Byzantine Anatolia - Knowledge (XXG)

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raised an army and marched against the Sultan, hoping to take his capital at Iconium. Manuel made serious tactical errors, however, such as failing to properly scout the way ahead of him and taking predictable routes through Anatolia. He was thus ambushed at Myriokephalon by Kilij Arslan, and his army was soon routed in a humiliating defeat reminiscent of Manzikert a century earlier. Manuel, however, was able to rally his army and avoid the fate of Romanos Diogenes, and Kilij Arslan was quick to seek a peace treaty. Manuel could thus maintain his family's gains over the years in Anatolia, but his offensive drive was finished, and he added no further territory to Byzantine Anatolia.

3183:. Additionally, the Armenian allies had to deal with a separate Arab invasion that weakened their position against the Arabs. Combined with other difficulties, Leo was unable to make progress in Anatolia until 900, when he launched a new offensive against Tarsus. This campaign was successful, culminating in the capture of the emir of Tarsus and weakening the emirate. The next few years saw more offensives that gradually weakened the Arab presence in the east and allowed the empire to make its first eastern conquests in years. The empire's grip on Anatolia was stronger at Leo's death than it had been in a long time. 515: 2641: 3334: 2146: 3124: 25: 3569:, but he soon found himself unable to pay them. The Catalan mercenaries went on a destructive rampage in response. This only weakened Byzantine power in the area even further. Finally, new threats in the west and civil wars turned the attention of the Byzantine emperors inward and westward. The rest of the century witnessed the consolidation of Ottoman power and the taking of the last Byzantine holdings. In 1390, the fortress of 2993: 2780: 2138: 1580: 448: 3251:. Tzimiskes proved to be just as capable and active as Nikephoros. Aleppo soon submitted to the empire and became a Roman vassal, while remaining a Muslim state. This was an unprecedented development that further strengthened Anatolia's southern borders and demonstrated the new power of Byzantium. Tzimiskes continued the offensive with campaigns into Mesopotamia and into Syria against the 1907: 3309:, to become the new Emperor. Diogenes recognized the crumbling situation in Anatolia and quickly assembled an army to reverse it and push out the Seljuk Turks. For the next three years, Romanos campaigned against them, winning back some fortresses and pushing against them. He hoped to administer a fatal blow in 1071. Gathering an army of 40,000 men, Diogenes retook the town of 2078:. This would be the first in a series of raids into Anatolia that would last for hundreds of years. The desperate straits of the empire at this time caused a massive shift in strategic thinking for the Byzantines. For the next two centuries they would cease being an empire of conquest, of which they were largely incapable at the moment. 2246:. However his more limited resources and despotic nature ultimately proved his downfall as the last of the Heraclians. Initially he was able to continue his father's successes in the east leaving him free to concentrate on the Balkans where he was also successful. He then returned to the east but was soundly defeated at the 3407:. Alexios entrusted several cities to Turkish mercenaries such as Nicaea, but this strategy backfired on him when the Turks betrayed him and kept the cities for themselves. By 1095, the empire was reduced to only barely holding the coast with the Bosporus sea. Alexios now turned westward, working with Pope 3236:, which dealt a major blow to Sayf al-Dawla. By 965, Cilica was entirely back in Byzantine hands. al-Dawla faced continuous revolts for the rest of his reign that stymied his ability to fight back. The campaign of reconquest continued and culminated in 969 with the retaking of Antioch by Byzantine forces. 3258:

While neither Tzimiskes nor Phokas had a unified strategy, their conquests tended to be territory that either posed a direct threat to Byzantine territory in Asia Minor, such as Cilcia, or territory that had a large Christian population such as Antioch. These territories, along with the vassalization

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Weak leadership at the top would lead to civil war and a poor response to the waves of incoming Turks who now entered Anatolia. The exact timeline is unclear due in part to a lack of sources during this time. For the year of 1072, the Byzantines did not have to deal with an organized invasion by the

2798:(780–797) was coemperor but only nine years old, and reigned with his mother Irene as regent. An unpopular ruler even after gaining majority, he was engaged in power struggles with his mother, who had been declared empress. Eventually his mother's supporters deposed him, leaving her as sole empress. 3389:

to apprehend him. He was successful, and in 1076 he captured Roussel and returned to the capital. The wars with Roussel only served to expose the weakness of Roman presence within Anatolia, and throughout the decade, many Romans fled westwards away from the Turks. The combined threat of the Seljuks

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to defeat Roussel, the Byzantines were able to drive his army away from the capital and capture him. However, Roussel's wife was able to reach Artuk before the Empire and was able to ransom Roussel. Roussel now retreated to the Armeniakon theme and resumed his ambitions. In 1075, the imperial court

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from Byzantium. Yet Constantine did not react. He sent no armies to contest the Turkish raids. There is a lack of sources for his reign and thus the reason for this lack of reaction are unclear. In fact, it seems that Constantine may have actually weakened the armies that should have been defending

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Following the deposition of Irene, there was founded a relatively short-lived dynasty for the era, the Nikephorian dynasty. The empire was in a weaker and more precarious position than it had been for a long time and its finances were problematic. During this era Byzantium was almost continually at

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Having overthrown Theodosius, the first problem Leo faced was the Arab siege of Constantinople, which was abandoned in 718, Leo having continued his predecessors alliance with the Bulgars. His next pressing task was to consolidate his power to avoid being himself deposed and to restore order in the

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Justinian then continued to reign for a further six years (705–711). His treatment of Tiberios and his supporters had been brutal and he continued to rule in a manner that was despotic and cruel. He lost the ground regained by Tiberios in the east, and imposed his views on the pope. However, before

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in 674. This first siege of Constantinople demonstrated how vulnerable the city was to attack, but also its strengths which ultimately prevailed, the Arabs lifting the siege in 678, and after further setbacks signing another truce which allowed Constantine to concentrate on the Balkan threat. For a

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John was succeeded by his son Manuel Komnenos in 1143. Manuel initially pursued a similar strategy to his father and grandfather, however the political situation he inherited from them, as well as his own ambitions to restore Roman power, demanded that his attention be primarily focused outside of

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In 1097, the Crusaders launched an attack against Nicea. Before the city could be sacked, Alexios was able to negotiate a surrender by the city's Turkish garrison and a return of the city into Byzantine hands. The Crusaders then marched eastwards through Anatolia. They were opposed by the Turks at

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established a truce which allowed Manuel to focus his attention elsewhere. The treaty proved to be a double edged sword, as Arslan was able to solidify his own position and defeat his rivals. Arslan gradually became more belligerent and refused to honor treaty obligations. Alarmed, Manuel quickly

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Caliphate. This meant the caliphate was unable to offer a tangible response to Byzantine aggression. Furthermore, once Sayf al-Dawla was defeated, there was no other Arab state in the immediate region to slow the Byzantine efforts. Finally, Arab raids on the empire had ceased long ago, giving the

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The traditional view was that Leo III issued an edict ordering the removal of images in 726, followed by prohibiting the veneration of images, but the controversy had existed in the church for some time and received some impetus from the rise of proximity of Islam and its attitude to imagery. The

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One of the most significant influences of Leo III was his involvement with the Iconoclastic movement in about 726. This controversy, the removal and destruction of religious icons in favour of simple crosses, and the persecution of icon worshippers was to have a profound effect on the empire, its

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It was surprising that the Byzantine Empire was able to survive, given its internal conflicts, the speedy collapse of the Sassanid Empire under Arab threat, and it was being threatened simultaneously on two fronts. However the strength of the military organisation within the empire, and factional

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Alexios was succeeded by his son John in 1118. John continued his father's strategy of slowly taking back control over Anatolia. Contending with both the Seljuks and the Crusader states, John's strategy was one of patience, slowly chipping away at his enemies. By 1140, John had moved his eastern

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In religious matters, despite early evidence of image veneration, he adopted iconoclasm, this precipitating the second phase of the divisive controversy (814–842). He appears to have been motivated by the observation that the return of image veneration coincided with a period of untimely ends of

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tactics to defend against constant Arab raids into Anatolia for hundreds of years. Rather than attempting to defeat Arab armies head on, the troops would often ambush plunder laden Arab raiding parties as they made their way back out of Anatolia in the hope of retaking some plunder and deterring

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religion and culture over most of the next century before being finally laid to rest in 842. Leo's exact role has been debated An opponent of image worship has been referred to as an εἰκονοκλάστης (iconoclast), while those supporting image worship have been variously described as εἰκονολάτραι (

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by the same name, launched a revolt against Phocas, which weakened the eastern frontier. Heraclius was successful in overthrowing Phocas in 610, but in 611, the Persians succeeded in breaking through the Armenian frontier and invading Anatolia proper. Over the next four years, forces under the

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had been the empire's finance minister and on Irene's deposition immediately embarked on a series of fiscal reforms. His administrative reforms included re-organisation of themata. He survived a civil war in 803 and like most of the Byzantine emperors, he found himself at war on three fronts,

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on which it was based, was in Greek rather than in Latin. Administratively he subdivided a number of the themata, for reasons similar to that of his predecessors, smaller units meant less power to local officials and less threat to central authority. When Leo died he was succeeded by his son,

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of Bulgaria that took the lives of his two predecessors, he engaged Krum once more and once more was defeated, severely weakening his position. Aware of a likely revolt he chose to abdicate given the grisly fate of so many prior overthrown emperors, ending the brief dynasty of Nikephoros.

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would prove to be a new threat to Byzantine power in the region. In 1108, Alexios finally defeated Bohemond, who returned to Italy, but failed to return Antioch to Byzantine hands. Byzantium was thus given a foothold from which to attempt to reassert control over all of the peninsula.

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of Aleppo, secured Anatolia from southern incursion and prevented any Muslim attempts to raid Anatolia from the south. Initially, it seemed that the empire would resume a defensive posture. However, the next emperor, Basil II, would soon address the north eastern borders of Anatolia.

2578:, which in turn alienated the empire from Rome. Militarily the Bulgars reached the walls of Constantinople, and moving troops to defend the capital allowed the Arabs to make incursions in the east. His reign ended abruptly when an army rebellion deposed him and replaced him with 2010:

when it was attacked by the Pannonian Avars and Persian forces in 626. Heraclius's continued offensives, combined with the failure to conquer Constantinople and suspected intrigues against Shahrbaraz, eventually brought about the fall of Khosrow II and the elevation of his son,

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In 1081, Alexios Komnenos successfully led a coup against the government and became emperor. Alexios was a capable general and leader, but before he could deal with the situation in Anatolia, his attention was drawn westward by another Norman invasion and incursions by the

2271:(698–705). Tiberios managed to bolster the eastern frontier and reinforced the defences of Constantinople, but meanwhile Justinian was conspiring to make a comeback, and after forming an alliance with the Bulgars succeeded in taking Constantinople and executing Tiberios. 3535:

The Fourth Crusade would prove to be a grave challenge to the Byzantine Empire. The loss of a central authority figure shattered the empire, breaking it into four major successor states that each held sway over different parts of the empire. Two of these states, the

1884:. The Sassanid Empire, the largest opposing power to that of Byzantium in the region, would not make a determined effort to conquer Anatolia until the seventh century. Anatolia would occasionally receive the spillover of wars between Byzantium and Persia such as the 2061:

The loss of Egypt and Syria would prove catastrophic for the Byzantine Empire, but would dramatically heighten the importance of Anatolia. Previously, Egypt had been the main source of food and wealth for the empire, mainly due to the fertile lands watered by the

3523:. Alexios proved to be similarly incompetent and was unable to stop further advances into Anatolia by a resurgent Sultanate of Rum. In 1204, a new Byzantine state emerged in Anatolia based out of Trebizond. They were not met by any imperial response, due to the 3143:

and would see the Empire as a whole enter a new renisance and in particular would bring peace to Anatolia for the first time since the Arab conquests over the next hundred years. The first military success for the new emperor in Anatolia was the defeat of the

95: 3255:. By 975, Tzimiskes had campaigned far south into the Levant and Syria, pushing the borders away from Anatolia and extending Byzantine hegemony into Syria. Tzimiskes' strengthening of the armies also blunted the only serious attempt to take Antioch in 971. 3518:

travel through Anatolia, sacking Iconium along the way and defeating the Seljuks. Unfortunately for the Empire, Isaac was an incompetent emperor who failed to defeat his enemies and alienated those who could have been his friends. He was usurped in 1195 by

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led an unsuccessful rebellion against him. Anastasius was executed. He then needed to secure the frontiers. In terms of domestic policies he embarked on a series of civil and legal reforms. The latter included a new codification in 726, referred to as the

2279:(711–713. Justinian was captured and executed as was his son and co-emperor, Tiberius (706–711), thus extinguishing the Heraclian line. Justinian had taken the Byzantine Empire yet further from his origins. He effectively abolished the historical role of 3004:, who claimed the throne. The ensuing civil war dragged on until 824, including a siege of Constantinople, when Thomas was defeated and killed. Michael continued the iconoclastic policy of Leo. After his death, he was succeeded by his son and coemperor, 1803: 2015:

in 628 CE. Within a month, Kavad surrendered to the Byzantine Empire and ordered his forces to withdraw from all Byzantine territory, including Anatolia. Heraclius had succeeded in defeating Persia and safeguarding Anatolia, but the peace was illusory.

2225:) in 680, which condemned Monotheletism. He also initiated a series of civil and military reform to cope with the shrunken and threatened empire. This was to do away with the original system of provinces with a new administrative structure based on 3211:

retook the island of Crete for the empire. This was the beginning of an era of reconquest for Byzantium and would extend its eastern frontiers to a length that had been unseen since 634. The main obstacle to Byzantine expansion was the emir of

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to be captured alive. Alp Arslan was kind to Diogenes and released him eight days later, but his rivals in Constantinople moved against him. Diogenes was soon deposed, and after a brief civil war he was blinded and died. His replacement,

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Irene (797–802), therefore was empress consort (775–780), empress dowager and regent (780–797) and empress regnant (797–80). As sole empress she was able to officially restore icon veneration during her regency in 787 by means of the

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The years 711 to 717 were a troublesome time between the two dynasties, Heraclian and Isaurian and reflect a loss of leadership that had occurred under Justinian II, and could equally be dated from his first deposition in 695.

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The 1300s would see the final end of the last Byzantine territory in Anatolia. The Nicean Empire had largely consisted of the northwestern corner of Anatolia, but these lands now came under threat from the rising power of the

3109:. This so alarmed Basil, in terms of potentially threatening the line of succession of which he was now the direct heir, that he had both Michael and Basiliskianos murdered, and ascended the throne as Basil I (867–886). 2179:(668–685 AD) had been made co-emperor in 654, and ruled in the east while his father campaigned in the west (662–668), succeeding him on the latter's death. In 646, almost immediately he had to deal with Arab attacks on 3372:. Roussel went on to attempt to create his own state in the center of Anatolia. In 1074, the empire sent an army against him led by Ioannes Doukas and Andronikos Doukas. The expedition was routed by Roussel at the 1970:

on the northwestern coast. in 617, Chalcedon itself fell. Rejecting a peace delegation sent by Heraclius, Shahin withdrew from Anatolia for the present to continue the war on other fronts, namely Egypt and Syria.

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crossed the Danube and inflicted heavy losses on the Byzantine forces in 681. Faced with the uncompromising religious controversy that had perplexed his father he convened another ecumenical council, the sixth

2066:. With Egypt gone, Anatolia would become the main source of money, men, and food for the empire. Anatolia's peace was dealt a mortal blow by these staggering losses. In the late 640s under the caliph known as 3589:. In 1461, the Empire of Trebizond, the last Greek possession on Asia Minor, fell to the sultan as well. Thus came an end to Byzantine Anatolia and an end to over a millennium of Roman rule of Asia Minor. 3100:

Basil then arranged to murder Bardas in 866, and was adopted by Michael and crowned co-emperor a few months later. Michael and Basil were entangled in a complex sexual melange involving Michael's mistress

3026:, the Arab forces once again demonstrating their ability to penetrate deep into Anatolia and inflict significant losses on the Byzantine, if short lived, and vice versa. A significant Arab triumph was the 2644:

Byzantine Empire 717. 1. Ravenna 2. Venetia and Istria 3. Rome 4. Naples 5. Calabria 6. Hellas 7. Thrace 8. Opsikion 9. Thrakesion 10. Anatolikon 11. Karabisianoi 12. Armeniakon. Hatched area: Frequently

2871:(811). However he was severely wounded in the same battle in which his father died, and after much controversy regarding the succession was persuaded to abdicate later that year by his sister's husband, 1372: 3191:

In the tenth century, Byzantium gradually began regaining strength it had previously lost. On the eastern frontier, this meant a gradual pushing back of Arab power. The first major blow was struck by

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iconoclastic movement in the east considerably exacerbated the rift between it and the western church. The first phase of iconoclasm coincided with the Isaurian dynasty, from the edict of Leo III to

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to the Sassanid throne as Emperor, and upon his usurpation, Khosrow declared war with the casus belli of avenging Maurice. Phocas was successful in keeping the war out of Anatolia. However, in 608,

1382: 3380:. Roussell would march on Constantinople itself and attempt to set up a puppet emperor of his own, Ioannes Doukas, who had been taken prisoner at Sangarios. Turning to a Turkish mercenary named 2791:

an iconodule, resulting in a more conciliatory policy. Like his predecessors he had to defend his borders against both Arab and Bulgar, and like his father died campaigning against the Bulgars.

2054:, which they had occupied by 645. The loss of so much territory so quickly caused Heraclius to sink into depression, and he died later that year, becoming, in the judgement of English historian 2768:

in 754, followed by a concerted campaign against the iconodules and the suppression of monasteries which tended to be the centre of iconophilia. He continued his father's reorganisation of the

2307: 1990:, Heraclius engaged and defeated a Persian army under Shahrbaraz, forcing them out of Anatolia and winning a much needed victory. Heraclius was interrupted from continuing by an attack by the 3489:

Anatolia in Italy, Egypt, and the Balkans. However, he did not totally abandon Anatolia, both fortifying the border and launching limited raids into the Sultanate of Rum. By 1162, Manuel and

2899:(813) in which the Byzantines under Michael I were routed by the Bulgarians. Leo had already played a checkered role in imperial politics, rewarded by Nikephoros I for switching sides in the 2787:

Leo IV (775–780) also had to put down uprisings, in his case his half-brothers. His marriage epitomised the conflict in Byzantine society over icons, raised an iconoclast himself, he married

2264:(695–698) in 695, which deposed and exiled him, precipitating a series of events that led to a prolonged period of instability and anarchy, with seven emperors in twenty-two years. 3172:

in 882 ended in a defeat. Basil managed to make an alliance with Armenia that brought a measure of safety to the east of Asia Minor. Basil died in 886 and was succeeded by Leo VI.

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between them. However Constantine managed to overcome his adversary by 743. The conflict was at least in part one over icons, Artabasdos being supported by the iconodule faction.

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The Macedonian dynasty came to an end with the death of Theodora in 1059, who had no children or heirs to replace her. After a brief succession of emperors, she was replaced by

3864: 3544:, would contend for the remains of the empire in Anatolia, with the Nicean Empire holding the northwestern coast and the Trapezuntine empire holding the northeastern coast. 3390:

and the Normans had simply overwhelmed Roman capabilities to defend Anatolia from further incursion, and the 1080s would witness the near destruction of Byzantine Anatolia.

3317:. However, Arslan was much closer to the town than Diogenes anticipated, and launched a surprise attack. Owing both to this and to his appointment of the questionably loyal 3239:

The reconquest was due to several reasons. For one, the Abbasid Caliphate was in a fractured state at the time, facing multiple internal issues and the rise of the rival

4032: 2806:, although unofficially this had been the case since 781. A female head of state was not acceptable to the western church who promptly crowned an alternative emperor ( 2300: 514: 1998:. For the next two years, Heraclius retreated to deal with the problem in Thrace. Returning in 624 , Heraclius renewed his offensive campaign by attacking through 419: 2122:(general) who functioned both as a commander of the Byzantine military forces in the area and a political governor of the geographic area covered by his theme. 2829:(802–811) himself died campaigning amongst the Bulgars to the north. Furthermore, Byzantium's influence continued to wane in the west with the formation of a 2772:

and embarked on aggressive and expensive foreign wars against both the Arabs and Bulgars. He died campaigning against the latter, being succeeded by his son,

1450: 1608: 476: 2753:(741–775) had a less successful reign than his father, for no sooner had he ascended the throne than he was attacked and defeated by his brother in law, 2293: 1533: 1438: 360: 2038:

began their first attacks against the frontiers of the Byzantine Empire. At first only consisting of minor raids, the Arabs won a major victory at the

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The result of the First Crusade was a successful reconstruction of control over westernmost parts of Anatolia for the Byzantine Empire. However, the

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were also sacked during this time, but the bulk of the carnage was confined to the easternmost part of Anatolia, as the main focus of the war was

2810:) in 800 further deepening the rift between east and west. With Irene ended the Isaurian dynasty when she was deposed by a patrician conspiracy. 4138: 3078: 2926: 2200: 3633: 3918: 1694:

as the empire gradually crumbled. The last Byzantine fortress of Philadelphia fell in 1399, and the last Byzantine presence in the area at

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frontiers into central Anatolia and he was able to gain almost total control over the coasts. John was even able to launch campaigns into

3439:. The Crusaders were able to defeat the Turkish armies and open the way through Anatolia. They were assisted by a Byzantine general named 3228:, brother of Nikephoros, routed al-Dawla's armies and almost completely destroyed the Arab forces. Over the next two years, the region of 1772:. He has been called the greatest ruler of the Kingdom of Pontus. Further annexations by Rome, in particular of the Kingdom of Pontus by 3850: 2601: 1655:. Over the next two hundred and fifty years, the region suffered constant raids by Arab Muslim forces raiding mainly from the cities of 1491: 1342: 291: 2962:

The interlude of Leo V was followed by yet another short-lived dynasty, variously referred to as the Phrygian or Amorian dynasty after

3894: 3168:. However, the death of Basil's son Constantine profoundly affected the emperor, who went into a depression. A further attack against 3376:. This defeat broke the Byzantines' ability to recapture Asia Minor and would be the last army to move inland in Anatolia before the 2585:

Anastasius reversed his predecessor's religious policies and responded to Arab attacks by sea and land, this time reaching as far as

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face of the chaos that had ensued from the years of civil strife. And indeed the need to do so became clear in 719 when the deposed

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army) rose against him, proclaimed a new emperor and besieged Constantinople for six months, eventually forcing Anastasius to flee.

1516: 1408: 1690:. Following the retaking of Constantinople in 1261, the region gradually passed out of Byzantine control and into the hands of the 1849:, but on the whole the region would see little of the chaos that wracked other parts of the Empire during the next few centuries. 4204: 3510:. The primary source of attention for Isaac was a Bulgarian rebellion in the Balkans. The most notable event in Anatolia was the 1543: 414: 394: 3094: 4196: 3451:. Absent from their ranks, however, was Bohemond, who stayed behind in Antioch and became a rival once more to the Byzantines. 2938: 2222: 1715: 1601: 469: 41: 3175:

Leo's military record had a fairly unimpressive start. In 897, the emirate of Tarsus was able to sack the headquarters of the

356: 2112:, or "themes" in English. The exact date of this shift is unclear, but seems to have taken place during the reign of Emperor 1901: 1076: 3148:

in 873, who had been raiding western cities such as Nicaea and Ancyra. Basil's raid left only a few Paulicians in hiding at

2574:' rebellion extended beyond politics to religion, deposing the patriarch, reestablishing monothelitism and overturning the 3346: 3049: 2948:, on suspicion of conspiracy. Michael then organised the assassination of Leo, and assumed power as Michael II (820–829). 2739: 2657: 2635: 2007: 1570: 1521: 1322: 399: 3086: 2930: 4260: 4108: 4040: 3082: 2562: 1538: 1928: 37: 4309: 1418: 1206: 3052:

as regent (842–856). In 856 she was deposed from the regency with at least the acquiescence of Michael, by his uncle

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Hewsen, Robert H. (2009). "Armenians on the Black Sea: The Province of Trebizond". In Richard G. Hovannisian (ed.).

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who proceeded to seize the title resulting in civil war between the forces of the two emperors, who had divided the

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near the Anatolian borders. However, the Byzantine Empire maintained control over the Anatolian peninsula until the

44:. It should focus on Anatolia, not the Empire as a whole except where developments impacted on the peninsula itself. 4113: 3611: 3443:

who ensured the handover of several towns to Byzantine hands. In 1098, the Crusaders made their way to Antioch and

2803: 2606: 2316: 2260:, however his land and taxation policies met with considerable opposition, eventually provoking a rebellion led by 2256: 2227: 2151: 2108: 1594: 1528: 1332: 494: 462: 434: 75: 3842: 4163: 3975: 3562: 2006:. For the next four years, Heraclius continued to push the offensive against the Persians, not even returning to 1699: 1553: 352: 322: 4123: 4103: 2727: 2575: 2051: 1777: 1641: 1637: 342: 310: 2640: 2042:

in 636. After the battle, Heraclius made the decision to withdraw his armies from Syria into Anatolia via the

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defeated the Byzantines in several key battles, taking control of the southeastern part of Anatolia, known as

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responded to Urban's call, arriving one by one to Constantinople. These were led by several leaders such as

3302: 2851: 2676: 2579: 1822: 376: 327: 236: 50: 3980: 3928: 3582: 3424: 3225: 2247: 2029: 1725: 1558: 569: 557: 542: 532: 2283:, merging it with emperor, thus strengthening the emperors' constitutional position as absolute monarch. 4191: 4128: 3503: 3333: 2600:(715–717) as the new emperor, and once he had overcome Anastasius was almost immediately faced with the 1846: 1838: 1834: 1814: 986: 1784:, which remained unstable for centuries, causing a series of military conflicts that culminated in the 3000:

No sooner had Michael deposed Leo, than he was confronted with revolt by a fellow military commander,

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Michael I pursued more diplomatic than military solutions, however having survived the battle against

2604:(717–718), forcing him to seek assistance from the Bulgars. He in turn faced rebellion from two other 4070: 3989: 3578: 3570: 3515: 3411:

in the formation of a new kind of warfare: the crusade. Over the next two years, western armies from

3298: 3268: 3233: 3105:, and his sister Thekla. Michael also appointed, or announced he was going to appoint as co-emperor, 3061: 3017: 3005: 2896: 2704: 2669: 2649: 2619: 2571: 2482: 2276: 1959: 1857: 1152: 347: 317: 3279:. In 1064, the first major Turkish raid crossed over into Armenia and Anatolia, seizing the city of 3123: 2903:, and possibly later punished for a subsequent transgression, he had been appointed Governor of the 4219: 4214: 4178: 4044: 4027: 4017: 3541: 3520: 3428: 3361: 3306: 3221: 3176: 2945: 2819: 2512: 2500: 2494: 2399: 2387: 2208:

in the Balkans had been considered the frontier that must be defended to maintain the integrity of

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from the main expedition. The absence of Roussel would in part lead to the expedition's defeat at

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Seljuks, but in 1073, an attempt to stabilize Anatolia would end in disaster. One of the leaders,

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as well as Khosrow's refusal to accept a peace settlement, Heraclius took direct control over the

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died with only two children who had not come to maturity to succeed him. His wife, the empress

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Michael's reign included the usual wins and losses on the Arab front. However, despite Leo V's

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further Arab raids. The empire simply lacked the strength to go on the offensive at this time.

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who deserted him on the battlefield, Diogenes was defeated and became the first emperor since

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both to be his vassal and to congratulate him upon his triumph. In 1453, the empire finally

3507: 3477: 3455: 3444: 3248: 3102: 2957: 2900: 2856: 2536: 2423: 2405: 2363: 2320: 2130: 2043: 2039: 1765: 1683: 1668: 1633: 1474: 1226: 1196: 1158: 658: 429: 409: 259: 218: 170: 138: 105: 3693: 3340:

humiliating Emperor Romanos IV. From a 15th-century illustrated French translation of

1841:. The Anatolian peninsula would see part of the conflict between Constantine and his rival 4228: 4173: 4058: 4049: 4021: 3961: 3566: 3537: 3490: 3459: 3447:

to it. Capturing the city in 1099, the Crusaders left Anatolia and proceeded southward to

3373: 3232:

was subjected to multiple campaigns led by Nikephoros. The campaign ended in 962 with the

3068: 3027: 3001: 2788: 2723: 2530: 2476: 2091: 2047: 2003: 1991: 1975: 1915: 1911: 1865: 1781: 1511: 1116: 1066: 1046: 1006: 865: 618: 366: 337: 252: 200: 3284:

the frontiers. By 1067, the frontiers were in bad shape and decisive action was needed.

2589:

in 714, with some success. However the very army that had placed him on the throne (the

24: 4270: 4264: 4246: 4199: 4091: 4066: 3943: 3933: 3524: 3192: 3153: 3090: 3081:

of 815, the empire was once again at war in the Balkans in 855. However the subsequent

2975: 2904: 2795: 2656:, restored order and stability to the empire, and the dynasty he founded, known as the 2597: 2518: 2488: 2464: 2435: 2348: 2342: 2213: 2176: 1983: 1853: 1769: 1741: 1679: 1660: 1314: 1086: 297: 209: 193: 3074:

During his reign important administrative reforms and reconstruction were undertaken.

4303: 4255: 4250: 4143: 3999: 3952: 3909: 3554: 3511: 3377: 3217: 3106: 3048:

Michael III however was only two years old, so effective control fell to his mother,

2825:

war on two frontiers which drained its resources, and like many of his predecessors,

2750: 2692: 2441: 2325: 2103: 2067: 1691: 1675: 1584: 1486: 1176: 452: 2992: 2921:

Leo's first task was to deal with the Bulgarian situation, who now occupied most of

2779: 2548:

Thrace and Macedonia were counted among the Eastern themes for hierarchical purposes

4278: 4243: 4209: 4153: 4062: 4009: 3971: 3957: 3874: 3272: 3152:, which was soon smashed in 879. Basil also campaigned against the Arab emirate of 2846: 2826: 2268: 2236: 2102:, the Byzantine Empire shifted its armies away from the classical structure of the 1877: 1826: 1286: 1256: 1106: 265: 3565:

attempted to retake parts of Anatolia with the assistance of mercenaries from the

2907:

from which he was able to orchestrate Michael's downfall and his own succession.

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suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Krasos in Phrygia in 805 and died on a

2834: 2807: 2735: 2524: 2243: 2113: 1979: 1889: 1885: 1802: 1745: 1652: 1479: 1186: 1134: 708: 371: 2137: 1974:

In 622 AD, driven to desperation by shocking failures to hold onto classically

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lost no time in putting an end to the iconoclastic movement once and for all.

2987: 2963: 2868: 2754: 2615: 2611: 2356: 2075: 2063: 1987: 1955: 1942: 1906: 1757: 1753: 1733: 1674:

The Byzantine Empire re-established control over parts of Anatolia during the

1296: 1266: 668: 589: 524: 112: 2116:. Anatolia was reorganized into several themes. Each theme was governed by a 4181: 3684:

Jenkins, Romilly (1966). Byzantium The Imperial centuries AD 610–1071. p. 56

3586: 3574: 3448: 3436: 3400: 3381: 3341: 3310: 2715: 2375: 2250:

in 692. Theologically he pursued non-orthodox thinking and convened another

2242:

Justinian was an ambitious ruler eager to emulate his illustrious ancestor,

2184: 2118: 1967: 1946: 1761: 1648: 1276: 1096: 956: 404: 4224: 4004: 3440: 3416: 3408: 3365: 3196: 3180: 3169: 2925:

and were blockading Constantinople. Eventually he was able to conclude a

2711: 2590: 2417: 2369: 2261: 2188: 2156: 2095: 2012: 1950: 1842: 1764:

region, waging several hard-fought but ultimately unsuccessful wars (the

1749: 1695: 1625: 1236: 1036: 816: 678: 608: 3904: 3558: 3404: 3240: 3229: 3136: 3089:. A new threat emerged further north in 860 with the appearance of the 2971: 2967: 2653: 2586: 2393: 2217: 2192: 2180: 2087: 2071: 1963: 1881: 1869: 1861: 1656: 1056: 845: 825: 758: 738: 698: 648: 638: 628: 2764:

Under Constantine, Iconoclasm became further entrenched following the

2231:(themes), the remaining parts of Anatolia being divided amongst seven 1671:(years 1080s), when imperial authority in the area began to collapse. 4100: 4088: 3412: 3213: 3053: 2922: 2682: 2280: 2209: 2205: 1995: 1938: 1773: 1664: 1629: 1400: 905: 875: 798: 728: 688: 3728:

Jenkins (1966). Byzantium The Imperial centuries AD 610-1071. p. 128

2730:(Seventh Ecumenical Council) in 787. Iconoclasm was then revived by 2622:(717–741) bringing an end to the cycle of violence and instability. 3827:

Treadgold. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. p. 941-944

3675:

Treadgold. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. p. 428-433

3657:

Treadgold. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. p. 401-409

3648:

Treadgold. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. p. 396-401

2046:. This opened the way for the forces of the Caliphate to take over 3473: 3420: 3332: 3220:. At first, al-Dawla was able to contain Byzantine forces until a 3157: 2196: 1905: 1818: 1801: 925: 915: 895: 885: 855: 788: 778: 768: 718: 2867:

On Nikephoros' death, he was succeeded by his son and coemperor,

4037: 3818:

John Julius Norwich. Byzantium: The Decline and Fall. P. 134-137

3809:

John Julius Norwich. Byzantium: The Decline and Fall. P. 124-126

3800:

Anthony Kaldellis. Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood. P. 253-259.

3746:

Anthony Kaldellis. Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood. p. 141-143.

2879: 2267:

Leontios proved equally unpopular and was in turn overthrown by

1810: 598: 3846: 3836:

John Julius Norwich. Byzantium: The Decline and Fall. P 346-347

3755:

Treadgold. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. P. 808

3364:, a Norman, led a group of his fellow mercenaries away east to 2289: 1941:. Maurice had previously been instrumental in the accession of 1682:, Anatolia became the heartland of the successor states of the 1636:. Anatolia was of vital importance to the empire following the 3737:

Anthony Kaldellis. Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood. p. 75-78.

3502:

The Komnenian dynasty came to an end in 1186 with the fall of

3280: 1986:

and began to pursue an offensive strategy. Leading his men to

18: 3719:

Jenkins. Byzantium The Imperial Centuries AD 610-1071. p. 117

3628:. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, Inc. pp. 41, 37–66. 3275:

had coalesced into a powerful force united under the sultan

3056:, who became very influential, and was eventually appointed 1833:

Anatolia's prosperity largely continued during the reign of

3782:

Anthony Kaldellis. Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood. P. 251

2199:(670), as well as Smyrna and other coastal cities, finally 3313:

from the Seljuks with the intent of defeating the Sultan,

3271:. To the east, a new threat had slowly been emerging. The 2254:

in 692. Domestically he continued the organisation of the

3139:

the Macedonian in 867. Basil's dynasty would be known as

3030:

in 838. When he died in 842, he was succeeded by his son

3330:, was seen as a weak emperor who was unfit for the job. 3085:

and the peace of 864 brought a long lasting lull in the

2626:

struggles within the Arab world enabled this situation.

2070:, the Arabs launched raids into Anatolia, advancing to 46: 3764:

Kaldellis. Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood p. 232-235

3247:

In 969, Nikephoros was overthrown by his subordinate,

1678:, and following the sack of Constantinople during the 40:, as currently, the article is a very poor variant of 2944:

His downfall was the jailing of one of his generals,

2891:

The Nikephorian dynasty was overthrown by a general,

1892:, but the region would never be directly threatened. 3626:

Armenian Pontus: The Trebizond-Black Sea Communities

2456: 2334: 2235:. When he died in 668 he was succeeded by his son, 3773:Kaldellis. Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood p. 238 2171:The first siege of Constantinople and Justinian II 3531:The Fourth Crusade and Byzantine successor states 3498:The Angeloi and disintegration of Byzantine power 2086:Constantly menaced by the Arabs to the east, the 1852:The first major disruption of this peace was the 3022:Theophilus was now faced with a flare-up of the 2783:Asia Minor 780 showing administrative boundaries 2618:in 717, and chose to resign, being succeeded by 1780:, except for the southeastern frontier with the 3394:The Komnenian Restoration and the First Crusade 1966:and eventually opening the way to lay siege to 16:History of Anatolia under the Byzantine Empire 3858: 3244:Byzantines time to assemble a powerful army. 3038:The demise of iconoclasm: Michael III 842–867 2734:, and it persisted until 842 in the reign of 2301: 2141:Territories of the Byzantine Empire in 650 AD 2050:by the year 638 In 641, the Arabs began the 1896:Heraclian dynasty and the Barbarian invasions 1602: 470: 8: 3709:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. 3083:conversion of the Bulgarians to Christianity 2937:emperors. He made this official through the 1768:) to break Roman dominion over Asia and the 3707:Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era, c. 680-850 3028:sacking of the dynastic homeland of Amorium 3865: 3851: 3843: 3060:that year. Another influential figure was 2308: 2294: 2286: 2239:(685–695, 705–711), co-emperor since 681. 1756:region. Mithridates VI sought to dominate 1732:in northern Anatolia, otherwise known as " 1609: 1595: 488: 477: 463: 69: 2895:(813–820), suspected of treachery in the 2557:The non-dynastic years of anarchy 711–717 2034:In 633, the Arab Muslim forces under the 1994:, who threatened the empire's holding in 1792:From Constantine to Phocas: 324 to 602 AD 3427:. The most important, however, would be 3288:The Battle of Manzikert and the Crusades 3122: 2991: 2778: 2639: 2144: 2136: 3598: 3355:The Crisis of the Normans and the Turks 1937:was overthrown by the usurper known as 1821:together with Christian bishops at the 502: 491: 83: 72: 3484:Manuel and the Battle of Myriokephalon 2191:. This was followed by the capture of 1798:Classical Anatolia § Roman period 1748:in order to halt the advance of Roman 7: 4174:Palestine (Classical ~ Late Antique) 3666:Norwich: Byzantium: The Early Years. 3156:in the same year, defeating them at 2660:, was to last for nearly a century. 2630:Iconoclasm: Isaurian dynasty 717–802 2602:Second Arab siege of Constantinople 2082:Introduction of the thematic system 2002:into the Sassanid heartland of the 4114:Lebanon (Classical ~ Late Antique) 2952:Phrygian (Amorian) dynasty 820–867 2745: 14: 4050:Israel (Classical ~ Late Antique) 3458:remained on the plateau, and the 2862: 2275:long he faced a rebellion led by 1933:In 602 AD, the Byzantine Emperor 1157:(330–1453; 1204-1261 in exile as 36:to comply with Knowledge (XXG)'s 4239:Syria (Classical ~ Late Antique) 3981:Egypt (Classical ~ Late Antique) 3694:Encyclopædia Britannica: Leo III 3135:"the Drunkard", was murdered by 2718:) or εἰκονόφιλοι (iconophiles). 2058:, "the man who lived too long." 1864:was sacked by the forces of the 1776:, brought all of Anatolia under 1578: 1121:224–651 AD (briefly in Anatolia) 513: 446: 94: 23: 3195:and his sacking of the city of 3067:Theodora, like her predecessor 2887:Leo V and the Phrygians 820–867 2857:campaign against the Bulgarians 2223:Third Council of Constantinople 2125:These thematic troops utilized 1872:. Several other cities such as 1716:History of the Byzantine Empire 42:History of the Byzantine Empire 2875:(811–813), who succeeded him. 2863:Nikephoros' successors 811–813 1902:Byzantium under the Heraclians 977:Kingdom of Alexander the Great 1: 3548:The end of Byzantine Anatolia 3347:De Casibus Virorum Illustrium 3305:, married a disgraced noble, 2160: 2106:to a new system known as the 1910:Arab Muslim invasions in the 547: 175: 159: 143: 3561:. Additionally, the emperor 3127:The Byzantine Empire, c. 867 2563:The Years of Anarchy 711-717 3705:L. Brubaker and J. Haldon, 3431:, an old rival of Alexios. 3113:Macedonian dynasty 867–1056 2814:Nikephorian dynasty 802–813 2686:, which unlike Justinian's 1949:, the son of a governor of 1624:refers to the peninsula of 1492:Ancient peoples of Anatolia 1207:Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 4326: 3131:The last Amorian emperor, 3116: 3079:treaty with the Bulgarians 3041: 3015: 2985: 2955: 2914: 2844: 2817: 2804:Seventh Ecumenical Council 2702: 2667: 2652:(717–741), a general from 2633: 2596:The troops had proclaimed 2560: 2457:Western or European themes 2252:council in Constantinople. 2023: 1926: 1899: 1795: 1709: 3886: 3577:, who forced the emperor 2966:, who like Leo came from 2939:Council of Constantinople 2738:(842–867) and regency of 2546: 2094:to the north, and by the 1632:) during the rule of the 1373:Decline and modernization 1323:Periods of Ottoman Empire 266:Frankish and Latin states 2931:Byzantine–Bulgarian wars 2746:Leo's successors 741–802 2728:Second Council of Nicaea 2576:Sixth Ecumenical Council 2201:attacking Constantinople 2052:Muslim invasion of Egypt 1740:, waged war against the 1644:during the reign of the 1638:Muslim invasion of Syria 1628:(located in present-day 343:Second Hellenic Republic 53:may contain suggestions. 34:may need to be rewritten 3612:Encyclopædia Britannica 3476:, echoing his namesake 3303:Eudokia Makrembolitissa 2794:When Leo died his son, 2335:Eastern or Asian themes 1929:Byzantine–Sasanian wars 1923:Byzantine–Sasanian wars 1825:in 325 CE, holding the 1823:First Council of Nicaea 1698:ended in 1461 with the 377:Third Hellenic Republic 357:Collaborationist regime 328:First Hellenic Republic 292:Venetian Ionian Islands 4096:Late Antique/Medieval) 3939:Bosnia and Herzegovina 3607:Mithradates VI Eupator 3585:to the Ottomans under 3425:Raymond IV of Toulouse 3351: 3226:Leo Phokas the Younger 3128: 2997: 2974:), the capital of the 2929:, to the long-running 2831:new empire in the west 2784: 2646: 2248:Battle of Sebastopolis 2167: 2142: 2030:Early Muslim conquests 1919: 1830: 1726:Mithridates VI Eupator 1544:Constitutional history 1429:Provisional government 1383:Defeat and dissolution 533:Prehistory of Anatolia 3881:in modern territories 3506:. He was replaced by 3504:Andronikos I Komnenos 3336: 3297:In 1068, the emperor 3160:and continuing on to 3126: 2995: 2782: 2643: 2148: 2140: 2020:Arab Muslim invasions 2008:defend Constantinople 1909: 1860:. The border city of 1847:Battle of Chrysopolis 1835:Constantine the Great 1815:Constantine the Great 1805: 1651:in the years 634–645 987:Kingdom of Cappadocia 543:Palaeolithic Anatolia 3516:Frederick Barbarossa 3385:sent a new general, 3299:Constantine X Doukas 3269:Constantine X Doukas 3263:Prelude to Manzikert 3234:Sack of Aleppo (962) 3207:In 961, the general 3062:Basil the Macedonian 2897:Battle of Versinicia 2841:Nikephoros I 802–811 2705:Byzantine iconoclasm 2277:Philippikos Bardanes 1858:Anastasius I Dicorus 1856:during the reign of 1153:Eastern Roman Empire 348:4th of August Regime 318:Septinsular Republic 4071:Sardinia (Classical 3944:Bulgaria (Classical 3542:Empire of Trebizond 3521:Alexios III Angelos 3429:Bohemond of Taranto 3362:Roussel de Bailleul 3307:Romanos IV Diogenes 3203:Reconquest 961-1025 3177:Theme of Cappadocia 3095:Rus'–Byzantine wars 3024:Byzantine–Arab wars 2946:Michael the Amorian 2927:peace treaty in 815 2820:Nikephorian dynasty 2056:John Julius Norwich 2026:Arab–Byzantine wars 1786:Roman–Parthian Wars 1738:Classical antiquity 1712:History of Anatolia 1688:Empire of Trebizond 1497:History of Anatolia 1419:War of Independence 1247:Empire of Trebizond 1111:133 BC-27 BC–330 AD 558:Mesolithic Anatolia 323:War of Independence 279:Early modern Greece 133:Helladic chronology 4310:Byzantine Anatolia 3990:Corsica (Classical 3910:Armenia (Classical 3891:Albania (Classical 3514:, which witnessed 3387:Alexios I Komnenos 3352: 3141:Macedonian Dynasty 3129: 3119:Macedonian dynasty 3012:Theophilus 829–842 2998: 2982:Michael II 820–829 2837:(800–814) in 800. 2785: 2647: 2168: 2143: 2127:asymmetric warfare 2036:Rashidun Caliphate 1920: 1831: 1788:(54 BC – 217 AD). 1622:Byzantine Anatolia 1539:Diplomatic history 1451:Multi-party period 1401:Republic of Turkey 1177:Great Seljuk State 1167:Rashidun Caliphate 952:Classical Anatolia 570:Neolithic Anatolia 228:Hellenistic Greece 4297: 4296: 4279:Thrace (Classical 4271:Turkey (Classical 4063:Sicily (Classical 4010:Greece (Classical 3972:Cyprus (Classical 3958:Crimea (Classical 3953:Britain (England) 3791:Çoban 2020, p. 51 3635:978-1-56859-155-1 3571:Philadelphia fell 3319:Andronikos Doukas 3253:Fatimid Caliphate 3222:disastrous ambush 3209:Nikephoros Phokas 2766:Council of Hieria 2714:), εἰκονόδουλοι ( 2699:Iconclasm 730–842 2553: 2552: 2430:Cibyrrhaeot Theme 2382:Bucellarian Theme 2100:Italian Peninsula 1730:Kingdom of Pontus 1700:fall of Trebizond 1646:Byzantine Emperor 1619: 1618: 1585:Turkey portal 1502:History of Thrace 1459: 1458: 1409:Periods of Turkey 1391: 1390: 1305: 1304: 1217:Anatolian beyliks 1143:Medieval Anatolia 1125: 1124: 1027:Kingdom of Pontus 1017:Ptolemaic Kingdom 967:Achaemenid Empire 934: 933: 807: 806: 580: 579: 487: 486: 453:Greece portal 333:Kingdom of Greece 241: 232: 223: 214: 205: 182: 166: 150: 68: 67: 38:quality standards 4317: 4225:Spain (Classical 4055:Italy (Classical 4018:Crete (Classical 3879:Byzantine Empire 3867: 3860: 3853: 3844: 3837: 3834: 3828: 3825: 3819: 3816: 3810: 3807: 3801: 3798: 3792: 3789: 3783: 3780: 3774: 3771: 3765: 3762: 3756: 3753: 3747: 3744: 3738: 3735: 3729: 3726: 3720: 3717: 3711: 3702: 3696: 3691: 3685: 3682: 3676: 3673: 3667: 3664: 3658: 3655: 3649: 3646: 3640: 3639: 3621: 3615: 3603: 3508:Isaac II Angelos 3478:John I Tzimiskes 3467:John II Komnenos 3456:Sultanate of Rum 3249:John I Tzimiskes 3187:Ending the raids 3103:Eudokia Ingerina 2958:Phrygian dynasty 2636:Isaurian dynasty 2364:Thracesian Theme 2321:Byzantine Empire 2310: 2303: 2296: 2287: 2165: 2162: 2131:guerilla warfare 2044:Taurus Mountains 2040:Battle of Yarmuk 1766:Mithridatic Wars 1684:Empire of Nicaea 1669:High Middle Ages 1634:Byzantine Empire 1611: 1604: 1597: 1583: 1582: 1581: 1549:Cultural history 1534:Military history 1529:Economic history 1475:Turkic migration 1439:One-party period 1415: 1414: 1329: 1328: 1227:County of Edessa 1197:Sultanate of Rum 1159:Empire of Nicaea 1149: 1148: 963: 962: 957:Classical Thrace 822: 821: 659:Achaeans (Homer) 595: 594: 562:c. 11,000– 549: 539: 538: 517: 507: 489: 479: 472: 465: 451: 450: 449: 389:History by topic 260:Byzantine Greece 239: 230: 221: 219:Classical Greece 212: 204:(1100 BC–750 BC) 203: 180: 179: 1750–1050 177: 173: 164: 163: 3100–1100 161: 157: 148: 147: 3100–1000 145: 141: 126:Greek Bronze Age 106:Neolithic Greece 98: 88: 70: 63: 60: 54: 27: 19: 4325: 4324: 4320: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4315: 4314: 4300: 4299: 4298: 4293: 4251:Early Medieval) 4164:The Netherlands 4075:Early Medieval) 3994:Early Medieval) 3882: 3873:History of the 3871: 3841: 3840: 3835: 3831: 3826: 3822: 3817: 3813: 3808: 3804: 3799: 3795: 3790: 3786: 3781: 3777: 3772: 3768: 3763: 3759: 3754: 3750: 3745: 3741: 3736: 3732: 3727: 3723: 3718: 3714: 3703: 3699: 3692: 3688: 3683: 3679: 3674: 3670: 3665: 3661: 3656: 3652: 3647: 3643: 3636: 3623: 3622: 3618: 3604: 3600: 3595: 3567:Catalan Company 3550: 3538:Empire of Nicea 3533: 3500: 3491:Kilij Arslan II 3486: 3469: 3460:Crusader States 3396: 3374:Sangarios River 3357: 3295: 3290: 3265: 3224:by the general 3205: 3189: 3121: 3115: 3093:and subsequent 3046: 3040: 3020: 3014: 3002:Thomas the Slav 2990: 2984: 2960: 2954: 2919: 2913: 2889: 2865: 2849: 2843: 2822: 2816: 2748: 2707: 2701: 2672: 2666: 2664:Leo III 717–741 2638: 2632: 2565: 2559: 2554: 2549: 2542: 2531:Cherson/Klimata 2452: 2330: 2314: 2183:in Phrygia and 2175:Constans's son 2173: 2163: 2092:Pannonian Avars 2084: 2048:Byzantine Syria 2032: 2024:Main articles: 2022: 2004:Persian Plateau 1992:Pannonian Avars 1976:Roman provinces 1931: 1925: 1916:Byzantine Syria 1912:Sassanid Empire 1904: 1898: 1866:Sassanid Empire 1800: 1794: 1782:Parthian Empire 1744:in the year 88 1728:, ruler of the 1723: 1718: 1710:Main articles: 1708: 1615: 1579: 1577: 1565: 1564: 1563: 1554:Genetic history 1469: 1461: 1460: 1444: 1413: 1403: 1393: 1392: 1327: 1317: 1307: 1306: 1147: 1137: 1127: 1126: 1117:Sasanian Empire 1077:Armenian Empire 1067:Parthian Empire 1047:Attalid kingdom 1007:Seleucid Empire 961: 946: 936: 935: 819: 809: 808: 619:Akkadian Empire 592: 582: 581: 575: 574:c. 8,000– 563: 551: 537: 527: 505: 498: 483: 447: 445: 440: 439: 390: 382: 381: 353:Axis occupation 338:National Schism 313: 303: 302: 294: 288: 281: 271: 270: 262: 255: 253:Medieval Greece 245: 244: 240:(146 BC–330 AD) 233: 224: 222:(500 BC–323 BC) 215: 213:(800 BC–480 BC) 206: 201:Greek Dark Ages 196: 186: 185: 178: 167: 162: 151: 146: 135: 128: 118: 117: 108: 86: 79: 64: 58: 55: 45: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4323: 4321: 4313: 4312: 4302: 4301: 4295: 4294: 4292: 4291: 4286: 4268: 4265:Roman Carthage 4258: 4253: 4241: 4236: 4231: 4222: 4217: 4212: 4207: 4202: 4194: 4189: 4184: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4098: 4086: 4078: 4052: 4047: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4007: 4002: 3997: 3983: 3978: 3969: 3964: 3955: 3950: 3948:High Medieval) 3941: 3936: 3931: 3926: 3921: 3916: 3907: 3902: 3897: 3887: 3884: 3883: 3872: 3870: 3869: 3862: 3855: 3847: 3839: 3838: 3829: 3820: 3811: 3802: 3793: 3784: 3775: 3766: 3757: 3748: 3739: 3730: 3721: 3712: 3697: 3686: 3677: 3668: 3659: 3650: 3641: 3634: 3616: 3597: 3596: 3594: 3591: 3573:to the sultan 3549: 3546: 3532: 3529: 3525:Fourth Crusade 3499: 3496: 3485: 3482: 3468: 3465: 3395: 3392: 3356: 3353: 3294: 3291: 3289: 3286: 3264: 3261: 3204: 3201: 3193:John Kourkouas 3188: 3185: 3117:Main article: 3114: 3111: 3087:Bulgarian wars 3042:Main article: 3039: 3036: 3016:Main article: 3013: 3010: 2986:Main article: 2983: 2980: 2976:Anatolic Theme 2956:Main article: 2953: 2950: 2915:Main article: 2912: 2909: 2905:Anatolic theme 2888: 2885: 2864: 2861: 2845:Main article: 2842: 2839: 2818:Main article: 2815: 2812: 2796:Constantine VI 2747: 2744: 2703:Main article: 2700: 2697: 2668:Main article: 2665: 2662: 2634:Main article: 2631: 2628: 2598:Theodosius III 2561:Main article: 2558: 2555: 2551: 2550: 2547: 2544: 2543: 2541: 2540: 2533: 2527: 2521: 2515: 2509: 2503: 2497: 2491: 2485: 2479: 2473: 2467: 2460: 2458: 2454: 2453: 2451: 2450: 2444: 2438: 2432: 2426: 2420: 2414: 2408: 2402: 2396: 2390: 2384: 2378: 2372: 2370:Opsician Theme 2366: 2360: 2349:Armeniac Theme 2345: 2343:Anatolic Theme 2338: 2336: 2332: 2331: 2315: 2313: 2312: 2305: 2298: 2290: 2204:long time the 2177:Constantine IV 2172: 2169: 2083: 2080: 2021: 2018: 1984:Byzantine army 1927:Main article: 1924: 1921: 1900:Main article: 1897: 1894: 1862:Theodosiopolis 1854:Anastasian War 1839:his successors 1796:Main article: 1793: 1790: 1770:Hellenic world 1742:Roman Republic 1722: 1719: 1707: 1704: 1680:Fourth Crusade 1617: 1616: 1614: 1613: 1606: 1599: 1591: 1588: 1587: 1574: 1573: 1567: 1566: 1562: 1561: 1556: 1551: 1546: 1541: 1536: 1531: 1526: 1525: 1524: 1519: 1514: 1504: 1499: 1494: 1489: 1484: 1483: 1482: 1471: 1470: 1467: 1466: 1463: 1462: 1457: 1456: 1455:(1945–present) 1453: 1447: 1446: 1441: 1435: 1434: 1431: 1425: 1424: 1421: 1412: 1411: 1405: 1404: 1399: 1398: 1395: 1394: 1389: 1388: 1385: 1379: 1378: 1375: 1369: 1368: 1365: 1359: 1358: 1355: 1353:Transformation 1349: 1348: 1345: 1339: 1338: 1335: 1326: 1325: 1319: 1318: 1313: 1312: 1309: 1308: 1303: 1302: 1299: 1293: 1292: 1289: 1283: 1282: 1279: 1273: 1272: 1269: 1263: 1262: 1259: 1253: 1252: 1249: 1243: 1242: 1239: 1233: 1232: 1229: 1223: 1222: 1219: 1213: 1212: 1209: 1203: 1202: 1199: 1193: 1192: 1189: 1183: 1182: 1179: 1173: 1172: 1169: 1163: 1162: 1155: 1146: 1145: 1139: 1138: 1133: 1132: 1129: 1128: 1123: 1122: 1119: 1113: 1112: 1109: 1103: 1102: 1099: 1093: 1092: 1089: 1087:Roman Republic 1083: 1082: 1079: 1073: 1072: 1069: 1063: 1062: 1059: 1053: 1052: 1049: 1043: 1042: 1039: 1033: 1032: 1029: 1023: 1022: 1019: 1013: 1012: 1009: 1003: 1002: 999: 993: 992: 989: 983: 982: 979: 973: 972: 969: 960: 959: 954: 948: 947: 942: 941: 938: 937: 932: 931: 928: 922: 921: 918: 912: 911: 910:859–595/585 BC 908: 902: 901: 898: 892: 891: 888: 882: 881: 878: 872: 871: 868: 862: 861: 858: 852: 851: 848: 842: 841: 838: 832: 831: 828: 820: 815: 814: 811: 810: 805: 804: 803:859–595/585 BC 801: 795: 794: 791: 785: 784: 781: 775: 774: 771: 765: 764: 761: 755: 754: 751: 745: 744: 741: 735: 734: 731: 725: 724: 721: 715: 714: 711: 705: 704: 701: 695: 694: 691: 685: 684: 681: 675: 674: 671: 665: 664: 661: 655: 654: 651: 645: 644: 641: 635: 634: 631: 625: 624: 621: 615: 614: 611: 605: 604: 601: 593: 588: 587: 584: 583: 578: 577: 572: 566: 565: 560: 554: 553: 550:500,000– 545: 536: 535: 529: 528: 523: 522: 519: 518: 510: 509: 500: 499: 492: 485: 484: 482: 481: 474: 467: 459: 456: 455: 442: 441: 438: 437: 432: 427: 422: 417: 412: 407: 402: 397: 391: 388: 387: 384: 383: 380: 379: 374: 372:Military Junta 369: 364: 350: 345: 340: 335: 330: 325: 320: 314: 309: 308: 305: 304: 301: 300: 298:Ottoman Greece 295: 289: 286:Venetian Crete 282: 277: 276: 273: 272: 269: 268: 263: 256: 251: 250: 247: 246: 243: 242: 234: 231:(323 BC–31 BC) 225: 216: 210:Archaic Greece 207: 197: 194:Ancient Greece 192: 191: 188: 187: 184: 183: 168: 152: 136: 129: 124: 123: 120: 119: 116: 115: 109: 104: 103: 100: 99: 91: 90: 81: 80: 73: 66: 65: 31: 29: 22: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4322: 4311: 4308: 4307: 4305: 4290: 4287: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4269: 4266: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4248: 4245: 4242: 4240: 4237: 4235: 4232: 4230: 4229:Late Antique) 4226: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4201: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4124:Liechtenstein 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4099: 4097: 4093: 4090: 4087: 4085: 4082: 4079: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4042: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4001: 3998: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3959: 3956: 3954: 3951: 3949: 3945: 3942: 3940: 3937: 3935: 3932: 3930: 3927: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3915: 3914:Late Antique) 3911: 3908: 3906: 3903: 3901: 3898: 3896: 3892: 3889: 3888: 3885: 3880: 3876: 3868: 3863: 3861: 3856: 3854: 3849: 3848: 3845: 3833: 3830: 3824: 3821: 3815: 3812: 3806: 3803: 3797: 3794: 3788: 3785: 3779: 3776: 3770: 3767: 3761: 3758: 3752: 3749: 3743: 3740: 3734: 3731: 3725: 3722: 3716: 3713: 3710: 3708: 3701: 3698: 3695: 3690: 3687: 3681: 3678: 3672: 3669: 3663: 3660: 3654: 3651: 3645: 3642: 3637: 3631: 3627: 3620: 3617: 3614: 3613: 3608: 3602: 3599: 3592: 3590: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3563:Andronikos II 3560: 3556: 3555:Ottoman Turks 3547: 3545: 3543: 3539: 3530: 3528: 3526: 3522: 3517: 3513: 3512:Third Crusade 3509: 3505: 3497: 3495: 3492: 3483: 3481: 3479: 3475: 3466: 3464: 3461: 3457: 3452: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3432: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3393: 3391: 3388: 3383: 3379: 3378:First Crusade 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3354: 3349: 3348: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3329: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3292: 3287: 3285: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3262: 3260: 3256: 3254: 3250: 3245: 3242: 3237: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3218:Sayf al-Dawla 3215: 3210: 3202: 3200: 3198: 3194: 3186: 3184: 3182: 3178: 3173: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3125: 3120: 3112: 3110: 3108: 3107:Basiliskianos 3104: 3098: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3075: 3072: 3070: 3065: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3045: 3037: 3035: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3019: 3011: 3009: 3007: 3003: 2994: 2989: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2959: 2951: 2949: 2947: 2942: 2940: 2934: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2918: 2911:Leo V 813–820 2910: 2908: 2906: 2902: 2901:803 civil war 2898: 2894: 2886: 2884: 2881: 2876: 2874: 2870: 2860: 2858: 2853: 2848: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2821: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2805: 2799: 2797: 2792: 2790: 2781: 2777: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2762: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2751:Constantine V 2743: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2719: 2717: 2713: 2706: 2698: 2696: 2694: 2693:Constantine V 2689: 2685: 2684: 2678: 2677:Anastasius II 2671: 2663: 2661: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2642: 2637: 2629: 2627: 2623: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2608: 2603: 2599: 2594: 2592: 2588: 2583: 2581: 2580:Anastasius II 2577: 2573: 2569: 2564: 2556: 2545: 2538: 2534: 2532: 2528: 2526: 2522: 2520: 2516: 2514: 2510: 2508: 2504: 2502: 2498: 2496: 2492: 2490: 2486: 2484: 2480: 2478: 2474: 2472: 2468: 2466: 2462: 2461: 2459: 2455: 2449: 2445: 2443: 2439: 2437: 2433: 2431: 2427: 2425: 2421: 2419: 2415: 2413: 2409: 2407: 2403: 2401: 2397: 2395: 2391: 2389: 2385: 2383: 2379: 2377: 2373: 2371: 2367: 2365: 2361: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2344: 2340: 2339: 2337: 2333: 2328: 2327: 2326:De Thematibus 2323:according to 2322: 2318: 2311: 2306: 2304: 2299: 2297: 2292: 2291: 2288: 2284: 2282: 2278: 2272: 2270: 2265: 2263: 2259: 2258: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2240: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2229: 2224: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2170: 2164: 750 AD 2158: 2154: 2153: 2147: 2139: 2135: 2132: 2128: 2123: 2121: 2120: 2115: 2111: 2110: 2105: 2104:Roman legions 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2081: 2079: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2059: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2031: 2027: 2019: 2017: 2014: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1972: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1930: 1922: 1917: 1913: 1908: 1903: 1895: 1893: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1850: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1813:representing 1812: 1809: 1804: 1799: 1791: 1789: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1778:Roman control 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1720: 1717: 1713: 1705: 1703: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1692:Ottoman Turks 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1676:First Crusade 1672: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1612: 1607: 1605: 1600: 1598: 1593: 1592: 1590: 1589: 1586: 1576: 1575: 1572: 1569: 1568: 1560: 1557: 1555: 1552: 1550: 1547: 1545: 1542: 1540: 1537: 1535: 1532: 1530: 1527: 1523: 1520: 1518: 1515: 1513: 1510: 1509: 1508: 1505: 1503: 1500: 1498: 1495: 1493: 1490: 1488: 1487:Turkification 1485: 1481: 1478: 1477: 1476: 1473: 1472: 1465: 1464: 1454: 1452: 1449: 1448: 1442: 1440: 1437: 1436: 1432: 1430: 1427: 1426: 1422: 1420: 1417: 1416: 1410: 1407: 1406: 1402: 1397: 1396: 1386: 1384: 1381: 1380: 1376: 1374: 1371: 1370: 1366: 1364: 1361: 1360: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1350: 1346: 1344: 1343:Classical Age 1341: 1340: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1330: 1324: 1321: 1320: 1316: 1311: 1310: 1300: 1298: 1295: 1294: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1284: 1280: 1278: 1275: 1274: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1264: 1260: 1258: 1255: 1254: 1250: 1248: 1245: 1244: 1240: 1238: 1235: 1234: 1230: 1228: 1225: 1224: 1220: 1218: 1215: 1214: 1210: 1208: 1205: 1204: 1200: 1198: 1195: 1194: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1184: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1174: 1170: 1168: 1165: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1150: 1144: 1141: 1140: 1136: 1131: 1130: 1120: 1118: 1115: 1114: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1104: 1100: 1098: 1095: 1094: 1090: 1088: 1085: 1084: 1081:190 BC–428 AD 1080: 1078: 1075: 1074: 1071:247 BC–224 AD 1070: 1068: 1065: 1064: 1060: 1058: 1055: 1054: 1050: 1048: 1045: 1044: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1034: 1030: 1028: 1025: 1024: 1020: 1018: 1015: 1014: 1010: 1008: 1005: 1004: 1000: 998: 995: 994: 990: 988: 985: 984: 980: 978: 975: 974: 970: 968: 965: 964: 958: 955: 953: 950: 949: 945: 944:Classical Age 940: 939: 929: 927: 924: 923: 919: 917: 916:Median Empire 914: 913: 909: 907: 904: 903: 899: 897: 894: 893: 889: 887: 884: 883: 879: 877: 874: 873: 869: 867: 864: 863: 859: 857: 854: 853: 849: 847: 844: 843: 839: 837: 834: 833: 829: 827: 824: 823: 818: 813: 812: 802: 800: 797: 796: 792: 790: 787: 786: 782: 780: 777: 776: 772: 770: 767: 766: 762: 760: 757: 756: 752: 750: 747: 746: 742: 740: 737: 736: 732: 730: 727: 726: 722: 720: 717: 716: 712: 710: 707: 706: 702: 700: 697: 696: 692: 690: 687: 686: 682: 680: 677: 676: 672: 670: 667: 666: 662: 660: 657: 656: 652: 650: 647: 646: 642: 640: 637: 636: 632: 630: 627: 626: 622: 620: 617: 616: 612: 610: 607: 606: 602: 600: 597: 596: 591: 586: 585: 573: 571: 568: 567: 561: 559: 556: 555: 546: 544: 541: 540: 534: 531: 530: 526: 521: 520: 516: 512: 511: 508: 501: 496: 490: 480: 475: 473: 468: 466: 461: 460: 458: 457: 454: 444: 443: 436: 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 413: 411: 408: 406: 403: 401: 398: 396: 393: 392: 386: 385: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 362: 358: 354: 351: 349: 346: 344: 341: 339: 336: 334: 331: 329: 326: 324: 321: 319: 316: 315: 312: 311:Modern Greece 307: 306: 299: 296: 293: 290: 287: 284: 283: 280: 275: 274: 267: 264: 261: 258: 257: 254: 249: 248: 238: 235: 229: 226: 220: 217: 211: 208: 202: 199: 198: 195: 190: 189: 172: 169: 156: 153: 140: 137: 134: 131: 130: 127: 122: 121: 114: 111: 110: 107: 102: 101: 97: 93: 92: 89: 82: 77: 71: 62: 52: 48: 43: 39: 35: 32:This article 30: 26: 21: 20: 4274: 4244:Vatican City 4197:Saudi Arabia 4169:North Africa 3832: 3823: 3814: 3805: 3796: 3787: 3778: 3769: 3760: 3751: 3742: 3733: 3724: 3715: 3706: 3700: 3689: 3680: 3671: 3662: 3653: 3644: 3625: 3619: 3610: 3601: 3551: 3534: 3501: 3487: 3470: 3453: 3433: 3397: 3358: 3345: 3296: 3273:Seljuk Turks 3266: 3257: 3246: 3238: 3206: 3190: 3174: 3130: 3099: 3076: 3073: 3066: 3057: 3047: 3021: 2999: 2996:Anatolia 842 2961: 2943: 2935: 2920: 2890: 2877: 2866: 2850: 2847:Nikephoros I 2823: 2800: 2793: 2786: 2769: 2763: 2758: 2749: 2720: 2708: 2687: 2681: 2673: 2648: 2624: 2605: 2595: 2584: 2570: 2566: 2483:Thessalonica 2324: 2273: 2269:Tiberios III 2266: 2255: 2241: 2237:Justinian II 2232: 2226: 2216:threat, the 2212:. Now a new 2174: 2150: 2124: 2117: 2107: 2085: 2060: 2033: 1973: 1932: 1878:Martyropolis 1851: 1832: 1827:Nicene Creed 1724: 1673: 1621: 1620: 1559:LGBT history 1517:Christianity 1287:Kara Koyunlu 1257:Latin Empire 1135:Medieval Age 1107:Ancient Rome 1101:163 BC–72 AD 836:Neo-Hittites 749:Neo-Hittites 733:1300–1250 BC 713:1500–1290 BC 703:1500–1300 BC 693:1500–1320 BC 683:1680–1220 BC 673:1650–1450 BC 663:1700–1300 BC 653:1780–1680 BC 643:1950–1750 BC 633:2300–1400 BC 623:2400–2150 BC 613:2500–2000 BC 415:Constitution 237:Roman Greece 59:January 2013 56: 47:You can help 33: 4234:Switzerland 4200:(Classical) 4182:(Classical) 4104:(Classical) 4084:(Classical) 3328:Michael VII 3166:Mesopotamia 3133:Michael III 3091:Kievan Rus' 3044:Michael III 3034:(842–867). 3032:Michael III 3008:(829–842). 2835:Charlemagne 2808:Charlemagne 2736:Michael III 2712:iconolaters 2695:(741–775). 2582:(713–715). 2525:Longobardia 2513:Dyrrhachium 2501:Cephallenia 2495:Peloponnese 2400:Mesopotamia 2388:Paphlagonia 2244:Justinian I 2114:Constans II 1890:Lazican War 1886:Iberian War 1480:Oghuz Turks 1445:(1930–1945) 1443:(1923–1930) 1433:(1920–1923) 1423:(1919–1922) 1387:(1908–1922) 1377:(1789–1908) 1367:(1703–1789) 1357:(1566–1703) 1347:(1453–1566) 1337:(1299–1453) 1315:Ottoman Era 1301:(1378–1501) 1291:(1375–1468) 1281:(1256–1335) 1271:(1250–1487) 1261:(1204–1261) 1251:(1204–1461) 1241:(1101–1409) 1231:(1098–1150) 1221:(1081–1423) 1211:(1078–1375) 1201:(1077–1307) 1191:(1071–1178) 1187:Danishmends 1181:(1037–1194) 900:1000–545 BC 890:1000–700 BC 880:1000–560 BC 870:1100–560 BC 860:1150–547 BC 850:1200–700 BC 840:1200–800 BC 830:1200–800 BC 793:1000–545 BC 783:1000–700 BC 773:1150–547 BC 763:1200–700 BC 753:1200–800 BC 743:1200–800 BC 723:1450–350 BC 709:Hayasa-Azzi 603:3000–700 BC 504:History of 395:Agriculture 361:Free Greece 85:History of 4247:(Classical 4192:San Marino 4154:Montenegro 4129:Luxembourg 4092:(Classical 4041:(Classical 3919:Azerbaijan 3593:References 3445:laid siege 3338:Alp Arslan 3315:Alp Arslan 3277:Alp Arslan 3164:and upper 3162:Germanicea 3146:Paulicians 3018:Theophilos 3006:Theophilos 2988:Michael II 2964:Michael II 2869:Staurakios 2852:Nikephoros 2827:Nikephoros 2755:Artabasdos 2716:iconodules 2616:Armeniakon 2612:Anatolikon 2572:Philipikos 2535:(omitted: 2448:Aegean Sea 2357:Charsianon 2353:Cappadocia 2149:The seven 2076:Cappadocia 2068:Mu'awiya I 2064:Nile River 1988:Cappadocia 1956:Shahrbaraz 1943:Khosrow II 1758:Asia Minor 1754:Aegean Sea 1734:Asia Minor 1721:Background 1363:Old Regime 1297:Ak Koyunlu 1267:Karamanids 1051:282–129 BC 1001:306–168 BC 997:Antigonids 991:322–130 BC 981:334–301 BC 971:559–331 BC 930:685–547 BC 920:678–549 BC 669:Kizzuwatna 590:Bronze Age 525:Prehistory 113:Pelasgians 4283:Medieval) 4275:Medieval) 4139:Macedonia 4067:Medieval) 4059:Medieval) 4045:Medieval) 4022:Medieval) 4014:Medieval) 3976:Medieval) 3962:Medieval) 3895:Medieval) 3587:Mehmet II 3575:Bayezid I 3449:Jerusalem 3437:Dorylaeum 3403:into the 3401:Pechenegs 3382:Artuk Bey 3342:Boccaccio 3311:Manzikert 3293:Manzikert 2873:Michael I 2658:Isaurians 2507:Nicopolis 2471:Macedonia 2412:Sebasteia 2376:Optimates 2185:Chalcedon 2119:strategos 1968:Chalcedon 1954:generals 1947:Heraclius 1918:(620–630) 1762:Black Sea 1649:Heraclius 1277:Ilkhanate 1171:(637–656) 1097:Commagene 1091:133–27 BC 1061:281–64 BC 1041:297–74 BC 1031:302–64 BC 1021:305–30 BC 1011:305–64 BC 552:10,000 BC 425:Ethnonyms 367:Civil War 51:talk page 4304:Category 4220:Slovenia 4215:Slovakia 4205:Scotland 4179:Portugal 4028:Guernsey 3579:John VII 3540:and the 3441:Tatikios 3417:Normandy 3409:Urban II 3370:Caesarea 3366:Melitene 3323:Valerian 3197:Melitene 3170:Melitene 3150:Tephrike 3097:of 860. 3050:Theodora 2941:in 815. 2740:Theodora 2726:and the 2591:Opsikion 2537:Dalmatia 2424:Seleucia 2418:Lykandos 2406:Koloneia 2329:(c. 950) 2262:Leontios 2189:Bithynia 2157:Anatolia 2096:Lombards 2013:Kavad II 1978:such as 1951:Carthage 1843:Licinius 1808:Orthodox 1760:and the 1750:hegemony 1696:Trapezus 1626:Anatolia 1571:Timeline 1507:Religion 1468:By topic 1237:Artuqids 1037:Bithynia 886:Tuwanuwa 817:Iron Age 779:Tuwanuwa 679:Hittites 609:Hattians 576:5,500 BC 564:9,000 BC 495:a series 493:Part of 435:Military 430:Language 400:Alphabet 171:Mycenean 139:Cycladic 76:a series 74:Part of 4261:Tunisia 4256:Ukraine 4187:Romania 4159:Morocco 4144:Moldova 4033:Hungary 4005:Germany 4000:Georgia 3967:Croatia 3934:Belgium 3929:Balkans 3924:Austria 3905:Andorra 3900:Algeria 3559:Osman I 3405:Balkans 3241:Fatimid 3230:Cilicia 3137:Basil I 2972:Phrygia 2968:Amorium 2770:themata 2759:themata 2670:Leo III 2654:Isauria 2650:Leo III 2645:invaded 2620:Leo III 2607:themata 2587:Galatia 2477:Strymon 2394:Chaldia 2351:(incl. 2319:of the 2257:themata 2233:themata 2228:themata 2218:Bulgars 2193:Cyzicus 2181:Amorium 2152:themata 2109:themata 2098:in the 2088:Bulgars 2072:Amorium 2000:Armenia 1964:Cilicia 1935:Maurice 1882:Armenia 1870:Kavad I 1845:at the 1752:in the 1706:History 1657:Antioch 1522:Judaism 1057:Galatia 876:Aeolis 846:Phrygia 826:Diauehi 759:Phrygia 739:Diauehi 699:Mitanni 649:Kussara 639:Assyria 629:Luwians 420:Economy 4210:Serbia 4149:Monaco 4109:Kuwait 4101:Kosovo 4089:Jordan 4081:Jersey 3986:France 3632: 3557:under 3419:, and 3413:France 3216:, one 3214:Aleppo 3154:Tarsus 3058:Caesar 3054:Bardas 2923:Thrace 2833:under 2774:Leo IV 2688:Corpus 2683:Ecloga 2519:Sicily 2489:Hellas 2465:Thrace 2436:Cyprus 2317:Themes 2281:consul 2214:Turkic 2210:Thrace 2206:Danube 1996:Thrace 1960:Shahin 1939:Phocas 1868:under 1774:Pompey 1665:Aleppo 1663:, and 1661:Tarsus 1630:Turkey 906:Urartu 866:Doris 799:Urartu 729:Assuwa 689:Arzawa 506:Turkey 497:on the 410:Church 155:Minoan 87:Greece 78:on the 49:. The 4289:Wales 4134:Malta 4119:Libya 3875:Roman 3474:Syria 3421:Italy 3181:Çorum 3158:Adana 3069:Irene 2917:Leo V 2893:Leo V 2789:Irene 2732:Leo V 2724:Irene 2442:Samos 2197:Mysia 1980:Egypt 1874:Amida 1819:saint 1817:as a 1736:" in 1642:Egypt 1512:Islam 926:Lydia 896:Ionia 856:Caria 789:Ionia 769:Caria 719:Lycia 4038:Iraq 3877:and 3630:ISBN 3583:fell 2880:Krum 2614:and 2529:12. 2523:11. 2517:10. 2446:17. 2440:16. 2434:15. 2428:14. 2422:13. 2416:12. 2410:11. 2404:10. 2355:and 2129:and 2090:and 2074:and 2028:and 1958:and 1914:and 1876:and 1837:and 1811:icon 1714:and 1686:and 1640:and 1333:Rise 599:Troy 3609:", 3344:'s 3281:Ani 3179:at 2511:9. 2505:8. 2499:7. 2493:6. 2487:5. 2481:4. 2475:3. 2469:2. 2463:1. 2398:9. 2392:8. 2386:7. 2380:6. 2374:5. 2368:4. 2362:3. 2347:2. 2341:1. 2195:in 2187:in 2155:in 1888:or 1806:An 405:Art 181:BC) 165:BC) 149:BC) 4306:: 4281:- 4273:- 4249:- 4227:- 4094:- 4073:- 4069:, 4065:- 4057:- 4043:- 4020:- 4012:- 3992:- 3974:- 3960:- 3946:- 3912:- 3893:- 3527:. 3480:. 3415:, 3199:. 3064:. 2978:. 2933:. 2859:. 2776:. 2742:. 2610:, 2161:c. 1746:BC 1702:. 1659:, 1653:AD 548:c. 359:, 176:c. 160:c. 144:c. 4285:) 4277:( 4267:) 4263:( 4077:) 4061:( 4024:) 4016:( 3996:) 3988:( 3866:e 3859:t 3852:v 3638:. 3605:" 3350:. 2970:( 2539:) 2359:) 2309:e 2302:t 2295:v 2221:( 2166:) 2159:( 1829:. 1610:e 1603:t 1596:v 1161:) 478:e 471:t 464:v 363:) 355:( 174:( 158:( 142:( 61:) 57:(

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