Byzantine battle tactics - Knowledge (XXG)

281: 1512:). If the enemy horse did not give chase, they would continue harassing them with arrows until they did. Meanwhile, the Numeri on the left and right rear would be drawn up in their standard formation facing the flanks and ready to attack the pursuing enemy as they crossed their lines. The foes would be forced to stop and fight this unexpected threat but as they did the flanking Numeri would halt their retreat, turn around and charge at full speed into their former pursuers. The enemy, weakened, winded and caught in a vice between two mounted phalanxes would break with the Numeri they once pursued now chasing them. Then the rear Numeri, who had ambushed the enemy horse, would move up and attack the unprotected flanks in a double envelopment. This tactic is similar to what 729:

together to form the backbone of an imperial expeditionary force for offensive campaigns. It was under this new system that the Byzantine army is generally considered to have come into its own, distinct from its late-imperial Roman precursor. The thematic system proved to be both highly resilient and flexible, serving the empire well from the mid-7th through the late 11th centuries. Not only did it hold back the Saracens, but some of Byzantium's lost lands were recaptured. The thematic armies also vanquished many other foes including the Bulgars, Avars, Slavs and Varangians, some of whom eventually ended up in the service of Constantinople as allies or mercenaries.

1668:

the main Byzantine army was to be gathered from all around Asia Minor and to meet the invasion force on the battlefield. Another tactic was to cut off their retreat across the passes. Byzantine infantry was to reinforce the garrisons in the fortresses guarding the passes and the cavalry to pursue the invader, driving them up into the valley so as to press the enemy into narrow valleys with little to no room to manoeuvre and from which they became easy prey to Byzantine archers. A third tactic was to launch a counter attack into Saracen territory as an invading Saracen force would often turn around to defend its borders should a message of an attack reach it.

1487:

remainder with lance and shield. The first rank consisted of 25 soldiers, the second of 30, the third of 35 and the remainder of 40, 50, 60 etc. adding ten men per rank. When charging the enemy, the first three ranks shot arrows to create a gap in the enemy's formation then at about 100 to 200 meters from the foe the first ranks shifted to their kontarion lances, charging the line at full speed followed by the remainder of the battalion. Often these charges ended with the enemy infantry routed, at this point infantry would advance to secure the area and allow the cavalry to briefly rest and reorganize.

1504:

sufficiently weakened would draw their lances and charge. The back ranks would follow, drawing their bows and firing ahead as they rode. This combination of missile fire with shock action put their opponents at a grave disadvantage - If they closed ranks to better resist the charging lances, they would make themselves more vulnerable to the bows' fire, if they spread out to avoid the arrows the lancers would have a much easier job of breaking their thinned ranks. Many times the arrow fire and start of a charge were enough to cause the enemy to run without the need to close or melee.

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armoured cavalry would ride them down. Since nomads were known to employ the feigned flight stratagem the general was also cautioned against rash pursuit which could lead his army into ambushes. In a pitched battle he was advised to if possible anchor his position to rivers, ravines or marshes so as to preclude sudden rear or flank attacks by the highly mobile nomads. Last, if undertaking offensive operations, he was urged to do so in late winter and early spring when the nomad's horses were at their worst form after many months of little grass to eat.

1658:" Where they had in earlier centuries been powered by religious fervour, by Leo VI's reign (886-912) they had adopted some of the weaponry and tactics of the Byzantine army. Saracen infantry on the other hand was deemed by Leo VI to be little more than a rabble who lightly armed, could not match the Byzantine infantry. While the Saracen cavalry was judged to be a fine force it lacked the discipline and organisation of the Byzantines, who with a combination of horse archer and armoured cavalry proved a deadly mix to the light Saracen cavalry. 1347:, in much the same way as the Hellenistic kingdoms employed auxiliary light infantry to support their heavily armored phalangites. Due to the empire's long experience, they were wary of relying too much upon foreign auxiliaries or mercenaries (with the notable exception of the Varangian Guard). Imperial armies usually comprised mainly citizens and loyal subjects. The decline of the Byzantine military during the 11th century is parallel to the decline of the peasant-soldier, which led to the increased use of unreliable mercenaries. 66: 1478:, it is stated that the cavalry army of any mobile army commanded by the emperor must be of at least 8,200 riders, not including 1,000 household cavalry—that is, the force belonging personally to the Emperor. These 8,200 horse ought to be divided "into 24 units of up to three hundred men each. These twenty-four units, in turn, just as with the infantry, should make up four groupings of equal strength, each with six combat units." In such an organisation, the author of 1546: 811: 1584:(the latter name was used to designate West Europeans in general) were defined as armoured cavalry which in a direct charge, could devastate an opponent. It was therefore advised to avoid a pitched battle against them. However the textbook remarks that they fought with no discipline, little to no battle order and generally had few if any of their horsemen performing reconnaissance ahead of the army. They also failed to fortify their camps at night. 604: 128: 4447: 1675:'s military manual, that should the Saracen force only be caught up to by the time it was retreating laden with plunder then that the army's infantry should set upon them at night from three sides, leaving the only escape the road back to their land. It was deemed most likely that the startled Saracens would in all speed retreat rather than stay and fight to defend their plunder. 25: 744:, and more of these units were formed. The term thus became synonymous with the central field army. Due to growing military pressures together with the empire's shrinking economic and manpower base, the themes began to decline. As they did so, the size and importance of the tagmata increased, due also to growing fears of the emperors over the potential dangers the 175: 1063:, and were generally considered to be well-disciplined and loyal so long as funds remained to pay them. Although most of them brought their weapons with them when entering the Emperor's service, they did gradually adopt Byzantine military dress and equipment. Their most characteristic weapon was a heavy axe, hence their designation as 1750: 1467:, the Numeri were usually formed in lines 8 to 10 ranks deep, making them almost a mounted phalanx. The Byzantines recognized that this formation was less flexible for cavalry than infantry but found the trade off to be acceptable in exchange for the greater physical and psychological advantages offered by depth. 1643:

secure path to otherwise difficult to reach marsh settlements. When hunting Slavic raiding parties or meeting an army in the field, it was pointed out that the tribesmen fought with round shields and little or no protective armour. Thus their infantry should be easily overpowered by a charge of armoured cavalry.

2002:

Wojnowski, M. “Periodic Revival or Continuation of the Ancient Military Tradition? Another Look at the Question of the KATÁFRAKTOI in the Byzantine Army”. Studia Ceranea. Journal of the Waldemar Ceran Research Centre for the History and Culture of the Mediterranean Area and South-East Europe, vol. 2,

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The Byzantine general was to immediately collect a force of cavalry from the nearest themes and to shadow the invading Saracen army. Such a force might have been too small to seriously challenge the invaders but it would deter detachments of plunderers from breaking away from the main army. Meanwhile

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Invasion into their territories was consequently discouraged, though if necessary, it was recommended that extensive scouting was to be undertaken in order to avoid ambushes; and that such forays were best undertaken in winter, where the snow could reveal the tribesmen tracks and frozen ice provide a

1330:

The catafracti were cavalry regiments heavily armored riders and horses who fought in deployed column orders most effective against enemy infantry. Meanwhile, Clibanarii were also heavily armored horsemen, but were used primarily against cavalry. They employed a spear and shield and the horse’s armor

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The cataphract wore a conical-shaped helmet, topped with a tuft of horsehair dyed in his unit's colour. The helmet was often complemented by mail armour as an aventail to protect the throat, neck and shoulders, which could also cover part or all of the face. He wore a hauberk of doubled-layered mail

1160:

Although the Byzantines developed highly sophisticated infantry tactics, the main work of battle was done by cavalry. The infantry still played an important role when the empire needed to demonstrate its strength. In fact many battles, throughout Byzantine history, began with a frontal assault by the

994:

Like in earlier Greek states these composed the standard light infantry of the empire, in each chiliarchia they made up the last three lines. These soldiers, highly trained in the art of bow were formidable archers and highly mobile units. Most of the Imperial archers came from Asia Minor, especially

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the themes were restructured around the tagmata, some of which were stationed in the provinces, but the majority usually remained near Constantinople when not on campaign. Tagmata would henceforth take on yet a third meaning as a generic term for a standing military unit of regimental size or larger.

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dynasties, would serve the empire in its final stages from the late 11th to the mid-15th centuries, a period longer than the entire lifespans of many other empires. The tagmatic armies would also prove resilient and flexible, even surviving the near destruction of the empire in the aftermath of the

1503:

The Byzantines usually preferred using the cavalry for flanking and envelopment attacks, instead of frontal assaults and almost always preceded and supported their charges with arrow fire. The front ranks of the numeri would draw bows and fire on the enemy's front ranks, then once the foe had been

1589:

The Byzantine general was hence advised to best fight such an opponent in a series of ambushes and night attacks. If it came to battle he should pretend to flee, drawing the knights to charge his retreating army - only to run into an ambush. It was also suggested that the Byzantine general should

1613:

The general was counselled to deploy his infantry archers in the front line. Their larger bows had greater range than that of the horsemen and could so keep them at a distance. Once the Turks, harassed by the arrows of the Byzantine archers, tried to close into range of their bows, the Byzantine

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treatises of war however this could variate in relation to which enemy they were fighting. In the standard deployment, four Numeri would be placed around the infantry lines. One on each flank with one on the right rear and another on the left rear. Thus the cavalry Numeri were not only the flank

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argues, the army can proceed on the march with these units "covering the four directions, front rear and the sides." So important was a large number of cavalry for operations against the Arabs that "if the cavalry army should end up with an even smaller number , the emperor must not set out on

1327:), were an improvement over earlier Roman and Greek cavalry, who had used the four horned saddle without stirrups. The Byzantine state also made horse breeding a priority for the Empire's security. If they could not breed enough high quality mounts, they would purchase them from other cultures. 1607:

were known to fight as bands of light horsemen, armed with bow, javelin and scimitar as well as being accomplished in ambush and the use of horsemen to scout ahead of the army. In battle they advanced in small scattered bands which would harass the front line of the army, charging only if they

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Light cavalry were primarily used for scouting, skirmishing and screening against enemy scouts and skirmishers. They were also useful for chasing enemy light cavalry, who were too fast for the Cataphracts. Light cavalry were more specialized than the Cataphracts, being either archers and horse

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The theme was a division-sized unit of around 9,600, stationed in the theme (administrative district) in which it was raised and named for. The themes were not simply garrison troops, however, but mobile field forces capable of supporting neighboring themes in defensive operations, or joining

1486:

When the Byzantines had to make a frontal assault against a strong infantry position, the wedge was their preferred formation for charges. The Cataphract Numerus formed a wedge of around 400 men in 8 to 10 progressively larger ranks. The first three ranks were armed with lances and bows, the

611:

Over the course of its long history, the armies of Byzantium were reformed and reorganized many times. The only constants in its structure were its complexity and high levels of professionalism. During the 6th and 7th centuries, Hellenistic political systems, philosophies and eastern

1276:, bearing his unit's colours and insignia strapped to his left arm, leaving both hands free to use his weapons and control his horse. Over his mail shirt he wore a surcoat of light weight cotton and a heavy cloak both of which were also dyed in unit colours. The horses often wore 1178:

During these assaults the infantry was deployed in the center, that consisted of two chiliarchiai in wedge formation to break enemy's line, flanked by two more chilarchiai in a "refused wing formation" to protect the center and envelop the enemy. This was the tactic used by

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and Egypt. This new challenge, which seriously threatened the empire's survival, compelled Heraclius and his immediate successors, in the mid-7th century, to undertake a major reform of the Byzantine military system to provide for a more cost effective local defense of its

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The Byzantine cavalrymen and their horses were superbly trained and capable of performing complex manoeuvres. While a proportion of the cataphracts appear to have been lancers or archers only, most had bows and lances. Their main tactical units were the

1663:

Defeats beyond the mountain passes of the Taurus led the Saracens to concentrate on raiding and plundering expeditions instead of seeking permanent conquest. Forcing their way through a pass, their horsemen would charge into the lands at an incredible

1590:

prolong the campaign and lure the enemy into desolate areas where an army could not live off the land, thus causing the "Frankish" army with its primitive logistics to fracture into many small foraging parties who could then be defeated in detail.

956:, a single handed sword (about 70 to 80 cm (2.3 to 2.6 ft) in length, depending on the period) based on early Greek and Celtic type of swords; double-edged and weighing up to 1.6 kg (3.5 lb). Later it referred to the medieval 1108:

The chiliarciai were deployed facing the enemy, with the cavalry on their wings. The infantry would counter-march to make a refused center, while the cavalry would hold or advance to envelop or outflank the enemy. This was similar to the tactic

1386:

If the need for light cavalry became great enough, Constantinople would raise additional Toxotai, provide them with mounts and train them as Hippo-toxotai. When they did employ foreign light horsemen, the Byzantines preferred to recruit from

1208:

An effective but risky tactic was to send a chiliarchia to seize and defend a high position, such as the top of a hill as a diversion, while the Cataphracts or Clibanophoroi, supported by the reserve infantry, enveloped the enemy's flank.

1507:

A favorite tactic when confronted by a strong enemy cavalry force involved a feigned retreat and ambush. The Numeri on the flanks would charge at the enemy horsemen, then draw their bows turn around and fire as they withdrew (the

1536:

with strong armoured cavalry, the cavalry were deployed behind the armoured infantry who were sent ahead to engage the enemy. The infantry would attempt to open a gap in the enemy formation for the cavalry to charge through.

822:. It accurately depicts the typical equipment of a heavily armed Byzantine infantryman of the 10th-12th centuries reassembling earlier Hellenistic militaristic patterns of the Eastern mediterranean. He wears a helmet, 1524:

into an ambush by the six elite cohorts of his reserve "Fourth line". The Arab and Mongol cavalries would also use variations of it later to great effect when confronted by larger and more heavily armed mounted foes.

1355:) or lancers and mounted javelineers. The types of light cavalry used, their weapons, armour and equipment and their origins, varied depending upon the time and circumstances. In the 10th century military treatise 2616: 659:. These differences may have been contributing factors to the eastern empire's survival. It was with this Eastern Roman army that much of the western empire was reconquered in the campaigns of the generals 655:. Despite its classical bias, it was not a simple imitation of antiquity and it differed in several notable ways: It had greater numbers of heavier cavalry, archers and other missile troops, and fewer 1637:

still fought as foot soldiers. However, the craggy and mountainous terrain of the Balkans lent itself to ambushes by archers and spearmen from above, where an army could be confined in a steep valley.

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which eventually contained strategies for dealing with traditional enemies of the state. These manuals enabled the wisdom of prior generations to find its way within newer generations of strategists.

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The infantry was often placed in advanced positions in front of the cavalry. At the command "aperire spatia", the infantry would open a gap in their lines for the cavalry to charge through.

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Lazaris, Stavros (2011), "Rôle et place du cheval dans l'Antiquité tardive : Questions d'ordre économique et militaire", in Anagnostakis, I.; Kolias, T. G.; Papadopoulou, E. (eds.),

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Each charge was supported by toxotai that left the formation and preceded the skutatoi in order to provide missile fire. Often, while the infantry engaged their enemy counterparts, the

736:. The tagmata were originally battalion-sized units of guards and elite troops who protected the emperors and defended the capital. Over time, though, their size increased to that of 587:

i) were a loyal force composed of citizens willing to fight to defend their homes and their state to the death, augmented by mercenaries. The training was very much like that of the

1319:

The lance was topped by a small flag or pennant of the same colour as helmet tuft, surcoat, shield and cloak. When not in use the lance was placed in a saddle boot, much like the

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pattern but in a Hellenistic long line with enveloping flanks. Each chiliarchy could assume different battle formations depending on the situation, the most common of these were:

3559: 280: 855:, a large oval, round or kite-shaped shield. Their armor and weapons were modelled following ancient Seleucid and Hellenistic infantry equipment and patterns, which included: 221: 784:

in 1261, and though reduced by then to a small force, barely exceeding 20,000 men at most, would continue to defend the empire ably until the fall of Constantinople to the

1323:

of later cavalrymen. The bow was slung from the saddle, from which also was hung its quiver of arrows. Later Byzantine saddles, which included stirrups (adopted from the

616:

Orthodox doctrines, had forced a greater simplification in the estate administration that aimed to exercise the emperor's power in more direct means through his different

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was generally made up of 650 skutatoi and 350 toxotai. The skutatoi formed a line of 15-20 ranks deep, in close order shoulder to shoulder. The first line was called the

620:

in which civic and military powers would be personified in single entities with definitive powers over their respective governorships, these being the various Byzantine,

2539: 2127: 671:, that the revitalized empire reached its greatest territorial extent and the army its greatest size of over 330,000 men by 540. Later, under the general and emperor 1027:

Although military manuals prescribed the use of light armour for archers, cost and mobility considerations would have prohibited wide-scale implementation of this.

4435: 1363:, a Latin word which meant "robber" or "plunderer" but which is used to define a type of mounted scout or light raider. Also mentioned in descriptions of army- or 2789: 2690: 974:

Each unit had a different shield decoration often depicting earlier Hellenistic and contemporary Christian motifs. Unarmoured light infantrymen, often armed with

640:

which allowed a simple management and great military flexibility with the ability to allow each governor general to rapidly create provincial armies when needed.

2209:

Haldon, John F. (1997), "The Organisation and Support of an Expeditionary Force: Manpower and Logistics in the Middle Byzantine Period", in Tsiknakis, K. (ed.),

946:(σκούτον): a large oval, round (later kite-shaped) shield made of wood, covered by linen or leather and edged with rawhide, with a steel boss in earlier periods. 4123: 2700: 2633: 759:

along with most of the empire's themes. Once again, the empire was forced to adapt to a new strategic reality with reduced borders and resources. Under Emperor

2648: 2643: 559:

were still used but mainly as a base of maneuver for the cavalry, as well as in specialized roles. Most of the foot-soldiers of the empire were the armoured

500: 3724: 2710: 2685: 859:

Helmet: the helmet varied by region and time but was generally a simple, conical-shaped piece of steel, often with extra neck protection in the form of a

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with 4 ranks of armoured infantry in close order in the front, 4 ranks of armoured infantry in close order at the back and 4 ranks of archers in between.

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west, the later tagmatic armies would come to resemble those of western Europe at the time, more than their Roman, Greek or Near-Eastern antecedents.

38: 3970: 3331: 469: 431: 3819: 4299: 3824: 934:(κοντάριον): a long spear (varied between 2.4 to 4 m (7.9 to 13.1 ft) in length), the kontarion was used by the first ranks of each 4223: 2983: 2976: 2532: 2336: 2316: 2262: 2103: 2036: 1982: 1900: 3834: 3122: 3975: 87: 2966: 2414: 4304: 3717: 4405: 2971: 2509: 2488: 2460: 2396: 2298: 2280: 2243: 2220: 2186: 2173: 2162: 1930: 1842: 251: 109: 52: 3468: 2525: 2154: 493: 439: 333: 4440: 4262: 2794: 2562: 696: 583:. The Byzantines valued intelligence and discipline in their soldiers far more than bravery or brawn. The "Ρωμαίοι στρατιώται"( 2328:

Le cheval dans les sociétés antiques et médiévales. Actes des Journées internationales d'étude (Strasbourg, 6-7 novembre 2009)

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Of all our foes, they have been the most judicious in adapting our practices and arts of war, and are thus the most dangerous.

1375:", who "should be sent out constantly to charge down on the lands of the enemy, cause harm and ravage them." Indeed, the word 4410: 4400: 4272: 4193: 3879: 3451: 3395: 3316: 3183: 320: 4011: 2353: 4267: 4257: 4172: 3927: 3712: 525:, but it became considerably more sophisticated in strategy, tactics and organization. The language of the army was still 149: 44: 1621: 636:

were those of a constant source of income through the towns and villages of rural communities and large urban centers of

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In addition to the themes, there was also the central imperial army stationed in and near Constantinople called the

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protection and envelopment elements but the main reserve and rear guard to protect the population and the Emperor.

718: 633: 464: 303: 4245: 3769: 3625: 3410: 3301: 3188: 2480: 682:

Late in Heraclius' reign, however, a major new threat suddenly arose to the empire's security in the form of the

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Byzantinische Waffen: ein Beitrag zur byzantinischen Waffenkunde von den Anfangen bis zur lateinischen Eroberung

1105:(brigade) in the later empire (after 750 AD) but chiliarchy-sized units were used throughout the empire's life. 91: 3544: 2783: 781: 721:, which served as both administrative and military divisions, each under the command of a military governor or 406: 200: 2662: 2289:

Kollias, Taxiarchis G. (1997), "Η πολεμική τακτική των Βυζαντινών: Θεωρία και πράξη", in Tsiknakis, K. (ed.),

1650: 2439:

Rance, Philip, 'Narses and the Battle of Taginae (Busta Gallorum) 552: Procopius and sixth-century Warfare',

1293:: or lance, slightly shorter and less thick than that used by the skutatoi which could also be thrown like a 459: 4450: 3874: 3600: 3420: 3306: 473: 360: 2326: 1141:, similar to the Roman testudo or Scandinavian shield wall, used to defend against heavy enemy missile fire 4375: 3965: 3807: 3251: 3057: 3031: 3026: 2799: 2775: 2771: 2738: 1460: 705: 427: 217: 643:

Despite having the same late Roman roots, the Byzantine army shape and reform itself on the various late

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Byzantine infantry were trained to operate with cavalry and to exploit any gaps created by the cavalry.

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was a foreign mercenary force and the elite of the Byzantine infantry. It was composed principally of

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https://web.archive.org/web/20121013035512/http://www.duke.edu/web/classics/grbs/FTexts/44/Rance2.pdf

1823:"Historians and the Economy: Zosimos and Prokopios on Fifth- and Sixth- Century Economie Development" 1672: 1180: 1893:

The Decline of Eastern Christianity Under Islam: From Jihad to Dhimmitude: Seventh-Twentieth Century

3246: 3162: 3152: 3016: 2779: 2767: 2654: 1533: 1517: 1419: 1324: 1132:, usually 8 men deep, which was generally used against other infantry or to repel a cavalry charge; 752: 701: 4446: 1545: 810: 4324: 4314: 4188: 3859: 3742: 3659: 3522: 2874: 2854: 2834: 2824: 2590: 2121: 1101: 1076: 1059:

in composition. The Varangians served as the bodyguard (escort) of the emperor since the time of

760: 733: 644: 637: 522: 4380: 4285: 4218: 4198: 4166: 4098: 4085: 4006: 4001: 3752: 3517: 3367: 2886: 2839: 2829: 2819: 2505: 2484: 2456: 2392: 2332: 2312: 2294: 2276: 2258: 2239: 2216: 2182: 2158: 2109: 2099: 2032: 1978: 1926: 1896: 1873: 1838: 1803: 1728:(Vienna 1973) 187–225; E.L. Wheeler, "Notes on a Stratagem of Iphicrates in Polyaenus and Leo 1267: 1095:, the first four lines were made up of skutatoi the remaining three of toxotai. Three or four 1895:. Miriam Kochman, David Littman (trans.). Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 522. 595:

techniques with their swords, spears and axes, along with the extensive practice of archery.

4250: 4043: 3991: 3937: 3904: 3854: 3647: 3637: 3415: 3103: 2995: 2918: 2901: 2879: 2864: 2849: 2763: 2548: 2470: 2365: 2024: 1970: 1830: 1114: 1044: 772: 751:

The final, fatal blow to the thematic army occurred in the aftermath of the disaster at the

355: 308: 2311:, National Hellenic Research Foundation - Centre for Byzantine Research, pp. 245–272, 2293:, National Hellenic Research Foundation - Centre for Byzantine Research, pp. 153–164, 2215:, National Hellenic Research Foundation - Centre for Byzantine Research, pp. 111–151, 2181:, National Hellenic Research Foundation - Centre for Byzantine Research, pp. 165–178, 603: 4395: 4228: 4208: 4203: 4158: 4148: 4108: 4103: 4048: 3829: 3435: 3352: 3347: 3087: 3077: 2913: 2907: 2891: 2869: 2859: 2844: 1565: 1259: 1052: 676: 370: 345: 295: 2409:, the Late Roman and Byzantine Testudo: the Germanization of Roman Infantry Tactics?' in 2210: 2192: 1495:

As with the infantry, the Cataphracts adapted their tactics and equipment out of earlier

127: 4233: 4113: 3846: 3605: 3499: 3485: 3284: 3147: 2988: 2743: 1916: 1705: 1690: 1685: 1243: 1056: 777: 768: 572: 534: 514: 388: 365: 272: 4468: 4153: 4030: 3996: 3734: 3669: 3642: 3527: 3142: 3082: 2385: 2147: 1513: 1496: 1471: 1340: 1167: 1048: 1006: 819: 785: 226: 190: 3914: 3889: 3869: 3674: 3652: 3507: 2755: 2750: 2584: 1427: 1315:: Same as that of the infantry but with a leather corselet usually depicted in red. 1255: 1235: 1162: 957: 877: 592: 538: 375: 210: 708:

many of the empire's wealthiest and most important regions, especially Syria, the

2499: 2474: 2233: 1920: 700:, and driven by a still-strong tribal warfare mentality. Under the leadership of 4415: 4390: 3884: 3694: 3461: 3067: 3052: 2229: 1799:

Early Christian and Byzantine political philosophy : origins and background

936: 668: 530: 2449: 2015: 1822: 912:(επιλωρίκιον): A padded leather or textile over-garment, worn over the cuirass. 537:

dominated, as it became the official language of the entire empire. Unlike the

3689: 3549: 3539: 3372: 3362: 3072: 2275:(in German), Vienna: Verlag der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2172:

Dennis, George T. (1997), "The Byzantines in Battle", in Tsiknakis, K. (ed.),

2028: 1962: 1834: 1395: 1231: 1191: 1036: 897: 860: 756: 660: 551: 546: 411: 392: 2113: 1974: 1877: 1807: 1520:

in 48 BC when his allied cavalry acted as bait to lure the superior horse of

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was changed from plate to leather, most often fighting in a wedge formation.

4238: 4118: 3610: 3478: 3425: 3357: 2369: 1603: 1464: 1431: 1403: 1399: 1247: 906:(hanging leather strips) were often attached to protect the hips and thighs. 788:

in 1453. In no small part due to increased reliance on mercenaries from the

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L’Histoire du texte d’Élien le Tacticien des origines à la Fin du Moyen Âge

1751:"The Ideal of the Roman General in Byzantium: the Reception of Onasander's 1258:, which extended down to the knees. Over the hauberk, he would also wear a 2517: 3764: 3664: 3615: 3473: 3405: 3193: 1574: 1199: 1121: 1110: 1060: 1040: 902: 890: 863: 831: 823: 737: 714: 683: 629: 607:

As the Byzantine empire's borders changed, so did its military structure.

556: 338: 922:(βαμβάκιον): A padded linen or wool under-armor, worn under the cuirass. 4130: 4016: 3957: 3456: 3430: 3108: 1654:

were judged as the most dangerous of all foes, as remarked by Leo VI: "

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Battle axe: Usually strapped to the saddle as a backup weapon and tool.

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would destroy the enemy's cavalry (this tactic was used mainly against

1184: 1148: 1129: 996: 975: 893: 880: 741: 617: 576: 542: 325: 1079:, which applied the late Macedonian and Seleucid phalanx often called 4053: 3759: 3534: 3400: 2093: 1867: 1797: 1580: 1521: 1411: 1388: 1380: 1263: 1239: 1195: 953: 815: 709: 691: 664: 648: 625: 397: 2204:

The Encyclopedia Of Military History: From 3500 B.C. To The Present.

940:(battalion) in order to form a defensive Macedonian like pike wall. 1780:

and the Ancients: the Late Antique Reception of Aelian and Arrian"

1544: 1391: 1294: 967: 809: 687: 602: 526: 2346:

Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth: Byzantine Warfare in the Tenth Century

1120:

The chiliarciai were deployed not in the classic Roman checkered

4038: 999:

on the Black sea, where they were raised, trained and equipped.

889:(κλιβάνιον): Often associated with the characteristic Byzantine 867: 4364: 3795: 3580: 3272: 2939: 2560: 2521: 1568:, provides instructions for dealing with various foes such as: 1553:

Centuries of warfare enabled the Byzantines to write their own

2149:

Maurice's Strategikon. Handbook of Byzantine Military Strategy

2003:

Dec. 2012, pp. 195-20, doi:10.18778/2084-140X.02.16. (197-198)

1549:

A siege by Byzantine forces, Skylintzes chronicle 11th century

1414:. On occasion, they recruited from their enemies, such as the 1087:

meaning thousand, because they had about 1000 fighting men. A

780:

in 1204. They would eventually retake the capital for Emperor

168: 121: 59: 18: 755:

in 1071, when a new enemy, the Seljuk Turks, overran most of

2432:, a Gallicism and Continuity in Late Roman Cavalry Tactics, 1470:

In the 10th century military treatise attributed to Emperor

960:, usually with a crossguard curving back towards the handle. 2235:

Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565–1204

1270:

protected his hands. He carried a small, round shield, the

928:: A heavy textile skirt hanging below a soldier's cuirass. 1262:

cuirass that could have sleeves or not. Leather boots or

1202:

or other Germanic tribes who deployed armoured cavalry).

1784:

Greek Taktika. Ancient Military Writing and its Heritage

521:

taking as leading models and shaping itself on the late

145: 2202:

R.E. Dupuy and T.N. Dupuy (2nd Revised Edition 1986).

1925:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 316. 1922:

Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity

1861: 1859: 1075:

Byzantine formations were adopted out of the earlier

4281: 4181: 4139: 4084: 4029: 3984: 3956: 3913: 3845: 3806: 3733: 3591: 3498: 3444: 3383: 3340: 3283: 3227: 3202: 3171: 3130: 3121: 3096: 3040: 3004: 2950: 2808: 2724: 2671: 2602: 2573: 2451:

Siegecraft: Two Tenth-century Instructional Manuals

1287:

Composite bow: Same as that carried by the Toxotai.

2448: 2384: 2146: 2082:, (Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 2008), p. 275. 2064:, (Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 2008), p. 153. 2014: 1459:) of 300-400 men. The equivalent to the old Roman 1379:may be the linguistic ancestor to the modern word 2354:"Infantry versus Cavalry: The Byzantine Response" 2309:Animal and Environment in Byzantium (7th-12th c.) 1963:"Some Aspects of Early Byzantine Arms and Armour" 1759:Generalship in Ancient Greece, Rome and Byzantium 216:for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate 2387:The History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages 1726:Die Überlieferung der Strategemata des Polyainos 767:This tagmatic army, which includes those of the 647:well known in the eastern Mediterranean, mainly 1944: 1942: 2908:Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands) 2391:(Revised ed.). Cornell University Press. 1434:were also noted for their light horsemen, the 2533: 2348:, Dumbarton Oaks Studies 33, Washington, D.C. 1306:Dagger: Sometimes referred to as a "Machaira" 494: 8: 2476:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 2126:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 978:, were known as in Greek classical times as 847:The bulk of the Byzantine infantry were the 632:among others. The main characteristics of a 1969:, Routledge, pp. 391–406, 2017-03-02, 53:Learn how and when to remove these messages 4361: 3812: 3803: 3792: 3588: 3577: 3289: 3280: 3269: 3127: 2954: 2947: 2936: 2570: 2557: 2540: 2526: 2518: 2092:George), Dawson, Timothy (Timothy (2009). 501: 487: 263: 252:Learn how and when to remove this message 110:Learn how and when to remove this message 1339:The Byzantines fielded various types of 1303:: Also identical to the infantry weapon. 73:This article includes a list of general 2074: 2072: 2070: 1757:, in: S. Tougher and R. Evans (eds.), 1717: 1280:of mail or scale armour with surcoats. 1135:Wedge, used to break the enemy's lines; 748:and their themes posed to their power. 529:, although later (especially after the 446: 420: 287: 271: 2119: 1782:in P. Rance and N.V. Sekunda (edd.), 7: 2060:, Ch. 2, in George T. Dennis (ed.), 1483:campaign with such a small number." 686:. Spurred on by their new religion, 1442:Cavalry organization and formations 1283:The cataphract's weapons included: 1071:Infantry organization and formation 2411:Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 1528:When facing opponents such as the 206:for transliterated languages, and 186:of its non-English content, using 79:it lacks sufficient corresponding 14: 4406:Greek scholars in the Renaissance 2080:Three Byzantine Military Treatise 2062:Three Byzantine Military Treatise 1755:in Byzantine Military Literature" 1555:treatises on the protocols of war 1371:, "those whom the Armenians call 1055:, after 1066 it was increasingly 970:-like sword, girded at the waist. 667:. It was during this time, under 139:to comply with Knowledge (XXG)'s 34:This article has multiple issues. 4445: 2501:Byzantium and Its Army, 284–1081 2155:University of Pennsylvania Press 2095:Byzantine cavalryman, c.900-1204 1749:(Paris 1930) 145–157; P. Rance, 1266:protected his lower legs, while 679:of Persia was finally defeated. 571:), with the remainder being the 279: 173: 126: 64: 23: 2795:Decline of the Byzantine Empire 2617:Constantinian–Valentinianic era 2271:Kollias, Taxiarchis G. (1988), 1250:represented the might of Rome. 1161:skutatoi with support from the 1156:Infantry tactics and strategies 42:or discuss these issues on the 3880:Great Palace of Constantinople 3621:Patriarchate of Constantinople 2413:44.3 (2004) pp. 265–326: 2291:Byzantium at War (9th–12th c.) 2212:Byzantium at War (9th–12th c.) 2175:Byzantium at War (9th–12th c.) 1491:Cavalry tactics and strategies 776:fall of Constantinople to the 717:heartland. The result was the 222:multilingual support templates 1: 2504:, Stanford University Press, 2498:Treadgold, Warren T. (1998), 2013:Priestley, Bob (2017-01-01), 1821:Ziche, Hartmut (2017-01-01), 1023:(small axe) for self-defence. 952:(σπαθίον): The typical Roman 4342:University of Constantinople 3923:Arch of Galerius and Rotunda 3073:Chartoularios tou vestiariou 2762:Byzantine successor states ( 2447:Sullivan, Dennis F. (2000). 2443:54/4 (2005) pp. 424–72. 1869:Les Manuscrits d' Onésandros 1560:One such manual, the famous 1359:explicit mention is made of 1246:in much the same way as the 1242:who symbolized the power of 801:Infantry types and equipment 645:Hellenistic treatises of war 4012:Saint Catherine's Monastery 3068:Chartoularios tou sakelliou 3063:Logothetes tou stratiotikou 2358:Revue des études byzantines 2023:, BRILL, pp. 527–533, 1950:Les manuscrits d’Onésandros 1829:, BRILL, pp. 462–474, 1747:Les manuscrits d’Onésandros 1221:Cavalry types and equipment 1067:, the "axe-bearing guard". 591:, with the soldiers taught 300:'Classical' Byzantine army 4491: 4401:Neo-Byzantine architecture 3022:Comes sacrarum largitionum 2436:58 (2004) pp. 96–130. 2145:Dennis, George T. (1984). 1701:Byzantine military manuals 1002:Their equipment included: 966:(παραμήριον): a one-edged 545:, especially the armoured 541:, its strength was in its 4428: 4371: 4360: 3971:Sant'Apollinare in Classe 3815: 3802: 3791: 3587: 3576: 3292: 3279: 3268: 2957: 2946: 2935: 2569: 2556: 2481:Stanford University Press 2325:Lazaris, Stavros (2012), 2029:10.1163/9789004344877_042 1835:10.1163/9789004344877_036 1796:Dvornik, Francis (1966). 900:in general. In addition, 549:, which evolved from the 517:evolved from that of the 3545:Droungarios of the Fleet 2479:. Stanford, California: 2253:Haldon, John F. (2001), 1975:10.4324/9781315261003-28 1774:(Paris 1946); P. Rance, 1761:(Edinburgh 2022) 242–263 1608:discovered a weak point. 1234:was an armoured cavalry 782:Michael VIII Palaiologos 692:subjugation of the world 567:(plural of the singular 407:Droungarios of the Fleet 152:may contain suggestions. 137:may need to be rewritten 4059:Early Byzantine mosaics 3421:Domestic of the Schools 2370:10.3406/rebyz.1988.2225 1866:Dain, Alphonse (1930). 1671:It was later added, in 1077:late Hellenistic armies 814:12th-century fresco of 474:Walls of Constantinople 361:Domestic of the Schools 267:Part of a series on the 94:more precise citations. 4376:Byzantine commonwealth 3138:Praetorian prefectures 3058:Logothetes tou genikou 3032:Quaestor sacri palatii 3027:Comes rerum privatarum 2800:Fall of Constantinople 2739:Sack of Constantinople 2383:Oman, Charles (1960). 1872:. Les Belles Lettres. 1786:(Gdańsk 2017) 217–255. 1550: 1451:(also called at times 896:, it also referred to 876:(λωρίκιον): a mail or 844: 818:from the monastery of 608: 432:revolts and civil wars 4076:Komnenian renaissance 4071:Macedonian period art 3976:Sant'Apollinare Nuovo 3948:Walls of Thessaloniki 3048:Logothetes tou dromou 2663:Twenty Years' Anarchy 2627:Valentinianic dynasty 2622:Constantinian dynasty 2352:McGeer, Eric (1988), 2344:McGeer, Eric (1995), 2238:. London: UCL Press. 2016:"The Varangian Guard" 1696:Byzantine bureaucracy 1548: 813: 694:or its conversion to 690:, which demanded the 606: 4273:Units of measurement 4007:Panagia Gorgoepikoos 3900:Pammakaristos Church 3748:Corpus Juris Civilis 3699:Missionary activity 3158:Exarchate of Ravenna 2984:Imperial bureaucracy 2405:Rance, Philip, 'The 2153:. Philadelphia, PA: 1952:(Paris 1930) 145–157 1541:Byzantine Art of War 1065:pelekyphoros phroura 835:and is armed with a 555:of the late empire. 447:Strategy and tactics 334:Palaiologan-era army 220:. Knowledge (XXG)'s 184:specify the language 182:This article should 3797:Culture and society 3660:Ecumenical councils 3163:Exarchate of Africa 3153:Quaestura exercitus 3017:Magister officiorum 3012:Praetorian prefects 2655:Byzantine Dark Ages 2056:Nikephoros Phokas, 2021:Byzantine Narrative 1891:Ye'or, Bat (1996). 1827:Byzantine Narrative 1394:tribes such as the 849:skoutatoi (hoplite) 753:Battle of Manzikert 702:Khalid ibn al-Walid 4475:Byzantine military 4214:Flags and insignia 3860:Baths of Zeuxippus 3743:Codex Theodosianus 3633:Oriental Orthodoxy 2591:Later Roman Empire 2455:. Dumbarton Oaks. 2255:The Byzantine Wars 1736:19 (2012) 157–163. 1551: 1367:light cavalry are 1343:to complement the 1173:Equites Sagittarii 1128:Line formation or 1083:, from the Greek, 995:the region around 990:Toxotai and Psiloi 851:, named after the 845: 761:Alexios I Komnenos 609: 599:Structural history 523:Hellenistic armies 321:Komnenian-era army 288:Structural history 4462: 4461: 4424: 4423: 4381:Byzantine studies 4356: 4355: 4352: 4351: 4167:Alexander Romance 4025: 4024: 4002:Nea Moni of Chios 3865:Blachernae Palace 3787: 3786: 3783: 3782: 3753:Code of Justinian 3601:Eastern Orthodoxy 3572: 3571: 3568: 3567: 3494: 3493: 3368:Scholae Palatinae 3264: 3263: 3260: 3259: 3229:Foreign relations 3223: 3222: 3117: 3116: 2931: 2930: 2927: 2926: 2730:(1204–1453) 2471:Treadgold, Warren 2338:978-2-503-54440-3 2318:978-960-371-063-9 2264:978-0-7524-1795-0 2105:978-1-84603-404-6 2078:George T. Denis, 2038:978-1-876503-24-6 1984:978-1-315-26100-3 1967:Byzantine Warfare 1902:978-1-61147-136-6 1673:Nicephorus Phocas 1181:Nicephorus Phocas 585:rōmaíoi stratiōta 519:late Roman period 511: 510: 262: 261: 254: 244: 243: 224:may also be used. 167: 166: 141:quality standards 120: 119: 112: 57: 16:Military strategy 4482: 4449: 4362: 4305:Imperial Library 4251:Byzantine Greeks 3992:Daphni Monastery 3943:Panagia Chalkeon 3938:Hagios Demetrios 3905:Prison of Anemas 3855:Basilica Cistern 3813: 3804: 3793: 3648:West Syriac Rite 3638:Alexandrian Rite 3589: 3582:Religion and law 3578: 3513:Maritime themata 3469:Palaiologan army 3322:Military manuals 3290: 3281: 3270: 3128: 3104:Megas logothetes 2955: 2948: 2937: 2810:By modern region 2731: 2678: 2677:(717–1204) 2609: 2571: 2558: 2549:Byzantine Empire 2542: 2535: 2528: 2519: 2514: 2494: 2466: 2454: 2420:Rance, Philip, ' 2402: 2390: 2379: 2378: 2376: 2341: 2321: 2303: 2285: 2267: 2249: 2225: 2199: 2197: 2191:, archived from 2180: 2168: 2152: 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3078:Epi tou eidikou 3036: 3000: 2942: 2923: 2910: 2813: 2811: 2804: 2790:Palaiologan era 2732: 2729: 2720: 2691:Nikephorian era 2679: 2676: 2667: 2610: 2608:(330–717) 2607: 2598: 2578: 2565: 2552: 2546: 2512: 2497: 2491: 2469: 2463: 2446: 2399: 2382: 2374: 2372: 2351: 2339: 2324: 2319: 2306: 2301: 2288: 2283: 2270: 2265: 2252: 2246: 2228: 2223: 2208: 2195: 2189: 2178: 2171: 2165: 2144: 2141: 2136: 2135: 2118: 2106: 2091: 2090: 2086: 2077: 2068: 2055: 2051: 2043: 2041: 2039: 2012: 2011: 2007: 2001: 1997: 1989: 1987: 1985: 1961: 1960: 1956: 1947: 1940: 1933: 1917:Crone, Patricia 1915: 1914: 1910: 1903: 1890: 1889: 1885: 1865: 1864: 1857: 1849: 1847: 1845: 1820: 1819: 1815: 1795: 1794: 1790: 1769: 1765: 1744: 1740: 1723: 1719: 1714: 1682: 1566:Leo VI the Wise 1543: 1493: 1444: 1337: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1165:units known as 1158: 1073: 1053:Germanic people 1037:Varangian Guard 1033: 992: 808: 803: 798: 706:rapidly overran 704:these invaders 677:Sassanid Empire 601: 507: 371:Stratopedarches 346:Varangian Guard 296:East Roman army 258: 247: 246: 245: 240: 234: 231: 225: 213: 207: 203: 201:transliteration 197: 193: 187: 178: 174: 163: 157: 154: 144: 131: 116: 105: 99: 96: 86:Please help to 85: 69: 65: 28: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4488: 4486: 4478: 4477: 4467: 4466: 4460: 4459: 4457: 4456: 4454: 4453: 4443: 4438: 4432: 4429: 4426: 4425: 4422: 4421: 4419: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4372: 4369: 4368: 4365: 4358: 4357: 4354: 4353: 4350: 4349: 4347: 4346: 4345: 4344: 4334: 4329: 4328: 4327: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4296: 4294: 4292: 4291: 4288: 4282: 4279: 4278: 4276: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4254: 4253: 4243: 4242: 4241: 4236: 4226: 4221: 4216: 4211: 4206: 4201: 4196: 4191: 4185: 4183: 4179: 4178: 4176: 4175: 4170: 4163: 4162: 4161: 4151: 4145: 4143: 4137: 4136: 4134: 4133: 4128: 4127: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4106: 4101: 4096: 4090: 4088: 4082: 4081: 4079: 4078: 4073: 4068: 4063: 4062: 4061: 4051: 4046: 4041: 4035: 4033: 4027: 4026: 4023: 4022: 4020: 4019: 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3428: 3423: 3418: 3413: 3408: 3403: 3398: 3393: 3387: 3385: 3381: 3380: 3378: 3377: 3376: 3375: 3370: 3365: 3360: 3350: 3344: 3342: 3338: 3337: 3335: 3334: 3329: 3327:Military units 3324: 3319: 3314: 3309: 3304: 3299: 3297:Battle tactics 3293: 3287: 3277: 3276: 3273: 3266: 3265: 3262: 3261: 3258: 3257: 3255: 3254: 3249: 3244: 3239: 3233: 3231: 3225: 3224: 3221: 3220: 3218: 3217: 3212: 3206: 3204: 3200: 3199: 3197: 3196: 3191: 3186: 3181: 3175: 3173: 3169: 3168: 3166: 3165: 3160: 3155: 3150: 3145: 3140: 3134: 3132: 3125: 3119: 3118: 3115: 3114: 3112: 3111: 3106: 3100: 3098: 3094: 3093: 3091: 3090: 3085: 3080: 3075: 3070: 3065: 3060: 3055: 3050: 3044: 3042: 3038: 3037: 3035: 3034: 3029: 3024: 3019: 3014: 3008: 3006: 3002: 3001: 2999: 2998: 2993: 2992: 2991: 2989:Medieval Greek 2981: 2980: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2958: 2952: 2944: 2943: 2940: 2933: 2932: 2929: 2928: 2925: 2924: 2922: 2921: 2916: 2911: 2906: 2904: 2899: 2894: 2889: 2884: 2883: 2882: 2877: 2867: 2862: 2857: 2852: 2847: 2842: 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Schindler, 1716: 1715: 1713: 1710: 1709: 1708: 1706:Komnenian army 1703: 1698: 1693: 1691:Byzantine navy 1688: 1686:Byzantine army 1681: 1678: 1677: 1676: 1669: 1665: 1660: 1659: 1645: 1644: 1639: 1638: 1625:, such as the 1616: 1615: 1610: 1609: 1592: 1591: 1586: 1585: 1542: 1539: 1492: 1489: 1480:On Skirmishing 1476:On Skirmishing 1463:or the modern 1443: 1440: 1365:thematic-level 1357:On Skirmishing 1336: 1333: 1317: 1316: 1310: 1307: 1304: 1298: 1288: 1244:Constantinople 1227: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1157: 1154: 1153: 1152: 1142: 1136: 1133: 1072: 1069: 1032: 1029: 1025: 1024: 1014: 1009: 991: 988: 972: 971: 961: 947: 941: 929: 923: 918:(καβάδιον) or 913: 907: 884: 871: 807: 804: 802: 799: 797: 794: 778:Fourth Crusade 600: 597: 573:light infantry 563:and later on, 515:Byzantine army 509: 508: 506: 505: 498: 491: 483: 480: 479: 478: 477: 470:Fortifications 467: 462: 457: 449: 448: 444: 443: 440:Constantinople 423: 422: 418: 417: 416: 415: 409: 400: 395: 389:Byzantine navy 383: 382: 381: 380: 379: 378: 373: 368: 366:Grand Domestic 363: 358: 348: 343: 342: 341: 331: 330: 329: 318: 317: 316: 311: 306: 298: 290: 289: 285: 284: 276: 275: 273:Byzantine army 269: 268: 260: 259: 242: 241: 181: 179: 172: 165: 164: 134: 132: 125: 118: 117: 72: 70: 63: 58: 32: 31: 29: 22: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4487: 4476: 4473: 4472: 4470: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4433: 4431: 4430: 4427: 4417: 4414: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4373: 4370: 4363: 4359: 4343: 4340: 4339: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4326: 4323: 4322: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4300:Encyclopedias 4298: 4297: 4295: 4289: 4287: 4284: 4283: 4280: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4252: 4249: 4248: 4247: 4244: 4240: 4237: 4235: 4232: 4231: 4230: 4227: 4225: 4224:Hellenization 4222: 4220: 4217: 4215: 4212: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4202: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4192: 4190: 4187: 4186: 4184: 4182:Everyday life 4180: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4157: 4156: 4155: 4154:Acritic songs 4152: 4150: 4147: 4146: 4144: 4142: 4138: 4132: 4129: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4111: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4095: 4092: 4091: 4089: 4087: 4083: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4069: 4067: 4064: 4060: 4057: 4056: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4037: 4036: 4034: 4032: 4028: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3997:Hosios Loukas 3995: 3993: 3990: 3989: 3987: 3983: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3963: 3961: 3959: 3955: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3929: 3926: 3924: 3921: 3920: 3918: 3916: 3912: 3906: 3903: 3901: 3898: 3896: 3893: 3891: 3888: 3886: 3883: 3881: 3878: 3876: 3873: 3871: 3868: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3858: 3856: 3853: 3852: 3850: 3848: 3844: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3828: 3827: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3817: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3794: 3790: 3776: 3773: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3754: 3751: 3750: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3740: 3738: 3736: 3732: 3726: 3723: 3719: 3716: 3714: 3711: 3709: 3706: 3704: 3701: 3700: 3698: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3678: 3676: 3673: 3671: 3670:Monophysitism 3668: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3658: 3654: 3651: 3649: 3646: 3644: 3643:Armenian Rite 3641: 3639: 3636: 3635: 3634: 3631: 3627: 3624: 3622: 3619: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3609: 3607: 3604: 3603: 3602: 3599: 3598: 3596: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3579: 3575: 3561: 3560:Naval battles 3558: 3556: 3553: 3551: 3548: 3546: 3543: 3541: 3538: 3536: 3533: 3529: 3526: 3524: 3521: 3519: 3516: 3515: 3514: 3511: 3509: 3506: 3505: 3503: 3501: 3497: 3487: 3484: 3480: 3477: 3475: 3472: 3471: 3470: 3467: 3463: 3460: 3458: 3455: 3454: 3453: 3450: 3449: 3447: 3443: 3437: 3434: 3432: 3429: 3427: 3424: 3422: 3419: 3417: 3414: 3412: 3409: 3407: 3404: 3402: 3399: 3397: 3394: 3392: 3389: 3388: 3386: 3382: 3374: 3371: 3369: 3366: 3364: 3361: 3359: 3356: 3355: 3354: 3351: 3349: 3346: 3345: 3343: 3339: 3333: 3330: 3328: 3325: 3323: 3320: 3318: 3315: 3313: 3310: 3308: 3305: 3303: 3300: 3298: 3295: 3294: 3291: 3288: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3271: 3267: 3253: 3250: 3248: 3245: 3243: 3240: 3238: 3235: 3234: 3232: 3230: 3226: 3216: 3213: 3211: 3208: 3207: 3205: 3201: 3195: 3192: 3190: 3187: 3185: 3182: 3180: 3177: 3176: 3174: 3170: 3164: 3161: 3159: 3156: 3154: 3151: 3149: 3146: 3144: 3141: 3139: 3136: 3135: 3133: 3129: 3126: 3124: 3120: 3110: 3107: 3105: 3102: 3101: 3099: 3095: 3089: 3086: 3084: 3083:Protasekretis 3081: 3079: 3076: 3074: 3071: 3069: 3066: 3064: 3061: 3059: 3056: 3054: 3051: 3049: 3046: 3045: 3043: 3039: 3033: 3030: 3028: 3025: 3023: 3020: 3018: 3015: 3013: 3010: 3009: 3007: 3003: 2997: 2994: 2990: 2987: 2986: 2985: 2982: 2978: 2975: 2973: 2970: 2968: 2965: 2964: 2963: 2960: 2959: 2956: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2938: 2934: 2920: 2917: 2915: 2912: 2909: 2905: 2903: 2900: 2898: 2895: 2893: 2890: 2888: 2885: 2881: 2878: 2876: 2873: 2872: 2871: 2868: 2866: 2863: 2861: 2858: 2856: 2853: 2851: 2848: 2846: 2843: 2841: 2838: 2836: 2833: 2831: 2828: 2826: 2823: 2821: 2818: 2817: 2815: 2807: 2801: 2798: 2796: 2793: 2791: 2788: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2754: 2753: 2752: 2749: 2745: 2742: 2741: 2740: 2737: 2736: 2734: 2728: 2723: 2717: 2714: 2712: 2711:Komnenian era 2709: 2707: 2704: 2702: 2699: 2697: 2694: 2692: 2689: 2687: 2684: 2683: 2681: 2675: 2670: 2664: 2661: 2656: 2652: 2651: 2650: 2649:Heraclian era 2647: 2645: 2644:Justinian era 2642: 2640: 2637: 2635: 2632: 2628: 2625: 2623: 2620: 2619: 2618: 2615: 2614: 2612: 2606: 2601: 2593: 2592: 2588: 2587: 2586: 2583: 2582: 2580: 2577: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2559: 2555: 2550: 2543: 2538: 2536: 2531: 2529: 2524: 2523: 2520: 2513: 2511:0-8047-3163-2 2507: 2503: 2502: 2496: 2492: 2490:0-8047-2630-2 2486: 2482: 2478: 2477: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2462:0-88402-270-6 2458: 2453: 2452: 2445: 2442: 2438: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2398:0-8014-9062-6 2394: 2389: 2388: 2381: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2350: 2347: 2343: 2340: 2334: 2330: 2329: 2323: 2320: 2314: 2310: 2305: 2302: 2300:960-371-001-6 2296: 2292: 2287: 2284: 2282:3-7001-1471-0 2278: 2274: 2269: 2266: 2260: 2256: 2251: 2247: 2245:1-85728-495-X 2241: 2237: 2236: 2231: 2227: 2224: 2222:960-371-001-6 2218: 2214: 2213: 2207: 2205: 2201: 2198:on 2007-02-06 2194: 2190: 2188:960-371-001-6 2184: 2177: 2176: 2170: 2166: 2164:0-8122-1772-1 2160: 2156: 2151: 2150: 2143: 2142: 2138: 2129: 2123: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2101: 2097: 2096: 2088: 2085: 2081: 2075: 2073: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2053: 2050: 2040: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2017: 2009: 2006: 1999: 1996: 1986: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1958: 1955: 1951: 1945: 1943: 1939: 1934: 1932:0-521-52940-9 1928: 1924: 1923: 1918: 1912: 1909: 1904: 1898: 1894: 1887: 1884: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1870: 1862: 1860: 1856: 1846: 1844:9789004344877 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1817: 1814: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1800: 1792: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1779: 1773: 1767: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1754: 1748: 1742: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1721: 1718: 1711: 1707: 1704: 1702: 1699: 1697: 1694: 1692: 1689: 1687: 1684: 1683: 1679: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1652: 1647: 1646: 1641: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1623: 1622:Slavic Tribes 1618: 1617: 1612: 1611: 1606: 1605: 1600: 1599: 1594: 1593: 1588: 1587: 1583: 1582: 1577: 1576: 1571: 1570: 1569: 1567: 1563: 1558: 1556: 1547: 1540: 1538: 1535: 1531: 1526: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1514:Julius Caesar 1511: 1510:Parthian Shot 1505: 1501: 1498: 1490: 1488: 1484: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1472:Nikephoros II 1468: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1441: 1439: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1390: 1384: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1348: 1346: 1342: 1341:light cavalry 1335:Light Cavalry 1334: 1332: 1328: 1326: 1322: 1314: 1311: 1308: 1305: 1302: 1299: 1296: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1285: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1275: 1274: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1251: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1206: 1203: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1188: 1186: 1182: 1176: 1174: 1170: 1169: 1168:Hippo-toxotai 1164: 1155: 1150: 1149:Greek phalanx 1146: 1143: 1140: 1137: 1134: 1131: 1127: 1126: 1125: 1123: 1118: 1116: 1112: 1106: 1104: 1103: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1070: 1068: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1030: 1028: 1022: 1018: 1015: 1013: 1010: 1008: 1007:Composite bow 1005: 1004: 1003: 1000: 998: 989: 987: 985: 981: 977: 969: 965: 962: 959: 955: 951: 948: 945: 942: 939: 938: 933: 930: 927: 924: 921: 917: 914: 911: 908: 905: 904: 899: 895: 892: 888: 885: 882: 879: 875: 872: 869: 865: 862: 858: 857: 856: 854: 850: 842: 838: 834: 833: 828: 825: 821: 820:Hosios Loukas 817: 812: 805: 800: 795: 793: 791: 787: 786:Ottoman Turks 783: 779: 774: 770: 765: 762: 758: 754: 749: 747: 743: 739: 735: 730: 726: 724: 720: 716: 711: 707: 703: 699: 698: 693: 689: 685: 680: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 641: 639: 635: 631: 627: 623: 619: 615: 605: 598: 596: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 558: 554: 553: 548: 544: 540: 539:Roman legions 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 504: 499: 497: 492: 490: 485: 484: 482: 481: 475: 471: 468: 466: 463: 461: 460:Siege warfare 458: 456: 453: 452: 451: 450: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 424: 419: 413: 410: 408: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 390: 387: 386: 385: 384: 377: 374: 372: 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 353: 352: 349: 347: 344: 340: 337: 336: 335: 332: 327: 324: 323: 322: 319: 315: 312: 310: 307: 305: 302: 301: 299: 297: 294: 293: 292: 291: 286: 282: 278: 277: 274: 270: 266: 265: 256: 253: 238: 235:February 2024 228: 223: 219: 212: 202: 192: 185: 180: 171: 170: 161: 151: 147: 142: 138: 135:This article 133: 129: 124: 123: 114: 111: 103: 93: 89: 83: 82: 76: 71: 62: 61: 56: 54: 47: 46: 41: 40: 35: 30: 21: 20: 4165: 3933:Hagia Sophia 3915:Thessalonica 3890:Hagia Sophia 3870:Chora Church 3808:Architecture 3685:Great Schism 3675:Paulicianism 3653:Miaphysitism 3508:Karabisianoi 3296: 2812:or territory 2772:Thessalonica 2756:Latin Empire 2751:Frankokratia 2726: 2686:Isaurian era 2673: 2604: 2589: 2585:Roman Empire 2575: 2500: 2475: 2450: 2440: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2410: 2406: 2386: 2373:, retrieved 2361: 2357: 2345: 2327: 2308: 2290: 2272: 2254: 2234: 2230:Haldon, John 2211: 2203: 2193:the original 2174: 2148: 2094: 2087: 2079: 2061: 2057: 2052: 2042:, retrieved 2020: 2008: 1998: 1988:, retrieved 1966: 1957: 1949: 1921: 1911: 1892: 1886: 1868: 1848:, retrieved 1826: 1816: 1798: 1791: 1783: 1777: 1771: 1766: 1758: 1752: 1746: 1741: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1720: 1655: 1649: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1620: 1602: 1596: 1579: 1573: 1561: 1559: 1552: 1527: 1509: 1506: 1502: 1494: 1485: 1479: 1475: 1469: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1445: 1435: 1428:Seljuk Turks 1385: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1349: 1345:kataphraktoi 1344: 1338: 1329: 1318: 1312: 1300: 1290: 1282: 1271: 1256:scale armour 1252: 1236:horse archer 1229: 1226:Kataphraktoi 1211: 1207: 1204: 1192:Clibanophori 1189: 1183:against the 1177: 1172: 1166: 1163:horse archer 1159: 1147:, classical 1144: 1138: 1119: 1113:employed at 1107: 1100: 1097:chiliarchiai 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1081:chiliarchiai 1080: 1074: 1064: 1034: 1026: 1020: 1016: 1011: 1001: 993: 983: 979: 973: 963: 958:arming sword 949: 943: 935: 931: 925: 919: 915: 909: 901: 886: 873: 852: 848: 846: 840: 836: 830: 826: 789: 766: 750: 745: 731: 727: 719:theme system 697:dar al-Islam 695: 681: 642: 610: 593:close combat 584: 580: 568: 564: 560: 550: 512: 454: 376:Protostrator 248: 232: 218:ISO 639 code 214:}} 208:{{ 204:}} 198:{{ 194:}} 188:{{ 183: 155: 146:You can help 136: 106: 100:January 2012 97: 78: 50: 43: 37: 36:Please help 33: 4416:Megali Idea 4391:Byzantinism 4094:Agriculture 3885:Hagia Irene 3718:Kievan Rus' 3695:Mount Athos 3518:Cibyrrhaeot 3462:Vestiaritai 3317:Mercenaries 3194:Catepanates 3053:Sakellarios 2972:Family tree 2897:Mesopotamia 2716:Angelid era 2696:Amorian era 2364:: 135–145, 2331:, Brepols, 1778:Strategicon 1776:"Maurice's 1753:Strategikos 1497:Hellenistic 1361:Expilatores 937:chiliarchia 910:epilōrikion 773:Palaiologan 669:Justinian I 589:legionaries 547:cataphracts 531:6th century 92:introducing 4411:Third Rome 4337:University 4320:Philosophy 4310:Inventions 4173:Historians 4141:Literature 4124:Varangians 3966:San Vitale 3895:Hippodrome 3875:City Walls 3775:Mutilation 3770:Hexabiblos 3690:Bogomilism 3680:Iconoclasm 3550:Megas doux 3540:Greek fire 3523:Aegean Sea 3396:Kleisourai 3373:Excubitors 3363:Bucellarii 3215:Despotates 3184:Kleisourai 3123:Provincial 2967:Coronation 2941:Governance 2706:Doukid era 2639:Leonid era 2430:DROUNGISTI 2257:, Tempus, 2139:References 2098:. Osprey. 2044:2021-05-29 1990:2021-05-29 1850:2022-03-13 1436:tasinarioi 1396:Sarmatians 1377:tasinarioi 1373:tasinarioi 1369:trapezites 1351:slingers ( 1232:cataphract 1145:Parentaxis 1089:chiliarchy 1031:Varangians 1021:tzikourion 964:paramērion 926:kremesmata 898:body armor 866:or padded 757:Asia Minor 661:Belisarius 638:Asia minor 614:theocratic 552:clibanarii 412:Megas doux 393:Greek fire 75:references 39:improve it 4239:Octoechos 4119:Silk Road 3611:Hesychasm 3479:Paramonai 3426:Hetaireia 3358:Foederati 3247:Diplomacy 3242:Diplomats 3148:Provinces 2977:Empresses 2780:Trebizond 2576:Preceding 2122:cite book 2114:277201890 1948:A. Dain, 1878:421178980 1808:185737639 1770:A. Dain, 1745:A. Dain, 1635:Croatians 1604:Pechenegs 1518:Pharsalus 1465:battalion 1432:Armenians 1404:Pechenegs 1400:Scythians 1313:Vamvakion 1291:Kontarion 1268:gauntlets 1248:legionary 1099:formed a 1093:kontarion 1041:Norsemens 997:Trebizond 980:peltastoi 932:kontarion 920:vamvakion 887:klivanion 837:kontarion 827:klivanion 806:Skoutatoi 769:Komnenian 746:strategoi 738:regiments 723:strategos 715:Anatolian 673:Heraclius 657:Foederati 653:Onosander 630:Katepanos 622:Strategos 569:kontarios 565:kontarioi 426:Lists of 314:Hetaireia 150:talk page 45:talk page 4469:Category 4332:Scholars 4325:Rhetoric 4315:Medicine 4290:Learning 4189:Calendar 4066:Painters 3765:Basilika 3703:Bulgaria 3665:Arianism 3616:Hayhurum 3593:Religion 3555:Admirals 3474:Allagion 3406:Droungos 3312:Generals 3274:Military 3237:Treaties 3143:Dioceses 2962:Emperors 2875:Sardinia 2855:Dalmatia 2835:Bulgaria 2825:Anatolia 2784:Theodoro 2778: / 2774: / 2766: / 2473:(1997). 2441:Historia 2426:DROUNGOS 2232:(1999). 1919:(1980). 1734:Electrum 1680:See also 1651:Saracens 1631:Slovenes 1627:Serbians 1578:and the 1575:Lombards 1453:arithmos 1321:carbines 1301:Spathion 1260:lamellar 1200:Lombards 1187:in 967. 1122:Quincunx 1111:Hannibal 1061:Basil II 1017:spathion 1012:kavadion 976:javelins 950:spathion 916:kavadion 903:pteruges 891:lamellar 874:lōrikion 864:aventail 841:spathion 832:pteruges 824:lamellar 796:Infantry 742:brigades 684:Saracens 628:, Doux, 618:viceroys 561:skutatoi 557:Infantry 403:Admirals 351:Generals 158:May 2022 4441:Outline 4386:Museums 4286:Science 4263:Slavery 4219:Gardens 4199:Cuisine 4131:Dynatoi 4099:Coinage 4086:Economy 4054:Mosaics 4017:Mystras 3958:Ravenna 3820:Secular 3708:Moravia 3457:Pronoia 3431:Akritai 3416:Tagmata 3391:Themata 3332:Revolts 3302:Battles 3210:Kephale 3179:Themata 3109:Mesazon 2951:Central 2887:Maghreb 2840:Corsica 2830:Armenia 2820:Albania 2563:History 2434:Phoenix 2422:Drungus 1730:Tactica 1598:Magyars 1562:Tactica 1532:or the 1530:Vandals 1516:did at 1449:numerus 1424:Magyars 1416:Bulgars 1408:Khazars 1278:barding 1273:thyreos 1264:greaves 1216:Cavalry 1185:Bulgars 1139:Foulkon 1130:phalanx 1057:English 944:skouton 894:cuirass 881:hauberk 853:skouton 734:Tagmata 626:Exarchs 579:of the 577:archers 543:cavalry 455:Tactics 436:battles 339:allagia 326:pronoia 309:tagmata 227:See why 88:improve 4451:Portal 4366:Impact 4246:People 4194:Cities 4044:Enamel 3825:Sacred 3760:Ecloga 3626:Saints 3535:Dromon 3411:Bandon 3401:Tourma 3384:Middle 3307:Beacon 3189:Bandon 3172:Middle 3041:Middle 2996:Senate 2919:Thrace 2902:Serbia 2880:Sicily 2865:Greece 2850:Cyprus 2768:Epirus 2764:Nicaea 2674:Middle 2551:topics 2508: 2487: 2459: 2407:Fulcum 2395: 2375:28 May 2335: 2315: 2297: 2279: 2261: 2242: 2219: 2185: 2161: 2112: 2102: 2035: 1981: 1929: 1899: 1876: 1841: 1806: 1664:speed. 1581:Franks 1522:Pompey 1461:cohort 1430:. The 1412:Cumans 1389:steppe 1381:Hussar 1240:lancer 1196:Franks 1115:Cannae 1085:chilia 1049:Slavic 1045:Nordic 984:psiloi 954:spatha 839:and a 816:Joshua 710:Levant 675:, the 665:Narses 649:Arrian 581:psiloi 434:, and 398:Dromon 304:themes 148:. The 77:, but 4436:Index 4268:Death 4258:Women 4229:Music 4209:Dress 4204:Dance 4149:Novel 4109:Trade 4104:Mints 4049:Glass 4039:Icons 3835:Domes 3713:Serbs 3528:Samos 3341:Early 3131:Early 3005:Early 2914:Syria 2892:Malta 2870:Italy 2860:Egypt 2845:Crete 2776:Morea 2605:Early 2196:(PDF) 2179:(PDF) 1712:Notes 1534:Avars 1457:banda 1420:Avars 1392:nomad 1325:Avars 1295:pilum 1102:tagma 968:sabre 878:scale 829:with 790:Latin 688:Islam 634:Theme 535:Greek 527:Latin 4234:Lyra 4114:silk 3725:Jews 3500:Navy 3445:Late 3285:Army 3252:Wars 3203:Late 3097:Late 2727:Late 2506:ISBN 2485:ISBN 2457:ISBN 2393:ISBN 2377:2011 2333:ISBN 2313:ISBN 2295:ISBN 2277:ISBN 2259:ISBN 2240:ISBN 2217:ISBN 2183:ISBN 2159:ISBN 2128:link 2110:OCLC 2100:ISBN 2033:ISBN 1979:ISBN 1927:ISBN 1897:ISBN 1874:OCLC 1839:ISBN 1804:OCLC 1648:The 1633:and 1619:The 1601:and 1595:The 1572:The 1238:and 1230:The 1051:and 1035:The 982:and 868:coif 861:mail 771:and 740:and 663:and 651:and 575:and 513:The 428:wars 191:lang 4031:Art 3735:Law 2366:doi 2025:doi 1971:doi 1831:doi 1732:", 1564:by 1455:or 1426:or 1410:or 1254:or 1175:). 1019:or 211:IPA 4471:: 2483:. 2428:, 2424:, 2362:46 2360:, 2356:, 2157:. 2124:}} 2120:{{ 2108:. 2069:^ 2031:, 2019:, 1977:, 1965:, 1941:^ 1858:^ 1837:, 1825:, 1802:. 1629:, 1474:, 1438:. 1422:, 1418:, 1406:, 1402:, 1398:, 1383:. 1198:, 1117:. 1047:, 1043:, 986:. 725:. 624:, 533:) 430:, 391:: 196:, 48:. 2786:) 2782:– 2770:– 2657:" 2653:" 2541:e 2534:t 2527:v 2493:. 2465:. 2417:. 2401:. 2368:: 2248:. 2167:. 2130:) 2116:. 2027:: 1973:: 1935:. 1905:. 1880:. 1833:: 1810:. 1297:. 1171:( 883:. 870:. 843:. 502:e 495:t 488:v 476:) 472:( 442:) 438:( 414:) 405:( 328:) 255:) 249:( 237:) 233:( 229:. 160:) 156:( 143:. 113:) 107:( 102:) 98:( 84:. 55:) 51:(

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