in 1180 succumbed to a slow fever. Furthermore, like
Manzikert, the balance between the two powers began to gradually shift – after Manuel's death, they began to move further and further west,
1108:. The rise of the Ottomans was parallel to the fall of the Sultanate of Rum and the carving up of the Byzantine Empire. The power vacuum left in Anatolia was easily exploited by one of the sultanate's nobles, Osman I. Matters were made worse for the Byzantine Empire due to the Latin presence in the
650:
successfully defeated the Seljuk Turks. Ever since early in the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks from central Asia had been expanding westward, defeating various Arab factions and occupying the
Abbasid caliphate's power base in Baghdad. At the same time, the Byzantine empire was making a few gains in
544:
class by varying means from purchase to intimidation to outright robbery. One major consequence of this was the reduction in available manpower to serve in the imperial armies. Added to this were the internal rivalry between the bureaucrats and military aristocracy. Bureaucrats sought to reduce the
958:
For the time being, Manuel's policy was not without merit as the emperor established peaceful co-existence with the Sultan and initiated measures such as allowing
Turkmen to pay for pasture on Byzantine land, which were clearly meant to deter raiding. The establishment of the theme of Neokastra on
1032:
In 1194, Togrul of the Seljuk empire was defeated by Takash (In Batul), the Shah of
Khwarezmid Empire, and the Seljuk Empire finally collapsed. Of the former Seljuk Empire, only the Sultanate of Rûm in Anatolia remained. As the dynasty declined in the middle of the thirteenth century, the Mongols
548:
For the twenty years preceding 1070, in almost every year there saw at least one major rebellion, including a large revolt of
Armenians. This caused thematic armies to be drawn west or east depending on the rebellion and opened the borders to incursions by raiders whether the Normans of Sicily or
978:
The battle was tactically indecisive with both leaders keen to seek peace. Following this Manuel's army continued to skirmish with the Turks in Anatolia, defeating them in a smaller but indecisive battle in the Meander Valley. Regardless of this small respite, Myriokephalon had far more decisive
789:
This was beneficial for the Crusaders as it meant that they did not have to garrison captured towns and lose troop strength whilst maintaining their supply lines. The Byzantines, in return, would supply the Crusaders with food in a hostile territory and Alexius' troops would act as a reserve to
708:
in Asia Minor. Many Byzantines at the time did not see the victory as a total disaster and when the Turks began occupying the countryside in Anatolia they began to garrison the Byzantine cities as well, not as foreign conquerors but as mercenaries requested by various Byzantine factions – one
1112:
and the rising power of the Bulgarians who continued to press hard against the borders of Byzantium. In time, the Byzantines would be forced to call on the aid of the Ottomans to head to the European mainland and fight the Bulgarians, giving the Ottoman Turks a firm grip on Europe. The close
939:
John spent considerable time and effort on a series of campaigns in Syria, which emphasised his dominance over the local Crusader kingdoms, especially Edessa and Antioch, but resulted in no long-term territorial gains for the Byzantine Empire. The emperor did strengthen the Byzantine army by
1083:
by the 14th century and then back to the Turks in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Never again would a Christian Kingdom wield so much military and political power in the Middle East. As the Turks steadily gained ground in Anatolia, the local population converted to Islam through
900:
As a result of this apparent desertion of Alexius I, the Crusaders refused to hand back Antioch when they managed to defeat Kerbogah's scattered army. With this resentment, the Crusaders largely abandoned assisting the Byzantines against the Seljuks and their allies. The follow-on
995:
in the Meander valley. The Turkish commander and many of his troops were killed while attempting to flee, and much of the plunder was recovered, an event that has been seen by historians as a sign that the Byzantine army remained strong and that the defensive program of western
467:. Even after Manzikert, Byzantine rule over Asia Minor did not end immediately, nor were any heavy concessions levied by the Turks on their opponents – it took another 20 years before the Turks were in control of the entire Anatolian peninsula and not for long either.
986:
However, Manuel Comnenus refused and when Kilij Arslan tried to enforce this treaty, a Turkish army invaded Byzantine territory and sacked a string of Byzantine cities as far as the Aegean coast, damaging the heartland of Byzantine control in the region. Nevertheless,
712:
The result of the civil war meant that pretenders to the Byzantine throne sought Turkic aid by conceding Byzantine territory. The loss of these cities such as Nicaea and another defeat in Anatolia led to a prolongation of the war. The civil conflict finally ended when
549:
Turkic horsemen from Central Asia or indeed the mercenaries roaming within the state. In addition, a combination of competition, rivalry and treachery between pretenders to the imperial throne saw the state paralysed to deal with the many issues facing the state.
1074:
The Middle East had been dominated for centuries by the power of the Fatimid Caliphate and the Byzantine Empire; by the end of the 13th century, neither of the two were in a position to project power; the Fatimids having been toppled by the Kurdish-influenced
798:
was unable to assist the Turks there due to the immense size of the Crusader armies; another small defeat on 16 May convinced Kilij Arslan to withdraw and abandon the city, which surrendered to the Byzantines on 19 June. After this, a decisive victory at
1113:
proximity of Osman's Beylik ensured that confrontation between the Byzantines and the Ottomans would be inevitable. The Byzantines were a match for the Ottomans but events west of Constantinople coupled with civil war and incompetent leadership in the
1046:
to re-conquer. The result was that even when the Byzantine empire was not riddled with civil disputes, it could not defeat the Seljuk Turks, who rarely allowed the Byzantines to engage them, hence the slow campaigning of John Komnenus.
686:
on 26 August 1071. The victory itself led to few gains at the time for the Seljuk Turks, but the civil chaos that resulted in the Byzantine Empire allowed the Seljuks and various other Turkic allies to swarm into Asia Minor.
1103:
For the Turks, it was the beginning of a new era of power. Despite further invasions and attacks by Crusaders from the west and the Mongols and Turkic tribes from the east, the Turks slowly emerged as a superpower under the
1041:
Though Anatolia had been under Roman rule for almost 1000 years, the Seljuks rapidly consolidated their holdings. This allowed them to hold on to their lands and made it all the more difficult for the Byzantines during the
785:
The first Crusaders arrived in 1096 following Alexius' appeal to the West. The agreement between the Byzantines and the Crusaders was that any Byzantine cities re-captured from the Turks would be handed over to the Empire.
564:. The migration of Seljuk Turks into Persia in the 10th century led to the Ghaznavids being overthrown. There they settled and adopted Persian language and customs. The first encounter with the Byzantine Empire was in the
572:. The Abbasids were henceforth a mere figurehead in the Islamic world. The Seljuk Turks, spurred on by their previous success, now launched an attack on the Levant and against Fatimid Egypt, which lost Jerusalem in 1071.
703:
After Manzikert, the Seljuk Turks concentrated on their eastern territorial gains which were threatened by the Fatimid dynasty in Egypt although Alp Arslan encouraged other allied Turks and vassals to establish
621:
A 15th-century French depiction of Manzikert (Paris, BnF ms. fr. 226, fol. 256r - Batul), with no accuracy applied to the weapons, tactics or clothing worn by the combatants. On the right, Alp Arslan steps on
1058:
The old Roman state was in a constant state of war due to the numerous enemies on its borders; Muslims to the South and East, Slavs to the North and Franks to the West. The Byzantine Empire had to face
729:, an Armenian renegade. By 1091, the few remaining Byzantine towns in Asia Minor inherited by Alexius were lost as well. However, all was not to end in defeat for Byzantium; in 1091, a combined Seljuk/
203:
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Byzantine territory in red, and the Sultanate of Iconium and Four Emirates in 1180 A.D. Due to the nature of the war and terrain, boundaries were constantly violated by raiding parties on both sides.
917:
John II Comnenus, Byzantium's greatest military leader since Basil II. John was able to exploit the weakness of the Turks using the still fragile state and army he had inherited from his
459:
of 1071 is widely regarded as the turning point against the Byzantines in their war against the Seljuks. The battle opened up Anatolia for further Turkish migrations and settlements. The
717:, who had been leading Imperial armies to defeat revolts in Asia Minor became a rebel himself and seized the Byzantine throne in 1081. Despite emergency reforms implemented by Alexius,
553:
like the Byzantines former enemies, the Huns. Combining their excellent riding skills with Islamic zeal, the Turks were to become a formidable enemy to a Christian state in decline.
699:
Byzantine Empire 1081. By now, the Empire was in financial crisis at a time when increased taxes needed to be levied on a smaller population to raise revenue for increased defenses.
1020:
by the Turks in 1179, forcing Manuel to lead a small cavalry force to save the city and then, even as late as 1180, the Byzantines succeeded in scoring a victory over the Turks.
424:
hundreds of years earlier against a similar Roman opponent but now combining it with new-found Islamic zeal. In many ways, the Seljuk resumed the conquests of the Muslims in the
928:
to power. By now, the Seljuk Turks had fractured and became loosely allied to each other. During this time the Sultanate of Rum was busy fighting off their former allies, the
568:
in 1048, in which the combined Byzantine-Georgian army won a tactical victory. Nevertheless, the Seljuks established a powerful domain and captured Baghdad in 1055 from the
196:
936:, nor were all of his conquests held – the city of Gangra, captured by John in the 1130s, was lost again as the emperor had left it with a garrison of just 2,000 men.
1792:
905:
ended in total defeat and the consolidation of Seljuk power in Asia Minor with Iconium (modern day Konya) being established as the capital of the Sultanate of Rûm.
846:(Alexios' brother-in-law), led both land and sea forces which re-established firm Byzantine control of the Aegean coastline and many inland districts of western
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Büyük Selçuklular Ve Nizamül-Mülk, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, (Yüksek Lisans Tezi), Isparta 2019,(Great Seljuks and Nizamal-Mulk)
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Unfortunately for Alexius Comnenus, the Byzantines were unable to fully capitalize on these conquests with Caesarea returning to the Seljuks as a part of the
1243:
663:. A Byzantine counterattack in 1069 drove the Seljuk Turks back from these lands. Further offensives by the Byzantine army drove the Turks back across the
1000:
was still successful. After the victory on the Meander, Manuel himself advanced with a small army to drive the Turks from Panasium and Lacerium, south of
1874:
2214:
682:, the leader of the Seljuk Turks withdrew from Manzikert. His tactical withdrawal allowed his army to ambush the Byzantines, winning the decisive
943:
John II died in 1143, leaving the Byzantine Empire a strong army, significant reserves of cash, and improved prestige. However, the new emperor,
959:
the northern part of the Aegean coast near Pergamon was also praised by Choniates. However, when Kilij Arslan refused to hand over the city of
279:
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led an army in an attempt to score a decisive blow against the Seljuks and add some military justification to his rule (which had seen the
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had been held back as well allowing the Empire to focus its energies against the Turks. The Byzantines were thus able to recover the
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1999:
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Sullivan, Denis (2021). "Technical aspects of siege warfare in the eleventh century". In Theotokis, Georgios; Meško, Marek (eds.).
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The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh Through the Fifteenth Century
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When the Seljuk Turks did encounter the Byzantines, they had chosen a good time to attack. Byzantium was faced with weak rule,
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The Seljuk Turks at their greatest extent, in 1092. To the North East in North Western China (Altay Mountains) lies a probable
41:
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This map varies from other maps which are slightly different in scope, especially along the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.
1213:
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a city under Seljuk occupation. The siege marked the end of Crusader assistance to the Byzantines due to the simulations of
1778:
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along with several other cities such as Iconium, the future capital of the Seljuk Turks. However, in a campaign in 1097
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Despite this, the Seljuk Turks continued their incursions into Asia Minor, capturing Manzikert. The Byzantine Emperor
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1412:(in Turkish). Kocaeli Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler Araştırma Dergisi. 2022. p. 4.
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Settlements and regions affected during the first wave of Turkish invasions in Asia Minor (11th–13th century)
1009:
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336:
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991:, who was sent by the Emperor to repel the Turkish invasion scored an ambush victory over the Turks at the
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As the Byzantines were making headway against the Arabs in the 10th century, Persia was being ruled by the
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988:
600:
483:
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227:
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invaded Anatolia in the 1260s and divided it into smaller principalities called the Anatolian beyliks.
580:
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Pre-Ottoman Turkey: A General Survey of the Material and Spiritual Culture and History c. 1071–1330
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of the Empire in 1204 during which time the Byzantines struggled to hold on to their territories.
1135:
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in 1204. Before the conflict ended, the Seljuks managed to take more territory from the weakened
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was of questionable quality before 1071 with regular Turkish incursions overrunning the failing
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and other allied armies at the end of his Anatolian campaign, resulted in the victory of the
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871:
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whilst the Abbasid Caliphate had recently been seriously weakened with its wars against the
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ultimately leading to a weakening of both the Crusader states and the Byzantine Empire.
955:, leaving the Byzantines arguably in a worse position than they had been under John II.
709:
Byzantine Emperor even gave the city of Nicaea's defense to the invading Turks in 1078.
1558:
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within a few decades of each other at a time when the army was torn in civil conflict.
1068:
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1004:. However, in 1178 a Byzantine army retreated after encountering a Turkish force at
827:
all fell to the Crusaders and they reached as far as Cilicia where they allied with
790:
reinforce them in any dangerous situations. The Crusaders first set about attacking
1840:
1512:
1316:
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were lost by 1084. However, between 1078 and 1084 Antioch had been in the hands of
445:
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1988:"La résistance aux Turcs en Asie Mineure entre Mantzikert et la Première Croisade"
1806:
1287:
1109:
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781:, with soldiers anachronistically shown wearing plate as opposed to mail armour.
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634:'s half-brother İbrahim Yınal Bey against the Byzantine Empire and its ally the
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1079:, whilst the Byzantines severely weakened by the Seljuks. Power shifted to the
1987:
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La Syrie du nord à l'époque des croisades et la principauté franque d'Antioche
997:
773:
679:
557:
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405:
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During the course of the war, the Seljuk Turks and their allies attacked the
1247:. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 608–611.
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980:
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631:
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1923:
A History of the Crusades: Volume VI. The Impact of the Crusades on Europe
1903:
A History of the Crusades: Volume VI. The Impact of the Crusades on Europe
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1825:"Islamization of Anatolia and the Effects of Established Sufism (Orders)"
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invasion and siege of Constantinople was thoroughly defeated whilst the
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Alp Arslan led Seljuk Turks to victory against the Byzantines in 1071.
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The Saljūqs of Syria: during the Crusades, 463-549 A.H./1070-1154 A.D
1262:. American Edition, New York: Covent Garden Books. pp. 65, 228.
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activities, further reducing any chances of a successful reconquest.
1085:
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and destroy his fleet, and even regain the southern littoral of the
1218:(Onassis Series in Hellenic Culture), Oxford University Press, 2017
1530:"The Battle of Manzikert: Military Disaster or Political Failure?"
1090:
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969:
967:, resulted in the Byzantine campaign of conquest being abandoned.
960:
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772:
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951:. This resulted in a powerful centralised Turkish state based at
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and Syria. In 1067 the Seljuk Turks invaded Asia Minor attacking
1216:: The Rise and Fall of Byzantium, 955 A.D. to the First Crusade.
421:
1994:(in French). Paris: Éditions de la Sorbonne. pp. 131–147.
1724:. History of warfare. Vol. 5. Boston: Brill. p. 196.
185:
1708:
A History of the Crusades: Volume One. The First Hundred Years
1367:
A History of the Crusades: Volume One. The First Hundred Years
1232:
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of Egypt, capturing Jerusalem and catalyzing the call for the
1495:
Morris, Rosemary (2006). "[Mantzikert, Battle of (1071)". In
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Traditions & Encounters a Global Perspective on the Past
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Morris, Rosemary (2006). "John II Komnenos (1087-1143)". In
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Mulinder, Alec (2006). "Ramla, Second Battle of (1102)". In
1008:, allowing the Turks to capture many livestock. The city of
1925:. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 311-353.
1919:
Chapter VII. The Ottoman Turks and the Crusades, 1451-1522
1899:
Chapter VII. The Ottoman Turks and the Crusades, 1329-1451
1663:
France, John (2006). "Antioch, Sieges of (1097-1098)". In
1626:. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 280-307.
1421:
1419:
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gave the Crusaders an Asia Minor that was open to attack:
2063:(1st ed.). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
1905:. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp.175-221.
1704:
Chapter XIX. The Decline and Fall of Jerusalem, 1174-1189
1331:. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 99-132.
1184:. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 99-132.
1616:
Chapter IX. The First Crusade: Constantinople to Antioch
1369:. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 81-98.
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Chapter VI. The Byzantine Empire in the Eleventh Century
756:
asking for weapons, supplies and skilled troops. At the
1706:". In Setton, Kenneth M.; Baldwin, Marshall W. (eds.).
1618:". In Setton, Kenneth M.; Baldwin, Marshall W. (eds.).
1601:
France, John (2006). "Dorylaion, Battle of (1097)". In
1365:". In Setton, Kenneth M.; Baldwin, Marshall W. (eds.).
1323:." In Setton, Kenneth M.; Baldwin, Marshall W. (eds.).
1176:." In Setton, Kenneth M.; Baldwin, Marshall W. (eds.).
1710:. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. p. 594.
2020:
Battle a Visual Journey Through 5000 Years of Combat
1749:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 649.
1352:(11th ed.), Cambridge University Press. pp. 400-401.
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Following their victories, the Crusaders went on to
2082:(1st ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
420:, the Seljuks replicated tactics practiced by the
642:. In 1054, Sultan Tughril I of the Seljuk Empire
490:until the sultanate itself was taken over by the
1773:Stone, Andrew (2004). De Imperatoribus Romanis.
1722:The Development of the Komnenian Army: 1081–1180
1410:"1048 Hasankale (Pasinler) War and Its Results"
1321:Chapter V. The Turkish Invasion: The Selchükids
34:
1921:". In Zacour, N. P., and Hazard, H. W. (ed.).
1901:". In Zacour, N. P., and Hazard, H. W. (ed.).
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1559:The speech of Pope Urban II. at Clermont, 1095
1363:Chapter III. The Caliphate and the Arab States
197:
8:
1992:ΕΥΨΥΧΙΑ. Mélanges offerts à Hélène Ahrweiler
1939:Bentley, Jerry H.; Ziegler, Herbert (2006).
1747:A History of the Byzantine State and Society
752:In 1094, Alexius Comnenus sent a message to
1791:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
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1509:Orient et Occident à la fin du XI siècle
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1379:Yıldız, Osman Fikret (1 January 2019).
1303:Christie, Niall (2006). "Abbāsids". In
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404:. They shifted the balance of power in
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1589:
1585:
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27:Series of conflicts in the Middle Ages
2160:. Berkeley: University of California.
1943:(3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw–Hill.
1437:Brett, Michael (2006). "Saljūqs". In
7:
2205:13th century in the Byzantine Empire
2200:12th century in the Byzantine Empire
2195:11th century in the Byzantine Empire
1885:. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
1781:from the original on 5 October 2003.
1775:"Manuel I Comnenus (A.D. 1143-1180)"
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1204:
1202:
1168:
1166:
909:Byzantine counter-attack: 1118–1180
524:The decades after the death of the
392:were a series of conflicts in the
25:
2149:War in Eleventh-Century Byzantium
2101:(4th ed.). London: Collins.
1877:". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).
1397:, TSMK, Hazine, nr. 1654, vr. 202
1231:Houtsma, Martin Theodoor (1911).
1028:Seljuk Empire collapse: 1194–1260
1024:deeper into Byzantine territory.
676:Norman conquest of southern Italy
2061:Crusades the Illustrated History
1214:Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood
993:Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir
777:A 15th century depiction of the
2080:The Oxford History of Byzantium
1294:, Vol. X, Fasc. 6, pp. 578-583.
1146:Decline of the Byzantine Empire
924:The death of Alexius I brought
533:
42:Decline of the Byzantine Empire
2151:. Routledge. pp. 315–331.
2022:. London: Dorling Kindersley.
1873:Bréhier, Louis René. (1912). "
1841:10.1080/09720073.2014.11891424
1702:Baldwin, Marshall W. (1969). "
1691:The Crusades - An Encyclopedia
1678:The Crusades - An Encyclopedia
1665:The Crusades - An Encyclopedia
1639:. Longman, Harlow Essex. p.150
1637:The Byzantine Empire 1025–1204
1603:The Crusades - An Encyclopedia
1497:The Crusades - An Encyclopedia
1439:The Crusades - An Encyclopedia
1361:Gibb, Hamilton H. A. (1969). "
1305:The Crusades - An Encyclopedia
1:
2039:Byzantium at War: AD 600–1453
1986:Cheynet, Jean-Claude (1998).
1823:Aktas, Vahap (January 2014).
1461:, Vol. I, Fasc. 1, pp. 89-95.
769:Byzantium survives: 1096–1118
760:in 1095, the Pope preached a
494:, leading to the rise of the
416:. Riding from the steppes of
310:Campaigns of John II Komnenos
2142:. New York: Time-Life Books.
2140:Great Ages of Man: Byzantium
2099:Compact History of the World
1813:. Online only. Updated 2010.
1482:El-Azhari, T. Kamal (1997).
1344:". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).
874:from the demoralised Turks.
591:Initial conflicts: 1048–1071
2116:Phillips, Jonathan (2014).
2009:Findley, Carter V. (2005).
1720:Birkenmeier, J. W. (2002).
1518:(1940). Paris: P. Geuthner.
691:Turkic conquests: 1071–1096
412:from the Byzantines to the
2231:
2215:Christian–Islamic violence
2013:. Oxford University Press.
2011:The Turks in World History
1862:Bentley & Ziegler 2006
1614:Runciman, Steven (1969). "
1260:The Atlas of World History
626:In 18 September 1048, The
2097:Parker, Geoffrey (2005).
1620:A History of the Crusades
1325:A History of the Crusades
1178:A History of the Crusades
1172:Charanis, Peter (1969). "
897:was forced to turn back.
223:
143:
56:
47:
39:
2156:Vryonis, Speros (1971).
1635:Angold, Michael (1984).
2120:. New York: Routledge.
2118:The Crusades, 1095–1204
1624:The First Hundred Years
1346:Encyclopædia Britannica
1340:Edmund Curtis (1911). "
1329:The First Hundred Years
1244:Encyclopædia Britannica
1182:The First Hundred Years
1054:Aftermath of Manzikert.
965:Battle of Myriokephalon
889:the Seljuk governor of
850:, taking the cities of
646:. The defenders led by
96:occupation of Anatolia.
2185:13th-century conflicts
2180:12th-century conflicts
2175:11th-century conflicts
1969:The Kingdom of Armenia
1962:. New York: Taplinger.
1958:Cahen, Claude (1968).
1745:Treadgold, W. (1997).
1258:Black, Jeremy (2005).
1141:Byzantine–Ottoman wars
1119:fall of Constantinople
1115:Byzantine-Ottoman Wars
1096:
1055:
975:
921:
782:
700:
623:
614:
521:
502:Byzantine–Ottoman wars
484:sack of Constantinople
362:Antioch on the Meander
342:Hyelion and Leimocheir
2190:Byzantine–Seljuk wars
2078:Mango, Cyril (2002).
2037:Haldon, John (2002).
2018:Grant, R. G. (2005).
1971:. London: Routledge.
1967:Chahin, Mark (2001).
1879:Catholic Encyclopedia
1486:. Berlin: K. Schwarz.
1094:
1053:
1044:Komnenian restoration
973:
916:
776:
727:Philaretos Brachamios
698:
678:). During the march,
620:
609:, 1654 Ottoman copy,
598:
515:
390:Byzantine–Seljuk wars
215:Byzantine–Seljuk wars
76:and Northern/Western
35:Byzantine–Seljuk wars
18:Byzantine–Seljuq Wars
1811:Encyclopædia Iranica
1555:Munro, Dana Carleton
1459:Encyclopædia Iranica
1385:. p. 93 Fig.4.
1292:Encyclopædia Iranica
879:lay siege to Antioch
1131:Arab–Byzantine wars
758:Council of Clermont
684:Battle of Manzikert
518:origin of the Turks
500:and the conclusive
457:Battle of Manzikert
426:Byzantine–Arab Wars
154:Trapezuntine Empire
2041:. Oxford: Osprey.
1829:The Anthropologist
1451:C. Edmund Bosworth
1284:C. Edmund Bosworth
1209:Kaldellis, Anthony
1136:Byzantine military
1097:
1056:
976:
922:
817:Antioch in Pisidia
783:
715:Alexius I Komnenos
701:
644:besieged Manzikert
628:Battle of Kapetron
624:
615:
579:conquests and the
566:Battle of Kapetron
522:
461:Byzantine military
440:Caliphates in the
2127:978-0-415-73636-7
2057:Madden, Thomas F.
1805:Andrew Peacock, "
1654:, pp. 42–43.
1455:Abbasic Caliphate
1269:978-0-7566-1861-2
1121:in May 29, 1453.
895:Byzantine Emperor
606:Jami' al-tawarikh
570:Abbasid Caliphate
526:Byzantine emperor
472:Fatimid Caliphate
428:initiated by the
385:
384:
180:
179:
175:Abbasid Caliphate
139:
138:
124:conquers most of
107:Anatolian beyliks
105:Establishment of
16:(Redirected from
2222:
2210:Sultanate of Rum
2161:
2152:
2143:
2136:Sherrard, Philip
2131:
2112:
2093:
2074:
2052:
2033:
2014:
2005:
1982:
1963:
1954:
1926:
1912:
1906:
1892:
1886:
1871:
1865:
1859:
1853:
1852:
1820:
1814:
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1782:
1770:
1761:
1760:
1742:
1736:
1735:
1717:
1711:
1700:
1694:
1687:
1681:
1674:
1668:
1661:
1655:
1649:
1640:
1633:
1627:
1612:
1606:
1599:
1593:
1587:
1574:
1568:
1562:
1552:
1546:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1532:. Archived from
1525:
1519:
1506:
1500:
1493:
1487:
1480:
1474:
1468:
1462:
1448:
1442:
1441:. pp. 1064-1068.
1435:
1429:
1423:
1414:
1413:
1406:
1400:
1399:
1376:
1370:
1359:
1353:
1338:
1332:
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1295:
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1275:
1273:
1255:
1249:
1248:
1236:
1228:
1219:
1206:
1197:
1191:
1185:
1170:
926:John II Comnenus
883:Stephen of Blois
836:Sultanate of Rum
829:Cilician Armenia
779:siege of Antioch
735:Norman invasions
672:Romanus Diogenes
636:Georgian Kingdom
537:
535:
488:Empire of Nicaea
482:even led to the
398:Byzantine Empire
218:
216:
206:
199:
192:
183:
171:Sultanate of Rum
150:Byzantine Empire
100:Sultanate of Rum
89:Seljuk victory.
58:
57:
52:
32:
21:
2230:
2229:
2225:
2224:
2223:
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2164:
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2096:
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2077:
2071:
2055:
2049:
2036:
2030:
2017:
2008:
2002:
1985:
1979:
1966:
1957:
1951:
1938:
1935:
1933:Further reading
1930:
1929:
1913:
1909:
1893:
1889:
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1528:Markham, Paul.
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1408:
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1403:
1394:Câmiu't-Tevârîh
1387:Miniature from
1378:
1377:
1373:
1360:
1356:
1342:Robert Guiscard
1339:
1335:
1315:
1311:
1302:
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1282:
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1234:"Seljūks"
1230:
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1207:
1200:
1192:
1188:
1171:
1164:
1159:
1127:
1039:
1030:
949:Kilij Arslan II
945:Manuel Comnenus
911:
903:Crusade of 1101
794:on 6 May 1097.
771:
693:
593:
536: 976–1025
532:
510:
386:
381:
219:
214:
212:
210:
173:
169:
162:Crusader states
160:
156:
152:
128:prior to their
117:
80:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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2094:
2088:
2075:
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2053:
2047:
2034:
2028:
2015:
2006:
2000:
1983:
1977:
1964:
1955:
1949:
1934:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1915:İnalcık, Halil
1907:
1895:İnalcık, Halil
1887:
1875:Turkish Empire
1866:
1864:, p. 465.
1854:
1835:(1): 147–155.
1815:
1807:Saljuqs of Rum
1798:
1762:
1755:
1737:
1730:
1712:
1695:
1693:. pp. 687-688.
1682:
1669:
1656:
1641:
1628:
1607:
1605:. pp. 363-364.
1594:
1575:
1563:
1547:
1536:on 13 May 2007
1520:
1501:
1499:. pp. 795-796.
1488:
1475:
1473:, p. 164.
1463:
1443:
1430:
1428:, p. 317.
1415:
1401:
1371:
1354:
1333:
1309:
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1276:
1268:
1250:
1239:Chisholm, Hugh
1220:
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1161:
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1155:
1154:
1153:
1151:Komnenian army
1148:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1126:
1123:
1038:
1035:
1029:
1026:
983:and Sublaeum.
910:
907:
796:Kilij Arslan I
770:
767:
739:Aegean islands
692:
689:
659:and, in 1069,
648:Basil Apokapes
611:Topkapi Museum
592:
589:
509:
506:
480:Fourth Crusade
414:Seljuk dynasty
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2119:
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2110:
2108:0-00-721411-1
2104:
2100:
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2089:0-19-814098-3
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2070:0-472-03127-9
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2048:1-84176-360-8
2044:
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2029:1-4053-1100-2
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2016:
2012:
2007:
2003:
2001:9782859448301
1997:
1993:
1989:
1984:
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1978:0-7007-1452-9
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1950:0-07-295754-9
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1592:, p. 40.
1591:
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1426:Sullivan 2021
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1317:Cahen, Claude
1313:
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1199:
1196:, p. 71.
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989:John Vatatzes
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1667:. pp. 79-81.
1664:
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1561:. [New York.
1550:
1538:. Retrieved
1534:the original
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1040:
1031:
1022:
1010:Claudiopolis
985:
977:
957:
942:
938:
923:
899:
876:
864:Philadelphia
843:
833:
788:
784:
751:
711:
702:
669:
630:, fought by
625:
604:
574:
555:
551:
547:
539:
523:
496:
469:
465:theme system
454:
446:North Africa
418:Central Asia
396:between the
389:
387:
347:Claudiopolis
275:2nd Caesarea
267:
253:1st Caesarea
213:
144:Belligerents
88:
40:Part of the
29:
1652:Madden 2005
1590:Madden 2005
1571:Madden 2005
1117:led to the
1110:Peloponnese
930:Danishmends
840:John Doukas
809:Philomelium
747:Marmara Sea
394:Middle Ages
327:2nd Iconium
305:Philomelion
258:1st Iconium
116:Territorial
2169:Categories
1680:. p. 1006.
1557:. (1906).
1389:Reşîdüddîn
1307:. pp. 1-3.
1288:Ghaznavids
1157:References
998:Asia Minor
844:megas doux
680:Alp Arslan
632:Tuğrul Bey
560:, another
558:Ghaznavids
450:Asia Minor
406:Asia Minor
300:2nd Nicaea
290:1st Nicaea
233:Vaspurakan
1917:(1989). "
1897:(1989). "
1849:0972-0073
1513:Cahen, C.
1319:(1969). "
1065:Pechenegs
981:Dorylaeum
805:Sozopolis
801:Dorylaeum
749:in 1094.
665:Euphrates
587:dynasty.
332:Turbessel
320:Sozopolis
280:Oinousses
64:1046–1243
2138:(1966).
2059:(2005).
1787:cite web
1779:Archived
1622:Vol. I:
1327:Vol. I:
1180:Vol. I:
1125:See also
1106:Ottomans
1077:Ayyubids
1018:besieged
1014:Bithynia
1002:Cotyaeum
961:Sebastea
887:Kerbogha
868:Laodicea
848:Anatolia
825:Caesarea
821:Heraclea
731:Pecheneg
657:Caesarea
529:Basil II
430:Rashidun
400:and the
315:Laodicea
295:Mersivan
263:Sebastia
238:Kapetron
130:collapse
126:Anatolia
94:Turkoman
74:Anatolia
69:Location
1241:(ed.).
1081:Mamluks
1061:Normans
1037:Summary
953:Iconium
934:Iconium
856:Ephesus
813:Iconium
762:Crusade
743:Tzachas
719:Antioch
706:Beyliks
661:Iconium
640:Seljuks
622:Romanus
585:Fatimid
541:dynatoi
508:Origins
492:Mongols
438:Abbasid
434:Umayyad
357:Antalya
285:Antioch
134:Mongols
132:to the
122:Seljuks
118:changes
2124:
2105:
2086:
2067:
2045:
2026:
1998:
1975:
1947:
1847:
1753:
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1540:19 May
1266:
1006:Charax
919:father
860:Sardis
852:Smyrna
842:, the
792:Nicaea
723:Smyrna
653:Edessa
581:schism
577:Norman
442:Levant
367:Sinope
85:Result
1511:. In
1237:. In
1069:Turks
891:Mosul
872:Choma
741:from
497:ghazi
410:Syria
372:Sudak
228:Ganja
78:Syria
2122:ISBN
2103:ISBN
2084:ISBN
2065:ISBN
2043:ISBN
2024:ISBN
1996:ISBN
1973:ISBN
1945:ISBN
1845:ISSN
1793:link
1751:ISBN
1726:ISBN
1542:2007
1264:ISBN
1086:Sufi
1067:and
1016:was
870:and
823:and
721:and
455:The
448:and
436:and
422:Huns
408:and
388:The
61:Date
1837:doi
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1350:23.
1290:".
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