Backgammon - Knowledge (XXG)

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showing on a particular die, the player must use that die to bear off one checker from the highest occupied point. For example, if a player rolls a 6 and a 5, but has no checkers on the 6-point and two on the 5-point, then the 6 and the 5 must be used to bear off the two checkers from the 5-point. When bearing off, a player may also move a lower die roll before the higher even if that means the full value of the higher die is not fully utilized. For example, if a player has exactly one checker remaining on the 6-point, and rolls a 6 and a 1, the player may move the 6-point checker one place to the 5-point with the lower die roll of 1, and then bear that checker off the 5-point using the die roll of 6; this is sometimes useful tactically. As before, if there is a way to use all moves showing on the dice by moving checkers within the home board or by bearing them off, the player must do so. If a player's checker is hit while in the process of bearing off, that player may not bear off any others until it has been re-entered into the game and moved into the player's home board, according to the normal movement rules.

944:(opponent's 6). Checkers may not enter on a point occupied by two or more opposing checkers. Checkers can enter on unoccupied points, or on points occupied by a single opposing checker; in the latter case, the single checker is hit and placed on the bar. A player may not move any other checkers until all checkers belonging to that player on the bar have re-entered the board. If a player has checkers on the bar, but rolls a combination that does not allow any of those checkers to re-enter, the player does not move. If the opponent's home board is completely "closed" (i.e. all six points are each occupied by two or more checkers), there is no roll that will allow a player to enter a checker from the bar, and that player stops rolling and playing until at least one point becomes open (occupied by one or zero checkers) due to the opponent's moves. 932:

may be moved twice, as long as the two moves can be made separately and legally: six and then three, or three and then six. If a player rolls two of the same number, called doubles, that player must play each die twice. For example, a roll of 5-5 allows the player to make four moves of five spaces each. On any roll, a player must move according to the numbers on both dice if it is at all possible to do so. If one or both numbers do not allow a legal move, the player forfeits that portion of the roll and the turn ends. If moves can be made according to either one die or the other, but not both, the higher number must be used. If one die is unable to be moved, but such a move is made possible by the moving of the other die, that move is compulsory.

1031:, is designed to make match play more equitable for the player in the lead. If a player is one point away from winning a match, that player's opponent will always want to double as early as possible in order to catch up. Whether the game is worth one point or two, the trailing player must win to continue the match. To balance the situation, the Crawford rule requires that when a player first reaches a score one point short of winning, neither player may use the doubling cube for the following game, called the "Crawford game". After the Crawford game, normal use of the doubling cube resumes. The Crawford rule is routinely used in tournament match play. It is possible for a Crawford game to never occur in a match. 1459: 1244:

points. The format has a significant effect on strategy. In a match, the objective is not to win the maximum possible number of points, but rather to simply reach the score needed to win the match. For example, a player leading a 9-point match by a score of 7–5 would be very reluctant to turn the doubling cube, as their opponent could take and make a costless redouble to 4, placing the entire outcome of the match on the current game. Conversely, the trailing player would double very aggressively, particularly if they have chances to win a gammon in the current game. In money play, the theoretically correct checker play and cube action would never vary based on the score.

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better than a human novice. For the bearoff phase, backgammon software usually relies on a database containing precomputed equities for all possible bearoff positions. There are 54,263 bearoff positions for each side. This means there are 54263 total bearoff positions (~3 billion positions). In 1981 Hugh Sconyers wrote a computer program that solved all positions with nine checkers or fewer for both sides. In the early 1990s Hugh extended his results to all bearoff positions. For each position there are four results: no cube, roller's cube, center cube and opponent's cube. So, Hugh's bearoff database contains the exact answers to ~12 billion bearoff situations.

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of automatic doubles allowed and that limit is agreed to prior to a game or match commencing. When a player decides to double the opponent, the value is then a double of whatever face value is shown (e.g. if two automatic doubles have occurred putting the cube up to 4, the first in-game double will be for 8 points). The Murphy rule is not an official rule in backgammon and is rarely, if ever, seen in use at officially sanctioned tournaments.

2360: 1232:"Duplication" refers to the placement of checkers such that one's opponent needs the same dice rolls to achieve different goals. For example, players may position all of their blots in such a way that the opponent must roll a 2 in order to hit any of them, reducing the probability of being hit more than once. "Diversification" refers to a complementary tactic of placing one's own checkers in such a way that more numbers are useful. 1013:"raccoon" is the following: White doubles Black to 2 points, Black accepts then beavers the cube to 4 points; White, confident of a win, raccoons the cube to 8 points, while Black retains the cube. Such a move adds greatly to the risk of having to face the doubling cube coming back at 8 times its original value when first doubling the opponent (offered at 2 points, counter offered at 16 points) should the luck of the dice change. 698:. Some terminology, such as "point", "hitting a blot", "home", "doublet", "bear off" and "men" are recognisably the same as in the modern game; others, such as "binding a man" (adding a second man to a point) "binding up the tables" (taking all one's first 6 points), "fore game", "latter game", "nipping a man" (hitting a blot and playing it on forwards) "playing at length" (using both dice to move one man) are no longer in vogue. 4993: 1053: 1221:

board, and is most successful when a player is already ahead in the race. When this fails, one may opt for a "holding game", maintaining control of a point on one's opponent's side of the board, called an anchor. As the game progresses, this player may gain an advantage by hitting an opponent's blot from the anchor, or by rolling large doubles that allow the checkers to escape into a running game.

940:". In this case, the blot has been "hit" and is placed in the middle of the board on the bar that divides the two sides of the playing surface. A checker may never land on a point occupied by two or more opposing checkers; thus, no point is ever occupied by checkers from both players simultaneously. There is no limit to the number of checkers that can occupy a point or the bar at any given time. 2239: 839: 4959: 1252:, and there are no gammons or backgammons. They showed that the optimal time to offer a double was when the probability of winning reached 80%, and it is wise to accept a double only if the probability of winning is at least 20%. As their assumptions do not correspond perfectly to the real game, actual doubling strategy may vary, but the 80% number still provides a possible rule of thumb. 989: 665: 5145: 1024:, allows gammons and backgammons to count for their respective double and triple values only if the cube has already been offered and accepted. This encourages a player with a large lead to double, possibly ending the game, rather than to play it to conclusion hoping for a gammon or backgammon. The Jacoby rule is widely used in money play but is not used in match play. 847: 34: 5018: 997:

doubling cube is placed on the midpoint of the bar with the number 64 showing; the cube is then said to be "centered, on 1". When the cube is still centered, either player may start their turn by proposing that the game be played for twice the current stakes. Their opponent must either accept ("take") the doubled stakes or resign ("drop") the game immediately.

1282: 2208: 2182: 2156: 2130: 2104: 2083: 2078: 2213: 2187: 2161: 2135: 2109: 2057: 2052: 2031: 2026: 2005: 2000: 1979: 1974: 1953: 1948: 1927: 1922: 1901: 1896: 1875: 1870: 1849: 1844: 1823: 1818: 1797: 1792: 1771: 1766: 1745: 1740: 1719: 1714: 1693: 1688: 902:, and are numbered from 1 to 24. In the most commonly used setup, each player begins with fifteen pieces; two are placed on their 24-point, three on their 8-point, and five each on their 13-point and their 6-point. The two players move their pieces in opposing directions, from the 24-point towards the 1-point. 2316:

of positions is conducted (typically thousands of trials) where different random dice sequences are simulated. The rollout score of the human (or the computer) is the difference of the average game results by following the selected move versus following the best move, then averaged for the entire set

1340:. Large club tournaments sometimes draw competitors from other regions, with final matches viewed by hundreds of spectators. The top players at regional tournaments often compete in major national and international championships. Winners at major tournaments may receive prizes of tens of thousands of 1008:

There is no limit on the number of redoubles. Although 64 is the highest number depicted on the doubling cube, the stakes may rise to 128, 256, and so on. In money games, a player is often permitted to "beaver" when offered the cube, doubling the value of the game again, while retaining possession of

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was a key witness for the defence, contradicting Roger Nelson, the expert prosecution witness, by saying, "Game theory, however, really applies to games with imperfect knowledge, where something is concealed, such as poker. Backgammon is not such a game. Everything is in front of you. The person who

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After rolling the dice, players must, if possible, move their pieces according to the number shown on each die. For example, if the player rolls a 6 and a 3 (denoted as "6-3"), the player must move one checker six points forward, and another or the same checker three points forward. The same checker

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Backgammon involves a combination of strategy and luck from rolling dice. While the dice may determine the outcome of a single game, the better player will accumulate the better record over a series of many games. With each roll of the dice, players must choose from numerous options for moving their

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Many positions require a measurement of a player's standing in the race, for example, in making a doubling cube decision, or in determining whether to run home and begin bearing off. The minimum total of pips needed to move a player's checkers around and off the board is called the "pip count". The

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may lead to a "blitz", which is a strategy of covering the entire home board as quickly as possible while keeping one's opponent on the bar. Because the opponent has difficulty re-entering from the bar or escaping, a player can quickly gain a running advantage and win the game, often with a gammon.

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is a variant described in 1895 as: "...much in vogue in Russia, Germany, and other parts of the Continent...". Players start with no counters on the board, and both players move in the same direction to bear off in a common home board. In this variant, doubles are powerful: four moves are played as

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is a game in which players have only three counters on the board, starting with one each on the 24, 23 and 22 points. With the aid of a computer this game was solved by Hugh Sconyers around 1994, meaning that exact equities for all cube positions are available for all 32 million possible positions.

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There are also many relatives of backgammon within the tables family with different aims, modes of play and strategies. Some are played primarily throughout one geographic region, and others add new tactical elements to the game. These other tables games commonly have a different starting position,

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Some players may opt to invoke the "Murphy rule" or the "automatic double rule". If both opponents roll the same opening number, the doubling cube is incremented on each occasion yet remains in the middle of the board, available to either player. The Murphy rule may be invoked with a maximum number

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A variant of the doubling cube "beaver" is the "raccoon". Players who doubled their opponent, seeing the opponent beaver the cube, may in turn then double the stakes once again ("raccoon") as part of that cube phase before any dice are rolled. The opponent retains the doubling cube. An example of a

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The "priming game" involves building a wall of checkers, called a prime, covering a number of consecutive points. This obstructs opposing checkers that are behind the prime. A checker trapped behind a six-point prime cannot escape until the prime is broken. A particularly successful priming effort

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A blot has the highest probability of being hit when it is 6 points away from an opponent's checker. Strategies can derive from that. The most direct one is simply to avoid being hit, trapped, or held in a stand-off. A "running game" describes a strategy of moving as quickly as possible around the

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The early form of backgammon was very similar to its predecessor, Irish. The aim, board, number of pieces or "men", direction of play and starting layout were the same as in the modern game. However, there was no doubling die, there was no bar on the board or the bar was not used (men simply being

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from 2600 BC may also be an ancestor or intermediate of modern-day table games like backgammon and is the oldest game for which rules have been handed down. It used tetrahedral dice. Various other board games spanning the 10th to 7th centuries BC have been found throughout modern day Iraq, Syria,

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ran the world's largest international events in London, the UK Masters, the biggest tournament ever held in the UK with 128 international class players; the Nordic Open, which instantly became the largest in the world with around 500 players in all flights and 153 in the championship, and Cannes,

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A "backgame" is a strategy that involves holding two or more anchors in an opponent's home board while being substantially behind in the race. The anchors obstruct the opponent's checkers and create opportunities to hit them as they move home. The backgame is generally used only to salvage a game

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of positions expands rapidly because of the number of possible dice rolls and the moves available on each turn. Recent computer analysis has offered more insight on opening plays, but the midgame is reached quickly. After the opening, backgammon players frequently rely on some established general

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facing upward, to indicate that the right to redouble, which is to offer to continue doubling the stakes, belongs exclusively to that player. If the opponent drops the doubled stakes, they lose the game at the current value of the doubling cube. For instance, if the cube showed the number 2 and a

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Checkers placed on the bar must re-enter the game through the opponent's home board before any other move can be made. A roll of 1 allows the checker to enter on the 24-point (opponent's 1), a roll of 2 on the 23-point (opponent's 2), and so forth, up to a roll of 6 allowing entry on the 19-point

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who became known as "The Father of Modern Backgammon". "Obe", as he was called by friends, co-founded the International Backgammon Association, which published a set of official rules. He also established the World Backgammon Club of Manhattan, devised a backgammon tournament system in 1963, then

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was in 1650. In 1666, it is reported that the "old name for backgammon used by Shakespeare and others" was Tables. However, it is clear from Willughby that "tables" was a generic name and that the phrase "playing at tables" was used in a similar way to "playing at cards". The first known rules of

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with mostly European players. In 1979, Lewis Deyong, who had promoted the Bahamas World Championship for the prior three years, suggested that the two events be combined. Monte Carlo was universally acknowledged as the site of the World Backgammon Championship and has remained as such for thirty

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Backgammon is played in two principal variations, "money" and "match" play. Money play means that every point counts evenly and every game stands alone, whether money is actually being wagered or not. "Match" play means that the players play until one side scores (or exceeds) a certain number of

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To start the game, each player rolls one die, and the player with the higher number moves first using the numbers shown on both dice. If the players roll the same number, they must roll again, leaving the first pair of dice on the board. The player with the higher number on the second roll moves

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GNU Backgammon. These programs not only play the game, but offer tools for analyzing games and detailed comparisons of individual moves. The strength of these programs lies in their neural networks' weights tables, which are the result of months of training. Without them, these programs play no

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for social play of backgammon. Local clubs may hold informal gatherings, with members meeting at cafés and bars in the evening to play and converse. A few clubs offer additional services, maintaining their own facilities or offering computer analysis of troublesome plays. Around 2003, some club

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being used, which is the main way of cheating in face-to-face play. A common method of cheating online is the use of a computer program to find the optimal move on each turn; to combat this, many online sites use move-comparison software that identifies when a player's moves resemble those of a

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is a relative of backgammon in which players start with no counters on the board, and must enter them onto the board at the beginning of the game. The roll of 1-2 is given special consideration, allowing the player, after moving the 1 and the 2, to select any desired doubles move. A player also

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Most recently, the United States Backgammon Federation (USBGF) was organized in 2009 to repopularize the game in the United States. Board and committee members include many of the top players, tournament directors and writers in the worldwide backgammon community. The USBGF has recently created

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moved off the table when hit) and the scoring was different. The game was won double if either the winning throw was a doublet or the opponent still had men outside the home board. It was won triple if a player bore all men off before any of the opponent's men reached the home board; this was a

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When all of a player's checkers are in that player's home board, that player may start removing them; this is called "bearing off". A roll of 1 may be used to bear off a checker from the 1-point, a 2 from the 2-point, and so on. If all of a player's checkers are on points lower than the number

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To speed up match play and to provide an added dimension for strategy, a doubling cube is usually used. The doubling cube is not a die to be rolled, but rather a marker, with the numbers 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64 inscribed on its sides to denote the current stake. At the start of each game, the

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which hosted the Riviera Cup, the traditional follow-up tournament to the World Championships. Cannes also hosted the WSOB championship, the WSOB finale, which saw 16 players play three-point shootout matches for €160,000. The event was recorded for television in Europe and aired on

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uses that information in the most effective manner will win." After the closing arguments, Judge Stephen S. Walker concluded that backgammon is a game of skill, not a game of chance, and found the defendant, backgammon tournament director Ted Barr, not guilty of promoting gambling.

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was played on a backgammon board, with the important difference that both players moved their pieces counter-clockwise and starting from the same side of the board. The game rules for Barail are recorded in a 13th-century manuscript held in the Italian National Library in Florence.

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Backgammon is a recent member of the large family of tables games that date back to ancient times. Its equipment is similar or identical to earlier tables games that have been depicted for centuries in art, leading to the mistaken belief that backgammon itself is much older.

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By no later than 1850, the rules of play had changed to those used today. Tables boards were now made with a 'bar' in the centre and men that were hit went onto the bar. Winning double or by "two hits" was achieved by bearing all one's men off before the other has borne

427:(AD 476–491). The overall aim was to be first to bear one's pieces off; the board had the typical tables layout, with 24 points, 12 on each side; and there were 15 counters per player. However, unlike modern Western backgammon, there were three cubical dice not two, no 959:

The first player to bear off all fifteen of their own checkers wins the game. When keeping score in backgammon, the points awarded depend on the scale of the victory. A player who bears off all fifteen pieces when the opponent has borne off at least one, wins a

435:, and all counters started off the board. Modern backgammon follows the same rules as tabula for hitting a blot and for bearing off; and the rules for re-entering pieces in backgammon are the same as those for initially entering pieces in tabula. The name Tavli ( 1437:, the most common arrangement is to assign a monetary value to each point, and to play to a certain score, or until either player chooses to stop. The stakes are raised by gammons, backgammons, and use of the doubling cube. Backgammon is sometimes available in 905:

Points 1 through 6 are called the home board or inner board, and points 7 through 12 are called the outer board. The 7-point is referred to as the bar point, and the 13-point as the midpoint. Usually the 5-point for each player is called the "golden point".

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The most recent major development in backgammon was the addition of the doubling cube. Doubles had originally been recorded by placing "common parlour matches" on the bar in the centre of the board. A doubling cube was first introduced in the 1920s in

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A disk and dice game that has been played in Middle Eastern streets for thousands of years, in English homes for hundreds of years, and on Bronx stoops for dozens of years has suddenly gripped the bankers and brokers of old-line men's clubs all over

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permits three or more players to participate in a single game, often for money. One player competes against a team of all the other participants, and positions rotate after each game. Chouette play often permits the use of multiple doubling cubes.

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on specific positions were very common among backgammon players and gamblers. As with most gambling games, successful play requires a combination of luck and skill, as a single dice roll can sometimes significantly change the outcome of the game.

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was declared the winner that year and at the tournament the following year. For unknown reasons, there was no championship in 1970, but in 1971, Tim Holland again won the title. The competition remained in Las Vegas until 1975, when it moved to

1528:, Syria's director of antiquities, stated in 1988: "For some reason, backgammon became the rage of the Ottoman Empire. It really spread across the Arab world with the Turks, and it stayed behind when they left." The game is a common feature of 877:

all their disc pieces from the board before their opponent can do the same. As the playing time for each individual game is short, it is often played in matches where victory is awarded to the first player to reach a certain number of points.

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and at country clubs; stockbrokers and bankers began playing at conservative men's clubs. People young and old all across the country dusted off their boards and pieces. Cigarette, liquor and car companies began to sponsor tournaments, and

612:. Irish had been popular at the Scottish court of James IV and considered to be "the more serious and solid game" when the variant which became known as Backgammon began to emerge in the first half of the 17th century. In medieval Italy, 2340:

Another neural network software developed by Nikolaos Papachristou is Palamedes that was developed in the early 2000s and it can also play variations like Hypergammon, Portes, Plakoto, Fevga, Narde and has multiple engines for each one.

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as an experiment in evaluating board game positions. Early versions of BKG played badly even against poor players, but Berliner noticed that its critical mistakes were always at transitional phases in the game. He applied principles of

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using only the numbers shown on the dice used for the second roll. Both dice must land completely flat on the right-hand side of the gameboard. The players then take alternate turns, rolling two dice at the beginning of each turn.

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used a board with three rows of 12 points each, with the 15 pieces being moved in opposing directions by the two players across three rows according to the roll of the three cubical dice. Little specific text about the gameplay of

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In 1975, Emmet Keeler and Joel Spencer considered the question of when to double or accept a double using an idealized version of backgammon. In their idealized version, the probability of winning varies randomly over time by

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Minor variations to the standard game are common among casual players in certain regions. For instance, only allowing a maximum of five men on any point (Britain) or disallowing "hit-and-run" in the home board (Middle East).

1303:, a 1982 court case pivotal to the continued widespread organised playing of backgammon in the US, the State argued that backgammon is a game of chance and that it was therefore subject to Oregon's stringent gambling laws. 2278:. It won the match 7–1, becoming the first computer program to defeat a world champion in any board game. Berliner stated that the victory was largely a matter of luck, as the computer received more favorable dice rolls. 1415:

The World Backgammon Association (WBA) has been holding the biggest backgammon tour on the circuit since 2007, the "European Backgammon Tour" (EBGT). In 2011, the WBA collaborated with the online backgammon provider

4411:. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, Volume 139 (or Volume 7 of Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft: Supplement) (in German). F. Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden. pp. 259–273. 1420:

for the 2011 season of the European Backgammon Tour and with "Betfair" in 2012. The 2013 season of the European Backgammon Tour featured 11 stops and 19 qualified players competing for €19,000 in a grand finale in

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P. : شش shesh, a. Six. شش اناز A player with six objects. 2. A player at backgammon. شش بش Six and five, in backgammon. شش و يك Six and one. شش بش كورمك (To take the six for a five) To see double. دو شش Sixes, in

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In the course of a move, a checker may land on any point that is unoccupied or is occupied by one or more of the player's own checkers. It may also land on a point occupied by exactly one opposing checker, or

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in backgammon, followed by four moves according to the difference of the dice value from 7, and then the player has another turn (with the caveat that the turn ends if any portion of it cannot be completed).

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Backgammon playing pieces may be termed men, checkers, draughts, stones, counters, pawns, discs, pips, chips, or nips. Checkers is a relatively modern American English term derived from another board game,

2305:, TD-Gammon's play was at or above the level of the top human players in the world. Woolsey said of the program that "There is no question in my mind that its positional judgment is far better than mine." 1073:

restrict certain moves, or assign special value to certain dice rolls, but in some geographic games even the rules and direction of movement of the counters change, rendering them fundamentally different.

1038:, which stipulates that after the Crawford game, a player cannot double until after at least two rolls have been played by each side. It was common in tournament play in the 1980s, but is now rarely used. 4139:

Backgammon: Throughout the Eastern Mediterranean region, it is unquestionably the single most popular game ; tric trac or towleh (table), as it is called, is practically the national sport of Lebanon

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which may be an ancestor of backgammon. It has a different opening layout in which all 15 pieces start on the 24th point. During play pieces may not be hit and there are no gammons or backgammons.

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organized the first major international backgammon tournament in March 1964, which attracted royalty, celebrities and the press. The game became a huge fad and was played on college campuses, in

4908:(Critical edition of Willughby's volume containing descriptions of games and pastimes, c.1660-1672. Manuscript in the Middleton collection, University of Nottingham; document reference Mi LM 14) 919: 916: 4918:

containing descriptions of games and pastimes ("Francis Willughby's Book of Games"), c.1660-1672. Manuscript in the Middleton collection, University of Nottingham; document reference

731:. The cube required players not only to select the best move in a given position, but also to estimate the probability of winning from that position, transforming backgammon into the 1403:

and later the "Backgammon Million" tournament held in the Bahamas in January 2007 with a prize pool of one million dollars, the largest for any tournament to date. In 2008, the

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laws and church regulations had prohibited "playing at tables" in England, but by the 18th century, Backgammon had superseded Irish and become popular among the English clergy.

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and other approaches have offered significant advances to software for gameplay and analysis. With 15 white and 15 black counters and 24 possible positions, backgammon has 18

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are tables games popular in south-eastern Europe and Turkey. The play will iterate among Backgammon, Gul Bara, and Tapa until one of the players reaches a score of 7 or 5.

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By the 21st century, the largest international tournaments had established the basis of a tour for top professional players. Major tournaments are held yearly worldwide.

918: 541:, completed in 1283, describes rules for a number of dice and table games in addition to its discussion of chess. By the 17th century, games at tables had spread to 947:

A turn ends only when the player has removed his or her dice from the board. Prior to this moment, a move can be undone and replayed an unlimited number of times.

275:; the latter was described as a better game. By the 19th century, however, backgammon had spread to Europe, where it rapidly superseded other tables games like 3999: 3983:(September 6, 1981). "Where the Rich And the Royal Play Their Games—Monte Carlo's Seven-Day Backgammon Soiree With Countesses, Princes and Other Sharpies". 980:

is worth 3 points and occurs when the losing player has borne off no pieces and has one or more on the bar and/or in the winner's home table (inner board).

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In the second half of the 20th century, new terms were introduced in America, such as 'beaver' and 'checkers' for men (although American backgammon experts

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The dimensions of a board when opened, for a tournament game, should be at a minimum of 44 cm by 55 cm to a maximum of 66 cm by 88 cm.

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The earliest specific reference to backgammon was in a letter dated 1635, when it was emerging as a variant of the popular medieval Anglo-Scottish game of

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among the belongings of the ship's officers. Tables games appear widely in paintings of this period, mainly those of Dutch and German painters, such as

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Video of a game of backgammon, showing movement around the board, entering from the bar, formation of primes, use of the doubling cube and bearing off

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pieces and anticipate possible counter-moves by the opponent. The optional use of a doubling cube allows players to raise the stakes during the game.

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While other games--chess, bridge, even poker--have made inroads from time to time, backgammon has been for centuries the pastime of the Middle East

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Tavla, otherwise known as backgammon, can easily be considered Turkey's national game and, in the way it is played a metaphor for life in Turkey.

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Paths of movement for red and black, with checkers in the starting position; viewed from the black side, with home or inner board at lower right

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player wanted to redouble the stakes to put it at 4, the opponent choosing to drop the redouble would lose two, or twice the original stake.

255:, i.e., remove them from the board. The achievement of this while the opponent is still a long way behind results in a triple win known as a 4997: 523:

issued a decree prohibiting his court officials and subjects from playing. They were played in Germany in the 12th century, and had reached

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Even in Israel took a long time to make an impact, though today it ranks only just behind Shesh-Besh (backgammon) as the national pastime

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The popularity of the game across the region is primarily an oral tradition, and appears to have been strengthened during the era of the

620: 279:

in popularity, and also to America, where the doubling cube was introduced. In other parts of the world, different tables games such as

2974: 4949: 4337: 1353: 5415: 4901: 4871: 3288: 2652: 2569: 2536: 4919: 1547: 1236:

difference between the two players' pip counts is frequently used as a measure of the leader's racing advantage. Players often use

4948: 5410: 5365: 5360: 827: 3151: 3505: 3544: 1571:

dictionary in the 19th century described a similar phenomenon alongside many other Ottoman words of Persian or Turkish origin.

3689: 3440:

To start the game, each player throws a single die. This determines both the player to go first and the numbers to be played.

2274:

to improve its play between phases, and by July 1979, BKG 9.8 was strong enough to play against the reigning world champion

814:

Backgammon software has been developed not only to play and analyze games, but also for people to play one another over the

4192: 5381: 3802: 3640: 1607:

is commonly used to refer to when a player scores a 5 and 6 at the same time on dice. This language contains six types of

823: 4861: 5420: 3152:"World Backgammon Championships History | Backgammon Masters | Backgammon Articles' Categories | Play65™" 2844:

Wollesen, Jens T. (1990). "Sub specie ludi...: Text and Images in Alfonso El Sabio's Libro de Acedrex, Dados e Tablas".

2294: 609: 4983: 3941:

Laverty, Roy (May 16, 2003). "Backgammon warriors—columnist, club member square off as board game's popularity grows".

640:, was by James Howell in a letter dated 1635. In English, the word "backgammon" is most likely derived from "back" and 5405: 4604: 1587:

rolls, rather than Arabic or other local languages. Related to this phenomenon, the game is frequently referred to as

1379:. The years 1976, 1977 and 1978 saw "dual" World Championships, one in the Bahamas attended by the Americans, and the 855: 801: 800:

as well as club championships, online leagues and knockout tournaments. Like the USBGF they are active members of the

20: 3878: 1388:

years. The Monte Carlo tournament draws hundreds of players and spectators, and is played over the course of a week.

3229: 5064: 4849: 3081: 1404: 1396: 1229:

wherein a player is already significantly behind. Using a backgame as an initial strategy is usually unsuccessful.

519:

Tables games first appeared in France during the 11th century and became a favourite pastime of gamblers. In 1254,

4003: 398: 5104: 2529:

Ancient Board Games in Perspective: Papers from the 1990 British Museum Colloquium, with Additional Contributions

2282: 2251: 1442: 1209: 1195: 649: 456: 404: 1135: 1367: 1035: 1000:

Whenever a player accepts doubled stakes, the cube is placed on their side of the board with the corresponding

964:

worth 1 point. If all fifteen have been borne off before the opponent gets at least one checker off, this is a

564: 460:('Game of twelve lines') with the board's middle row of points removed, and only the two outer rows remaining. 1630:

5) special cases (3–2, 2-2, 1-1); where 3-2 is a version of 2a with a "ba" added for phonetic reasons, 2-2 is

1200: 3063: 819: 739: 641: 568: 4979: 366:

The Persian tables game of nard or nardšir emerged somewhere between the 3rd and 6th century AD, one text (

5339: 5334: 5329: 5324: 4790: 4749: 4405:

Gippert, Jost (1989). "Ein persisch-türkisches Zählsystem beim Würfelspiel ". In Einar von Schuler (ed.).

2499: 2255: 604: 92: 5022: 4408:

XXIII. Deutscher Orientalistentag: vom 16. bis 20. September 1985 in Würzburg : ausgewählte Vorträge

4256: 3131:"World Backgammon Championships History - Backgammon Masters - Backgammon Articles' Categories - Play65™" 5355: 5057: 4770: 2907: 1482: 756:. Backgammon clubs were formed and tournaments were held, resulting in a World Championship promoted in 2665: 778:

In its country of origin, the UK Backgammon Federation is the national authority and runs a backgammon

2293:, was the first of these programs to play near the expert level. Its neural network was trained using 1321:

leaders noticed a growth of interest in backgammon, and attributed it to the game's popularity on the

686:

in 1753; this described rules and strategy for the game and was bound together with a similar text on

333:

The history of board games can be traced back nearly 5,000 years to archaeological discoveries of the

4744: 4424: 2321: 2309: 1608: 383: 323: 3611: 3130: 5400: 5370: 4964: 3403: 2640: 2373: 1329: 1317: 1143:

board. The sound of the dice hitting the wooden board is a typical characteristic of Tavli and the

1061: 895: 537: 310: 242: 230: 5184: 4099: 3864: 3453: 2470: 715:. If the winner bore off all men while the loser still had men in his adversary's table, it was a 5114: 5094: 4911: 4816: 4673: 4586: 4540: 3943: 3104: 2861: 2826: 2738: 2703: 2623: 2615: 2313: 1506: 1237: 937: 552: 520: 346: 345:-shaped board, counters and dice. Although its precise rules are unknown, it has been termed the 503: 491:('The Art of Love'), written between 1 BC and 8 AD. In Roman times, this game was also known as 4365: 4061: 2878:

Murray, H.J.R. 1951. A History of Board-Games Other Than Chess. Oxford: Clarendon Press, p. 122

2755:

Finkel, Irving L. "Ancient board games in perspective." British Museum Colloquium. 2007. p. 224

341:, the world's oldest game set having been discovered in the region with equipment comprising a 233:

known traditionally as men (short for 'tablemen'), but increasingly known as 'checkers' in the

4897: 4887: 4867: 4775: 4473: 4446: 4412: 4310: 4220: 4158: 4122: 3837: 3766: 3485: 3415: 3366: 3284: 3040: 2789: 2648: 2575: 2565: 2542: 2532: 2345: 1217:

strategies, combining and switching among them to adapt to the changing conditions of a game.

757: 654: 546: 428: 226: 4440: 4214: 3305: 3278: 1166:

are three varieties of tables games played in Greece. Together, the three are referred to as

5257: 5237: 5159: 5124: 5109: 5006: 4838: 4808: 4576: 4532: 4467: 3811: 3603: 2978: 2853: 2818: 2730: 2695: 2607: 2247: 1647: 1631: 1596: 1580: 1576: 1359: 1028: 768: 613: 560: 421: 375: 354: 2312:

to compare the performance of computer algorithms against human players. In this method, a

249:. The objective of the game is to move the fifteen pieces around the board and be first to 5030: 3399: 2781: 1646:

In the early 20th century, as use of Classical Arabic was being promoted with the rise of

1568: 1552: 1470: 1446: 1372: 1249: 1034:

If the Crawford rule is in effect, then another option is the "Holland rule", named after

753: 728: 319: 145: 4792:

Chess in Iceland and in Icelandic Literature: with Historical Notes on Other Table-Games.

4367:

A Turkish and English Lexicon: Shewing in English the Significations of the Turkish Terms

4306:

Tents and Pyramids: Games and Ideology in Arab Culture from Backgammon to Autocratic Rule

3558: 775:

Standards of Ethical Practice to address issues on which tournament rules fail to touch.

744: 3858: 3786: 3509: 2359: 988: 441:) is still used in Greece for various tables games, which are frequently played in town 5179: 5174: 4857: 4834: 4786: 4765: 4361: 2325: 2281:

In the late 1980s, backgammon programmers found more success with an approach based on

1564: 1556: 1521: 1478: 1287: 732: 658: 424: 334: 327: 4992: 3962:(June 1, 1980). "Backgammon: Before Planning Big Attack, Be Sure to Cover Your Rear". 3685: 3607: 2416:

Albeit Cotton (1674) gives an alternative starting layout as well as the familiar one.

5394: 5134: 4820: 4499: 3477: 3408: 3358: 3032: 2742: 2707: 2627: 2524: 2383: 2333: 2298: 2262: 1525: 1172:

and are usually played one after the other; game being three, five, or seven points.

1021: 764: 738:

The popularity of backgammon surged in the mid-1960s, in part due to the charisma of

724: 512: 474: 413: 350: 234: 140: 5010: 4544: 2562:

It's all a game : the history of board games from Monopoly to Settlers of Catan

2242:

A screen shot of GNU Backgammon, showing an evaluation and rollout of possible moves

1650:, efforts were made to replace the Persian-Turkish numbers used in backgammon play. 1052: 5247: 4879: 4590: 3959: 3758: 3180: 2945:

Willughby (c. 1660-1672), entries for "Cards", "Tables", "Irish" and "Back Gammon."

2365: 1304: 1001: 679: 591: 487: 432: 272: 219: 199: 183: 169: 2975:"A Foregone Conclusion: Fore-Edge Books Are Unique Additions to Ransom Collection" 830:

in July 1992, but there are now a range of options, many of which are commercial.

454:

of Emperor Zeno's time is believed to be a direct descendant of the earlier Roman

4947: 4406: 4304: 4277: 4152: 4116: 3661: 804:(WBF) and their tournament rules have been adopted in their entirety by the WBF. 5297: 5277: 5227: 5119: 5080: 4694: 4029: 2378: 2302: 2275: 2271: 2238: 1537: 1529: 1462: 1392: 1384: 1337: 1269: 1120: 1095: 1086: 1077: 1047: 749: 675: 296: 280: 207: 203: 173: 155: 62: 4851:

Decision Making in Multiplayer Environments: Application in backgammon variants

4564: 3636: 3530: 1524:, which controlled the whole Eastern Mediterranean in the early modern period. 664: 5194: 5099: 4812: 4043: 2734: 2699: 2355: 1575:

A unique feature of backgammon throughout the region is players' use of mixed

1273:

backgammon program. Online cheating has therefore become extremely difficult.

838: 574: 508: 371: 195: 57: 4779: 2672:. Vol. 1. Collection de l'institut français d'Athènes. pp. 200–204. 2579: 2546: 2407:

The fact that this is the earliest mention is stated in Fiske (1905), p. 285.

1260:

To reduce the possibility of cheating, most good-quality backgammon sets use

5287: 5144: 4536: 3980: 2329: 2286: 1541: 1466: 1409: 1341: 1213: 899: 625: 556: 532: 387: 315: 72: 67: 4967:

was created from a revision of this article dated 6 December 2007

4612: 4024:"PartyGammon.com to Stage First Ever US$ 1 Million Backgammon Tournament". 3815: 2809:

Lillich, Meredith Parsons (March 1983). "The Tric-Trac Window of Le Mans".

33: 5017: 4581: 5292: 5282: 5272: 5210: 5169: 4157:. Knopf Book and Cassette Classics Series. Alfred A. Knopf. p. 495. 3233: 1533: 1434: 1322: 1265: 1114: 874: 867: 863: 815: 342: 276: 251: 238: 150: 4799:

Gardner, Iain (2020). "Backgammon and cosmology at the Sasanian court".

3719: 1638:

for "twice" or two-times-two, and 1-1 is a hybrid Turkish-Persian where

846: 5262: 5252: 4527:

Berliner, Hans (January 1980). "Backgammon program beats world champ".

3800:

Keeler, Emmet; Spencer, Joel (1975). "Optimal Doubling in Backgammon".

3204: 2865: 2830: 1510: 1422: 1376: 1178:

is a variant of backgammon in which the objective is to lose the game.

1152: 1144: 1128: 648:, meaning "game" or "play". Meanwhile, the first use documented by the 629: 590:

Backgammon's immediate predecessor was the 16th century tables game of

524: 442: 417: 215: 3574:, Chapter 11, O. Jacoby & J. R. Crawford, 1970, Macmillan & Co 3321: 2619: 2297:

applied to data generated from self-play. According to assessments by

1621:

2b) unequal throws in pure Persian, with a connecting vowel in between

1281: 5204: 5189: 2266: 1514: 1502: 1494: 1490: 1438: 1417: 1400: 1363: 1100: 542: 211: 4854:. Thessaloniki: University of Macedonia. Doctoral Studies Programme. 2857: 2822: 4515:

There are 18,528,584,051,601,162,496 distinct backgammon positions.

3255: 2611: 2207: 2181: 2155: 2129: 2103: 2082: 2077: 1358:

The first world championship competition in backgammon was held in

545:. A wooden board and counters were recovered from the wreck of the 5307: 5302: 5267: 5242: 5199: 5164: 5129: 3435: 2261:

The first strong computer opponent was BKG 9.8. It was written by

2237: 2212: 2186: 2160: 2134: 2108: 2056: 2051: 2030: 2025: 2004: 1999: 1978: 1973: 1952: 1947: 1926: 1921: 1900: 1895: 1874: 1869: 1848: 1843: 1822: 1817: 1796: 1791: 1770: 1765: 1744: 1739: 1718: 1713: 1692: 1687: 1627:

4) alternatives for 2a and 2b in pure Turkish (6–4, 5–4, 5–1, 2–1)

1546: 1498: 1486: 1457: 1280: 1199: 1182: 1168: 1158: 1140: 1134: 1051: 987: 913: 845: 837: 687: 663: 619: 528: 502: 397: 309: 284: 202:. It is the most widespread Western member of the large family of 5029: 4718: 4257:"Love of Backgammon : To Arabs, It's the 1 Game That Counts" 4216:

More Board Game Education: Inspiring Students Through Board Games

214:. The earliest record of backgammon itself dates to 17th-century 206:, whose ancestors date back nearly 5,000 years to the regions of 4338:"All You Need To Know About Tavli, Greece's National Board Game" 3414:(Third Revised and Updated ed.). Signet. pp. 321–330. 2564:(First ed.). New York: Thomas Dunne Books. pp. 13–16. 1599:(as well as many historical and current Semitic languages), and 1584: 1261: 894:

Each side of the board has a track of 12 long triangles, called

854:

Since 2018, backgammon has been overseen internationally by the

771:

continued to use both the older terms as well as the new ones).

482: 338: 246: 119: 5053: 5049: 4651: 1544:

backgammon sets that have become famous throughout the region.

4890:(2003). Forgeng, Jeff; Johnston, Dorothy; Cram, David (eds.). 2290: 1532:

throughout the region. Since at least the early 19th century,

4439:

Boueri, Marijean; Boutros, Jill; Sayad, Joanne (April 2006).

4111: 4109: 2913: 2456: 2454: 390:(r. 531–79), who is credited with the invention of the game. 4945: 3232:. FIBS, the First Internet Backgammon Server. Archived from 2686:

Austin, Roland G. (February 1935). "Roman Board Games. II".

1618:

2a) unequal throws in pure Persian, higher followed by lower

842:

Board in starting position with two dice and a doubling cube

1863:Дьорт-джехар (джаар, дорджар); Djort-jahar (jaar, dordjar) 4633: 4237:

Tavli (Backgammon in Greek) is the national game of Cyprus

3879:"The Trial (and Tribulations) of Oregon Promoter Ted Barr" 3082:"The Father Of Modern Backgammon - GammonVillage Magazine" 2721:

Austin, Roland G. (October 1934). "Roman Board Games. I".

1656:

Dice throw language used across the Eastern Mediterranean

1082:

receives an extra turn after a roll of 1-2 or of doubles.

4669: 4251: 4249: 4247: 4245: 858:

who set the rules of play for international tournaments.

5044: 4831:. Vol. 2. (1850). London: Humphrey Moseley. p. 105. 4634:"BackgammonSnowie - World class poker coaching software" 4069: 3589:"Programming backgammon using self-teaching neural nets" 594:. Irish was the Anglo-Scottish equivalent of the French 237:

in recent decades, analogous to the other board game of

2344:

Computer-versus-computer competitions are also held at

1212:, although it is less detailed than that of chess. The 898:. The points form a continuous track in the shape of a 4827:

Howell, James (1835). "LXVII. To Master G. Stone" in

4801:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

2887:

Ms National Library Florence, Banco Rari, 6 p. 2 no. 1

241:. The backgammon table pieces move along twenty-four ' 2531:. London, England: British Museum Press. p. 16. 2320:

Neural network research has resulted in three modern

4738:

The Retail Bookseller: Trade news for the Book Buyer

4121:. News Circle Publishing Company. 1984. p. 47. 3353: 3351: 2493: 2491: 735:-driven game played in the 20th and 21st centuries. 473:

has survived; it may have been related to the older

449: 5348: 5317: 5220: 5152: 5087: 4219:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 49. 3472: 3470: 3349: 3347: 3345: 3343: 3341: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3333: 3331: 2977:. The University of Texas at Austin. Archived from 636:The earliest mention of backgammon, under the name 163: 134: 126: 114: 106: 98: 88: 80: 51: 43: 3407: 2523:Becker, Andrea (2007). "The Royal Game of Ur". In 1454:Mediterranean and West Asian cultural significance 3039:(Second Printing ed.). Cardoza. p. 22. 2598:Austin, Roland G (1934). "Zeno's Game of τάβλη". 1536:became well known as the preeminent location for 1240:techniques to determine pip counts in live play. 416:, meaning 'table' or 'board', is described in an 4469:Arabic Sociolinguistics: Issues and Perspectives 3860:An exposure of the arts and miseries of gambling 2681: 2679: 1624:3) Mixed Turkish-Persian numeral (6–5, 5-5, 4-4) 4795:Florence: The Florentine Typographical Society. 4605:"Backgammon software - Backgammon Online Guide" 4193:"Top Tavla tips for expats to play like a Turk" 3926:Bray, Chris (November 25, 2000). "Backgammon". 3170:Jacoby & Crawford (1970), pp. 55 & 188. 3027: 3025: 2498:Schädler, Ulrich; Dunn-Vaturi, Anne-Elizabeth. 602:, the latter name first being used in the 1283 481:. The earliest known mention of the game is in 4958: 4558: 4556: 4554: 3582: 3580: 3100:"Urge to Play Backgammon Sweeping Men's Clubs" 5065: 2645:Board and table games from many civilizations 2593: 2591: 2589: 632:with backgammon in the foreground, circa 1635 608:, a translation of Arabic manuscripts by the 353:has suggested a possible reconstruction. The 8: 4565:"Temporal difference learning and TD-Gammon" 3484:(second ed.). Cardoza. pp. 19–22. 2941: 2939: 2246:Backgammon has been studied considerably by 26: 5045:Backgammon World Championship - Monte Carlo 3964:The New York Times, Late City Final Edition 3911:Bray, Chris (June 29, 2002). "Backgammon". 3896:"Tribes of Sydney—Sydney Backgammon Club". 3836:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 13, 224. 1733:Дю-бара (дубари); Du-bara (dubara, dubari) 684:A Short Treatise on the Game of Back-Gammon 669:A Short Treatise on the Game of Back-Gammon 657:around 1672; they were quickly followed by 468: 461: 436: 380:Wičārišn ī čatrang ud nihišn ī nēw-ardaxšēr 5072: 5058: 5050: 4400: 4398: 4396: 4394: 4392: 4390: 4388: 4000:"Backgammon News—World Championships 2000" 3827: 3825: 3753: 3751: 3749: 3747: 3745: 3743: 3741: 3739: 1652: 1615:1) doubles in pure Persian, (6-6 and 3-3); 32: 4580: 3765:. Quadrangle/The New York Times Book Co. 3146: 3144: 2786:A History of Board-Games Other than Chess 2776: 2774: 2448:Forgeng, Johnson and Cram (2003), p. 269. 4975:, and does not reflect subsequent edits. 3394: 3392: 3390: 3388: 3386: 3384: 3382: 3064:"The Inventor of Doubling in Backgammon" 1285:Medieval players, from the 13th century 218:, being descended from the 16th-century 4442:Lebanon A to Z: A Middle Eastern Mosaic 4151:Allatson, W.; Gallimard (Firm) (1995). 4002:. Mind Sports Worldwide. Archived from 3975: 3973: 3561:. US Backgammon Federation. 8 May 2021. 2912:(Second ed.). 1989. Archived from 2429: 2400: 1707:Еп-ек (еци, епеци); Ep-ek (eci, epeci) 826:. Real-time online play began with the 412:The earliest identifiable tables game, 408:board from the 2nd century, Aphrodisias 3662:"Draughts and Backgammon, by Berkeley" 3643:from the original on 13 September 2007 3058: 3056: 2764:Jacoby, Oswald, and John R. Crawford. 2444: 2442: 719:and worth "three hits", i.e., triple. 25: 4999:Appendix:Glossary of backgammon terms 4676:from the original on 25 February 2009 3283:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 23. 727:among members of gaming clubs in the 7: 4048:www.world-backgammon-association.com 3559:"Backgammon Rules – And How To Play" 3508:. Backgammon Galore!. Archived from 2647:, Courier Dover Publications, 1979, 1987:Beş Dört; Cihar-ü Penc (Caar-i Penc) 1561:Ottoman-Turkish Conversation-Grammar 4472:. Taylor & Francis. p. 8. 3857:Harrington Green, Jonathan (1845). 3304:Sfetcu, Nicolae (9 November 2016). 2500:"Board Games in pre-Islamic Persia" 1635: 1336:Backgammon clubs may also organize 1132:is an ancient Chinese tables game. 225:Backgammon is a two-player game of 16:Board and dice game for two players 4191:Ergil, Leyla Yvonne (2014-10-11). 3692:from the original on 13 March 2009 3506:"Backgammon Glossary/Holland Rule" 1551:Backgammon and Dominos numbers in 1441:. Before the commercialization of 1354:List of world backgammon champions 1099:is a traditional tables game from 14: 4893:Francis Willughby's Book of Games 4882:. Vol. 9. London and NY: Croscup. 4863:The Oxford History of Board Games 4500:"Developing Positional Awareness" 4445:. PublishingWorks. pp. 59–. 3966:. pp. 50, section 1, part 2. 3307:Gaming Guide - Gambling in Europe 3037:501 Essential Backgammon Problems 2289:, developed by Gerald Tesauro of 1591:, which is a rhyming combination 1268:. This reduces the likelihood of 1027:The "Crawford rule", named after 229:in which each player has fifteen 198:played with counters and dice on 138: 55: 5143: 5016: 5005: 4991: 4957: 4370:. American mission. p. 1125 4303:Khūrī, F.I.; Ḫūrī, F.I. (1990). 4179:(backgammon), the national game… 3885:. Vol. 2, no. 2. 1982. 3277:Bray, Chris (14 February 2011). 3228:Schneider, Andreas; et al. 2358: 2211: 2206: 2185: 2180: 2159: 2154: 2133: 2128: 2107: 2102: 2081: 2076: 2055: 2050: 2029: 2024: 2003: 1998: 1977: 1972: 1951: 1946: 1925: 1920: 1899: 1894: 1873: 1868: 1847: 1842: 1821: 1816: 1795: 1790: 1769: 1764: 1743: 1738: 1717: 1712: 1691: 1686: 873:The objective is for players to 866:, which in US English is called 828:First Internet Backgammon Server 3998:Michael Crane (July 25, 2000). 3898:The Daily Telegraph (Australia) 3787:"Backgammon Glossary/Back Game" 3181:"Standards of Ethical Practice" 2846:Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte 2600:The Journal of Hellenic Studies 1020:The "Jacoby rule", named after 752:held backgammon parties at the 653:"Back Gammon" were produced by 567:. Among surviving artworks are 245:' according to the roll of two 5195:Long Nardy (Narde, Long Nardi) 4848:Papahristou, Nikolaos (2015). 4563:Tesauro, Gerald (March 1995). 4044:"World Backgammon Association" 3709:Papahristou (2015), pp. 33–34. 3482:Backgammon for Serious Players 2670:Vyzantinon Vios kai Politismos 2460:Howell (1635), Vol. 2, No. 68. 1208:Backgammon has an established 824:pseudorandom number generators 789:the Backgammon Galaxy UK Open 368:Kār-nāmag ī Ardaxšēr ī Pāpakān 259:, hence the name of the game. 180:Origin: = 17th-century England 1: 4996:The dictionary definition of 4740:. Vol. 33. Retail Bookseller. 3720:"Misere (Backgammon to Lose)" 3608:10.1016/S0004-3702(01)00110-2 3545:"Backgammon FAQ: Basic Rules" 2909:The Oxford English Dictionary 2471:"game-board | British Museum" 1785:Дю-се (ме-се); Du-se (me-se) 1477:Backgammon is considered the 818:. Dice rolls are provided by 711: this was now called a 4753:. Toledo: Royal Scriptorium. 3900:. June 24, 2006. p. 95. 2295:temporal difference learning 1642:is Turkish for "altogether". 1204:Backgammon set, 19th century 610:Toledo School of Translators 374:(r. 224–41), founder of the 4876:Wheatley, Henry B. (1666). 4757:Bohn, Henry George (1850). 4423:This can be read online at 3365:(Third ed.). Cardoza. 2998:Cotton (1674), pp. 154–185. 2963:Cotton (1674), pp. 156–158. 2265:in the late 1970s on a DEC 1603:, meaning five in Turkish. 1381:European Open Championships 1277:Social and competitive play 1176:Misere (backgammon to lose) 856:World Backgammon Federation 802:World Backgammon Federation 394:Roman and Byzantine Empires 21:Backgammon (disambiguation) 5437: 5221:Games of contrary movement 5153:Games of parallel movement 3946:(Section: Bay Area Living) 3185:U.S. Backgammon Federation 2283:artificial neural networks 2258:possible legal positions. 1405:World Series of Backgammon 1397:World Series of Backgammon 1351: 1193: 1045: 450: 294: 18: 5379: 5141: 4813:10.1017/S0041977X20002177 4569:Communications of the ACM 2784:(1952). "6: Race-Games". 2735:10.1017/s0017383500002941 2700:10.1017/s0017383500003119 2560:Donovan, Tristan (2017). 1753:Dü yek; yek-i dü; Iki Bir 1663: 1660: 1655: 1481:in many countries of the 1443:artificial neural network 1348:International competition 1196:Backgammon match strategy 650:Oxford English Dictionary 470:Ludus duodecim scriptorum 463:Ludus duodecim scriptorum 457:Ludus duodecim scriptorum 437: 405:Ludus duodecim scriptorum 337:, located in present-day 179: 168: 31: 5416:17th-century board games 4336:Team, GCT (2018-01-23). 4213:Hinebaugh, J.P. (2019). 4092:"Backgammon Proposition" 3928:The Independent (London) 3913:The Independent (London) 3531:"Old English Backgammon" 3007:Bohn (1850), pp. 380 ff. 2324:, JellyFish, Snowie and 2149:Шеш-джехар; Shesh-jehar 1941:Джехар-и-ек; Jehar-i-ek 1935:Cihar-ı Yek (Caar-i Yek) 1915:Джехар-и-дю; Jehar-i-du 1889:Джехар-у-се; Jehar-u-se 1316:Enthusiasts have formed 1312:Club and tournament play 1186:is a Turkish variation. 527:by the 13th century. In 358:Egypt and western Iran. 5411:Traditional board games 5037:Encyclopædia Britannica 4537:10.1145/1056433.1056434 3596:Artificial Intelligence 3256:"Backgammon Play Sites" 3230:"Brief history of FIBS" 2933:Wheately (1666), p. 70. 2308:Tesauro proposed using 1301:State of Oregon v. Barr 1147:culture surrounding it. 740:Prince Alexis Obolensky 645: 5318:Games without movement 5040:(11th ed.). 1911. 4953: 4933:Listen to this article 4759:The Hand-Book of Games 4750:El Libro de los Juegos 3834:Backgammon for Dummies 3816:10.1287/opre.23.6.1063 3688:. Backgammon Galore!. 3438:. Backgammon Galore!. 3410:Hoyle's Rules of Games 3363:Backgammon for Winners 3280:Backgammon For Dummies 2896:Howell (1650), p. 105. 2314:Monte-Carlo evaluation 2243: 2227:Шеш-у-ек; Shesh-u-ek. 2071:Пендж-и-ек; Panj-i-ek 2045:Пендж-и-дю; Panj-i-du 2019:Пендж-и-се; Penj-i-se 1993:Беш-дьорт; Besh-dyort 1909:Cihar-i Dü (Caar-i Dü) 1883:Cihar-ü Se (Caar-i Se) 1857:Dört Cihar (Dört Caar) 1572: 1474: 1291: 1205: 1148: 1065: 993: 924: 851: 843: 671: 633: 605:El Libro de los Juegos 516: 469: 462: 409: 330: 5180:Jacquet de Versailles 4952: 4771:The Compleat Gamester 4656:www.extremegammon.com 4582:10.1145/203330.203343 4466:Suleiman, Y. (2013). 4118:Arab American Almanac 3789:. Backgammon Galore!. 3637:"Backgammon Variants" 3547:. Backgammon Galore!. 3533:. Backgammon Galore!. 3436:"Rules of Backgammon" 3086:www.gammonvillage.com 3017:The Retail Bookseller 2436:Fiske (1905), p. 159. 2241: 2201:Шеш-и-дю; Shash-i-du 2175:Шеш-у-се; Shesh-u-se 1811:Себа-и-дю; Seba-i-du 1609:irregular inflections 1550: 1483:Eastern Mediterranean 1461: 1284: 1203: 1138: 1055: 991: 922: 849: 841: 674:In the 16th century, 667: 623: 506: 401: 313: 5207:(Turkish backgammon) 5025:at Wikimedia Commons 4984:More spoken articles 4896:. Farnham: Ashgate. 4745:Alfonso X of Castile 4279:The Israel Economist 3832:Bray, Chris (2008). 3686:"Russian Backgammon" 3587:Tesauro, G. (2002). 3454:"Backgammon Beavers" 3404:Mott-Smith, Geoffrey 3258:. Backgammon Galore! 3205:"What Is The UKBGF?" 2788:. Hacker Art Books. 2504:Encyclopædia Iranica 2322:proprietary programs 2234:Studies and analysis 2143:Şeş Cihar (Altɨdört) 2123:Шеш-беш; Shesh-besh 1583:numbers to announce 1395:sponsored the first 1190:Strategy and tactics 384:Bozorgmehr Bokhtagan 324:Royal Cemetery at Ur 19:For other uses, see 5421:British board games 5361:Tables (historical) 5105:Duodecim Scriptorum 4843:The Backgammon Book 4609:www.backgammon.help 4529:ACM SIGART Bulletin 4006:on 7 September 2006 3985:The Washington Post 3863:. Redding. p. 3803:Operations Research 3572:The Backgammon Book 3400:Morehead, Albert H. 3322:"Rules | WBGF" 2954:Willughby (c. 1672) 2766:The backgammon book 2641:Robert Charles Bell 2374:Backgammon notation 2248:computer scientists 2065:Penc-i Yek; Beş Bir 1759:Ик-и-бир; Ik-i-bir 1433:When backgammon is 1425:, Northern Cyprus. 1330:backgammon chouette 1062:Libro de los juegos 628:Noblewomen Darnica 538:Libro de los juegos 382:) attributes it to 378:, whereas another ( 320:Sir Leonard Woolley 28: 5406:Backgammon players 5310:(Greek backgammon) 5031:"Backgammon" 4954: 4916:A Volume of Plaies 4912:Willughby, Francis 4888:Willughby, Francis 3944:Alameda Times-Star 3724:Backgammon Galore! 3108:. January 13, 1966 3105:The New York Times 3068:www.gammonlife.com 2768:. Viking Pr, 1976. 2666:Koukoules, Phaidon 2475:The British Museum 2244: 1573: 1475: 1469:backgammon board, 1292: 1238:mental calculation 1206: 1149: 1107:Russian backgammon 1066: 994: 972:worth 2 points. A 925: 852: 844: 672: 634: 517: 410: 370:) linking it with 347:Game of 20 Squares 331: 287:are better known. 5388: 5387: 5021:Media related to 4950: 4479:978-1-136-77937-4 4452:978-0-9744803-4-3 4418:978-3-515-04961-0 4316:978-0-86356-334-8 4261:Los Angeles Times 4226:978-1-4758-4834-2 4164:978-0-679-75566-1 4128:978-0-915652-03-7 4090:Wachtel, Robert. 3843:978-0-470-69456-5 3772:978-0-8129-0615-8 3635:Strato, Michael. 3491:978-0-940685-68-0 3421:978-0-451-20484-4 3372:978-1-58042-043-3 3046:978-1-58042-019-8 2795:978-0-87817-211-5 2723:Greece & Rome 2688:Greece & Rome 2346:Computer Olympiad 2328:, as well as the 2231: 2230: 2097:Дю-шеш; Du-shesh 1837:Се-и-ек; Se-i-ek 1595:, meaning six in 920: 702:Modern backgammon 655:Francis Willughby 227:contrary movement 189: 188: 5428: 5356:Tables (current) 5258:Ludus Anglicorum 5213:(Swedish tables) 5147: 5125:Royal Game of Ur 5095:Dogs and Jackals 5074: 5067: 5060: 5051: 5041: 5033: 5020: 5009: 4995: 4974: 4972: 4961: 4960: 4951: 4941: 4939: 4934: 4907: 4845:. NY: Viking. IA 4839:Crawford John R. 4829:Familiar Letters 4824: 4783: 4754: 4723: 4722: 4715: 4709: 4708: 4706: 4705: 4695:"GNU Backgammon" 4691: 4685: 4684: 4682: 4681: 4666: 4660: 4659: 4652:"eXtreme Gammon" 4648: 4642: 4641: 4638:www.bgsnowie.com 4630: 4624: 4623: 4621: 4620: 4611:. Archived from 4601: 4595: 4594: 4584: 4560: 4549: 4548: 4524: 4518: 4517: 4512: 4511: 4496: 4490: 4489: 4487: 4486: 4463: 4457: 4456: 4436: 4430: 4422: 4402: 4383: 4382: 4376: 4375: 4358: 4352: 4351: 4349: 4348: 4342:Greek City Times 4333: 4327: 4326: 4324: 4323: 4300: 4294: 4293: 4288: 4287: 4274: 4268: 4267: 4253: 4240: 4239: 4234: 4233: 4210: 4204: 4203: 4188: 4182: 4181: 4172: 4171: 4148: 4142: 4141: 4136: 4135: 4113: 4104: 4103: 4098:. Archived from 4087: 4081: 4080: 4078: 4077: 4068:. Archived from 4058: 4052: 4051: 4040: 4034: 4033: 4032:. July 10, 2006. 4021: 4015: 4014: 4012: 4011: 3995: 3989: 3988: 3977: 3968: 3967: 3956: 3950: 3949: 3938: 3932: 3931: 3923: 3917: 3916: 3908: 3902: 3901: 3893: 3887: 3886: 3883:Backgammon Times 3875: 3869: 3868: 3854: 3848: 3847: 3829: 3820: 3819: 3810:(6): 1063–1071. 3797: 3791: 3790: 3783: 3777: 3776: 3755: 3734: 3733: 3731: 3730: 3716: 3710: 3707: 3701: 3700: 3698: 3697: 3682: 3676: 3675: 3673: 3672: 3658: 3652: 3651: 3649: 3648: 3632: 3626: 3625: 3623: 3622: 3616: 3610:. Archived from 3593: 3584: 3575: 3569: 3563: 3562: 3555: 3549: 3548: 3541: 3535: 3534: 3527: 3521: 3520: 3518: 3517: 3502: 3496: 3495: 3474: 3465: 3464: 3462: 3461: 3452:Robertie, Bill. 3449: 3443: 3442: 3432: 3426: 3425: 3413: 3396: 3377: 3376: 3355: 3326: 3325: 3318: 3312: 3311: 3301: 3295: 3294: 3274: 3268: 3267: 3265: 3263: 3251: 3245: 3244: 3242: 3241: 3225: 3219: 3218: 3216: 3215: 3201: 3195: 3194: 3192: 3191: 3177: 3171: 3168: 3162: 3161: 3159: 3158: 3148: 3139: 3138: 3127: 3121: 3120: 3114: 3113: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3078: 3072: 3071: 3060: 3051: 3050: 3029: 3020: 3014: 3008: 3005: 2999: 2996: 2990: 2989: 2987: 2986: 2970: 2964: 2961: 2955: 2952: 2946: 2943: 2934: 2931: 2925: 2924: 2922: 2921: 2903: 2897: 2894: 2888: 2885: 2879: 2876: 2870: 2869: 2841: 2835: 2834: 2811:The Art Bulletin 2806: 2800: 2799: 2778: 2769: 2762: 2756: 2753: 2747: 2746: 2718: 2712: 2711: 2683: 2674: 2673: 2662: 2656: 2638: 2632: 2631: 2595: 2584: 2583: 2557: 2551: 2550: 2520: 2514: 2513: 2511: 2510: 2495: 2486: 2485: 2483: 2481: 2467: 2461: 2458: 2449: 2446: 2437: 2434: 2417: 2414: 2408: 2405: 2368: 2363: 2362: 2332:BGBlitz and the 2317:of taken moves. 2310:rollout analysis 2215: 2210: 2189: 2184: 2163: 2158: 2137: 2132: 2111: 2106: 2085: 2080: 2059: 2054: 2033: 2028: 2007: 2002: 1981: 1976: 1967:Дю-беш; Du-besh 1955: 1950: 1929: 1924: 1903: 1898: 1877: 1872: 1851: 1846: 1825: 1820: 1799: 1794: 1773: 1768: 1747: 1742: 1721: 1716: 1695: 1690: 1653: 1648:Arab nationalism 1637: 1447:proposition bets 1435:played for money 1029:John R. Crawford 921: 799: 796: 794: 788: 785: 783: 710: 586:Early backgammon 561:Hieronymus Bosch 472: 465: 453: 452: 440: 439: 386:, the vizier of 376:Sasanian dynasty 355:Royal Game of Ur 194:is a two-player 182:Descended from: 38:A backgammon set 36: 29: 5436: 5435: 5431: 5430: 5429: 5427: 5426: 5425: 5391: 5390: 5389: 5384: 5375: 5344: 5325:Dames Rabattues 5313: 5216: 5148: 5139: 5083: 5078: 5028: 4988: 4987: 4976: 4970: 4968: 4965:This audio file 4962: 4955: 4946: 4943: 4937: 4936: 4932: 4929: 4924: 4904: 4886: 4866:. Oxford: OUP. 4798: 4774:. London: A.M. 4766:Cotton, Charles 4764: 4761:. London: Bohn. 4743: 4732: 4727: 4726: 4717: 4716: 4712: 4703: 4701: 4693: 4692: 4688: 4679: 4677: 4668: 4667: 4663: 4650: 4649: 4645: 4632: 4631: 4627: 4618: 4616: 4603: 4602: 4598: 4562: 4561: 4552: 4526: 4525: 4521: 4509: 4507: 4498: 4497: 4493: 4484: 4482: 4480: 4465: 4464: 4460: 4453: 4438: 4437: 4433: 4419: 4404: 4403: 4386: 4373: 4371: 4360: 4359: 4355: 4346: 4344: 4335: 4334: 4330: 4321: 4319: 4317: 4302: 4301: 4297: 4285: 4283: 4276: 4275: 4271: 4255: 4254: 4243: 4231: 4229: 4227: 4212: 4211: 4207: 4190: 4189: 4185: 4169: 4167: 4165: 4150: 4149: 4145: 4133: 4131: 4129: 4115: 4114: 4107: 4089: 4088: 4084: 4075: 4073: 4060: 4059: 4055: 4042: 4041: 4037: 4023: 4022: 4018: 4009: 4007: 3997: 3996: 3992: 3979: 3978: 3971: 3958: 3957: 3953: 3940: 3939: 3935: 3925: 3924: 3920: 3910: 3909: 3905: 3895: 3894: 3890: 3877: 3876: 3872: 3856: 3855: 3851: 3844: 3831: 3830: 3823: 3799: 3798: 3794: 3785: 3784: 3780: 3773: 3757: 3756: 3737: 3728: 3726: 3718: 3717: 3713: 3708: 3704: 3695: 3693: 3684: 3683: 3679: 3670: 3668: 3660: 3659: 3655: 3646: 3644: 3634: 3633: 3629: 3620: 3618: 3614: 3591: 3586: 3585: 3578: 3570: 3566: 3557: 3556: 3552: 3543: 3542: 3538: 3529: 3528: 3524: 3515: 3513: 3504: 3503: 3499: 3492: 3476: 3475: 3468: 3459: 3457: 3456:. GammonVillage 3451: 3450: 3446: 3434: 3433: 3429: 3422: 3406:, eds. (2001). 3398: 3397: 3380: 3373: 3357: 3356: 3329: 3320: 3319: 3315: 3303: 3302: 3298: 3291: 3276: 3275: 3271: 3261: 3259: 3253: 3252: 3248: 3239: 3237: 3227: 3226: 3222: 3213: 3211: 3203: 3202: 3198: 3189: 3187: 3179: 3178: 3174: 3169: 3165: 3156: 3154: 3150: 3149: 3142: 3129: 3128: 3124: 3111: 3109: 3098: 3097: 3093: 3080: 3079: 3075: 3062: 3061: 3054: 3047: 3031: 3030: 3023: 3019:(1930). p. 34. 3015: 3011: 3006: 3002: 2997: 2993: 2984: 2982: 2973:Allee, Sheila. 2972: 2971: 2967: 2962: 2958: 2953: 2949: 2944: 2937: 2932: 2928: 2919: 2917: 2905: 2904: 2900: 2895: 2891: 2886: 2882: 2877: 2873: 2858:10.2307/1482540 2843: 2842: 2838: 2823:10.2307/3050296 2808: 2807: 2803: 2796: 2780: 2779: 2772: 2763: 2759: 2754: 2750: 2720: 2719: 2715: 2685: 2684: 2677: 2664: 2663: 2659: 2639: 2635: 2597: 2596: 2587: 2572: 2559: 2558: 2554: 2539: 2522: 2521: 2517: 2508: 2506: 2497: 2496: 2489: 2479: 2477: 2469: 2468: 2464: 2459: 2452: 2447: 2440: 2435: 2431: 2426: 2421: 2420: 2415: 2411: 2406: 2402: 2397: 2392: 2364: 2357: 2354: 2252:Neural networks 2236: 1569:Ottoman Turkish 1553:Ottoman Turkish 1471:Khan el-Khalili 1456: 1431: 1373:Paradise Island 1356: 1350: 1314: 1297: 1279: 1258: 1250:Brownian motion 1198: 1192: 1050: 1044: 986: 953: 914: 912: 892: 884: 836: 810: 797: 792: 790: 786: 781: 779: 754:Playboy Mansion 729:Lower East Side 708: 704: 588: 583: 501: 396: 364: 362:Sasanian Empire 308: 306:Ancient history 299: 293: 269: 181: 47:1646 to present 39: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5434: 5432: 5424: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5408: 5403: 5393: 5392: 5386: 5385: 5380: 5377: 5376: 5374: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5352: 5350: 5346: 5345: 5343: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5321: 5319: 5315: 5314: 5312: 5311: 5305: 5300: 5295: 5290: 5285: 5280: 5275: 5270: 5265: 5260: 5255: 5250: 5245: 5240: 5235: 5230: 5224: 5222: 5218: 5217: 5215: 5214: 5208: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5156: 5154: 5150: 5149: 5142: 5140: 5138: 5137: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5110:Game of Twenty 5107: 5102: 5097: 5091: 5089: 5085: 5084: 5079: 5077: 5076: 5069: 5062: 5054: 5048: 5047: 5042: 5026: 5014: 5003: 4977: 4963: 4956: 4944: 4931: 4930: 4928: 4927:External links 4925: 4923: 4922: 4909: 4902: 4884: 4874: 4858:Parlett, David 4855: 4846: 4835:Jacoby, Oswald 4832: 4825: 4807:(2): 249–257. 4796: 4787:Fiske, Willard 4784: 4762: 4755: 4741: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4725: 4724: 4710: 4686: 4661: 4643: 4625: 4596: 4550: 4519: 4491: 4478: 4458: 4451: 4431: 4417: 4384: 4362:Redhouse, J.W. 4353: 4328: 4315: 4309:. Saqi Books. 4295: 4282:. Kollek. 1978 4269: 4263:. 1988-02-04. 4241: 4225: 4205: 4183: 4163: 4143: 4127: 4105: 4102:on 2009-10-10. 4096:backgammon.org 4082: 4053: 4035: 4016: 3990: 3969: 3951: 3933: 3918: 3903: 3888: 3870: 3849: 3842: 3821: 3792: 3778: 3771: 3735: 3711: 3702: 3677: 3653: 3639:. Gammonlife. 3627: 3602:(1): 181–199. 3576: 3564: 3550: 3536: 3522: 3497: 3490: 3478:Robertie, Bill 3466: 3444: 3427: 3420: 3378: 3371: 3359:Robertie, Bill 3327: 3313: 3296: 3289: 3269: 3246: 3220: 3196: 3172: 3163: 3140: 3135:www.play65.com 3122: 3091: 3073: 3052: 3045: 3033:Robertie, Bill 3021: 3009: 3000: 2991: 2965: 2956: 2947: 2935: 2926: 2906:"backgammon". 2898: 2889: 2880: 2871: 2852:(3): 277–308. 2836: 2801: 2794: 2782:Murray, H.J.R. 2770: 2757: 2748: 2713: 2675: 2657: 2633: 2612:10.2307/626864 2606:(2): 202–205. 2585: 2570: 2552: 2537: 2525:Finkel, Irving 2515: 2487: 2462: 2450: 2438: 2428: 2427: 2425: 2422: 2419: 2418: 2409: 2399: 2398: 2396: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2387: 2386: 2384:Tabletop games 2381: 2376: 2370: 2369: 2353: 2350: 2326:eXtreme Gammon 2235: 2232: 2229: 2228: 2225: 2222: 2219: 2216: 2203: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2193: 2190: 2177: 2176: 2173: 2170: 2167: 2164: 2151: 2150: 2147: 2144: 2141: 2138: 2125: 2124: 2121: 2118: 2115: 2112: 2099: 2098: 2095: 2092: 2089: 2086: 2073: 2072: 2069: 2066: 2063: 2060: 2047: 2046: 2043: 2040: 2037: 2034: 2021: 2020: 2017: 2014: 2011: 2008: 1995: 1994: 1991: 1988: 1985: 1982: 1969: 1968: 1965: 1962: 1959: 1956: 1943: 1942: 1939: 1936: 1933: 1930: 1917: 1916: 1913: 1910: 1907: 1904: 1891: 1890: 1887: 1884: 1881: 1878: 1865: 1864: 1861: 1858: 1855: 1852: 1839: 1838: 1835: 1832: 1829: 1826: 1813: 1812: 1809: 1806: 1803: 1800: 1787: 1786: 1783: 1780: 1777: 1774: 1761: 1760: 1757: 1754: 1751: 1748: 1735: 1734: 1731: 1728: 1725: 1722: 1709: 1708: 1705: 1702: 1699: 1696: 1683: 1682: 1679: 1676: 1673: 1670: 1666: 1665: 1662: 1658: 1657: 1644: 1643: 1628: 1625: 1622: 1619: 1616: 1565:James Redhouse 1557:V. H. 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H1. 3986: 3982: 3976: 3974: 3970: 3965: 3961: 3960:Magriel, Paul 3955: 3952: 3947: 3945: 3937: 3934: 3930:. p. 19. 3929: 3922: 3919: 3915:. p. 50. 3914: 3907: 3904: 3899: 3892: 3889: 3884: 3880: 3874: 3871: 3866: 3862: 3861: 3853: 3850: 3845: 3839: 3835: 3828: 3826: 3822: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3804: 3796: 3793: 3788: 3782: 3779: 3774: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3759:Magriel, Paul 3754: 3752: 3750: 3748: 3746: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3736: 3725: 3721: 3715: 3712: 3706: 3703: 3691: 3687: 3681: 3678: 3667: 3663: 3657: 3654: 3642: 3638: 3631: 3628: 3617:on 2007-09-27 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3590: 3583: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3568: 3565: 3560: 3554: 3551: 3546: 3540: 3537: 3532: 3526: 3523: 3512:on 2016-03-12 3511: 3507: 3501: 3498: 3493: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3473: 3471: 3467: 3455: 3448: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3431: 3428: 3423: 3417: 3412: 3411: 3405: 3401: 3395: 3393: 3391: 3389: 3387: 3385: 3383: 3379: 3374: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3354: 3352: 3350: 3348: 3346: 3344: 3342: 3340: 3338: 3336: 3334: 3332: 3328: 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1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1479:national game 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1453: 1451: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1428: 1426: 1424: 1419: 1413: 1411: 1406: 1402: 1399:in 2006 from 1398: 1394: 1389: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1355: 1347: 1345: 1343: 1339: 1334: 1331: 1326: 1324: 1319: 1311: 1309: 1306: 1302: 1294: 1290: 1289: 1283: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1255: 1253: 1251: 1245: 1241: 1239: 1233: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1215: 1211: 1202: 1197: 1189: 1187: 1185: 1184: 1179: 1177: 1173: 1171: 1170: 1165: 1161: 1160: 1155: 1154: 1146: 1142: 1137: 1133: 1131: 1130: 1125: 1123: 1122: 1117: 1116: 1111: 1108: 1104: 1102: 1098: 1097: 1092: 1089: 1088: 1083: 1080: 1079: 1074: 1070: 1064: 1063: 1058: 1054: 1049: 1042:Related games 1041: 1039: 1037: 1032: 1030: 1025: 1023: 1022:Oswald Jacoby 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1003: 998: 992:Doubling cube 990: 984:Doubling cube 983: 981: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 957: 950: 948: 945: 941: 939: 933: 929: 909: 907: 903: 901: 897: 889: 887: 881: 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BGBlitz. 4531:(69): 6–9. 4197:Daily Sabah 4030:Lexis-Nexis 4026:PR Newswire 2480:18 November 2303:Kit Woolsey 2276:Luigi Villa 2272:fuzzy logic 2256:quintillion 1393:PartyGaming 1385:Monte Carlo 1368:Tim Holland 1338:tournaments 1270:loaded dice 1087:Hypergammon 1078:Acey-deucey 1048:Tables game 1036:Tim Holland 978:triple game 970:double game 962:single game 951:Bearing off 750:Hugh Hefner 717:back-gammon 709:any — 696:back-gammon 676:Elizabethan 535:manuscript 445:and cafes. 314:One of the 297:Tables game 208:Mesopotamia 156:probability 63:tables game 5401:Backgammon 5395:Categories 5371:Backgammon 5349:Categories 5248:Irish game 5233:Backgammon 5023:Backgammon 5011:Backgammon 4980:Audio help 4971:2007-12-06 4736:_ (1930). 4704:2022-12-29 4680:2009-02-26 4619:2015-08-10 4510:2022-09-26 4485:2022-05-01 4380:backgammon 4374:2022-05-01 4347:2022-05-02 4322:2022-05-03 4286:2022-05-03 4232:2022-05-03 4170:2022-05-03 4134:2022-05-03 4076:2013-11-20 4010:2006-09-14 3981:Maxa, Rudy 3763:Backgammon 3729:2020-08-14 3696:2009-02-26 3671:2022-12-29 3647:2007-08-08 3621:2007-08-08 3516:2009-02-26 3460:2007-10-17 3240:2006-08-05 3214:2022-12-29 3190:2022-12-29 3157:2022-12-29 3112:2010-09-10 2985:2006-08-08 2920:2006-08-05 2509:2018-04-11 2390:References 1681:Bulgarian 1605:Shesh besh 1589:Shesh Besh 1445:programs, 1352:See also: 1009:the cube. 974:backgammon 791:Tournament 682:published 581:Backgammon 575:Caravaggio 570:Cardsharps 553:Van Ostade 509:Herr Goeli 477:dice game 372:Ardashir I 316:gameboards 257:backgammon 196:board game 192:Backgammon 99:Setup time 58:Board game 27:Backgammon 5288:Ssangryuk 5200:Moultezim 4821:216459314 4780:558875155 4670:"BGBlitz" 2743:162861940 2708:248520932 2628:163212104 2580:960239246 2547:150371733 2424:Citations 2330:shareware 2287:TD-Gammon 2221:Şeş-i Yek 2039:Penc-i Dü 2013:Penc-ü Se 1805:Seba-i Dü 1664:Language 1542:marquetry 1538:Damascene 1507:Palestine 1467:marquetry 1463:Damascene 1410:Eurosport 1366:in 1967. 1360:Las 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