500:) requires several different organisms, with one breaking down the polymer into its constituent monomers, one able to use the monomers and excreting simpler waste compounds as by-products, and one able to use the excreted wastes. There are many variations on this theme, as different organisms are able to degrade different polymers and secrete different waste products. Some organisms are even able to degrade more recalcitrant compounds such as petroleum compounds or pesticides, making them useful in
1130:
kJ/mol, but ΔG' = -8.9 kJ/mol at 10 atm hydrogen and even lower if also the initially produced acetate is further metabolized by methanogens). Conversely, the available free energy from methanogenesis is lowered from ΔGº'= -131 kJ/mol under standard conditions to ΔG' = -17 kJ/mol at 10 atm hydrogen. This is an example of intraspecies hydrogen transfer. In this way, low energy-yielding carbon sources can be used by a consortium of organisms to achieve further degradation and eventual
1041:) chemolithoautotrophically. These methanogens can often be found in environments containing fermentative organisms. The tight association of methanogens and fermentative bacteria can be considered to be syntrophic (see below) because the methanogens, which rely on the fermentors for hydrogen, relieve feedback inhibition of the fermentors by the build-up of excess hydrogen that would otherwise inhibit their growth. This type of syntrophic relationship is specifically known as
2057:. Generally, the oxidation of sulfide occurs in stages, with inorganic sulfur being stored either inside or outside of the cell until needed. This two step process occurs because energetically sulfide is a better electron donor than inorganic sulfur or thiosulfate, allowing for a greater number of protons to be translocated across the membrane. Sulfur-oxidizing organisms generate reducing power for carbon dioxide fixation via the Calvin cycle using
1886:, and when reduced to TMA produces a strong odor. DMSO is a common marine and freshwater chemical which is also odiferous when reduced to DMS. Reductive dechlorination is the process by which chlorinated organic compounds are reduced to form their non-chlorinated endproducts. As chlorinated organic compounds are often important (and difficult to degrade) environmental pollutants, reductive dechlorination is an important process in bioremediation.
114:
36:
2705:), which is easily assimilated by all organisms. These prokaryotes, therefore, are very important ecologically and are often essential for the survival of entire ecosystems. This is especially true in the ocean, where nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria are often the only sources of fixed nitrogen, and in soils, where specialized symbioses exist between
2647:
of electron flow in which electrons eventually are used to form NADH. Two different reaction centers (photosystems) are used and proton motive force is generated both by using cyclic electron flow and the quinone pool. In anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria, electron flow is cyclic, with all electrons
1150:
Aerobic metabolism occurs in
Bacteria, Archaea and Eucarya. Although most bacterial species are anaerobic, many are facultative or obligate aerobes. The majority of archaeal species live in extreme environments that are often highly anaerobic. There are, however, several cases of aerobic archaea such
2332:
coupled to proton translocation by a very short electron transport chain, again leading to very low growth rates for these organisms. Oxygen is required in both ammonia and nitrite oxidation, meaning that both nitrosifying and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria are aerobes. As in sulfur and iron oxidation,
1626:
in all homoacetogens occurs by the acetyl-CoA pathway. This pathway is also used for carbon fixation by autotrophic sulfate-reducing bacteria and hydrogenotrophic methanogens. Often homoacetogens can also be fermentative, using the hydrogen and carbon dioxide produced as a result of fermentation to
904:
and NADH is produced during these oxidations to produce a proton motive force and therefore ATP generation. Methylotrophs and methanotrophs are not considered as autotrophic, because they are able to incorporate some of the oxidized methane (or other metabolites) into cellular carbon before it is
1129:
of the butyrate oxidation reaction under standard conditions (ΔGº') to non-standard conditions (ΔG'). Because the concentration of one product is lowered, the reaction is "pulled" towards the products and shifted towards net energetically favorable conditions (for butyrate oxidation: ΔGº'= +48.2
1571:
All sulfate-reducing organisms are strict anaerobes. Because sulfate is energetically stable, before it can be metabolized it must first be activated by adenylation to form APS (adenosine 5'-phosphosulfate) thereby consuming ATP. The APS is then reduced by the enzyme APS reductase to form
1234:
Most respiring anaerobes are heterotrophs, although some do live autotrophically. All of the processes described below are dissimilative, meaning that they are used during energy production and not to provide nutrients for the cell (assimilative). Assimilative pathways for many forms of
2394:
lipid membrane. These lipids are unique in nature, as is the use of hydrazine as a metabolic intermediate. Anammox organisms are autotrophs although the mechanism for carbon dioxide fixation is unclear. Because of this property, these organisms could be used to remove nitrogen in
1897:
is a type of metabolism where energy is obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds. Most chemolithotrophic organisms are also autotrophic. There are two major objectives to chemolithotrophy: the generation of energy (ATP) and the generation of reducing power (NADH).
1269:) as a terminal electron acceptor. It is a widespread process that is used by many members of the Pseudomonadota. Many facultative anaerobes use denitrification because nitrate, like oxygen, has a high reduction potential. Many denitrifying bacteria can also use ferric
1345:, nitric oxide reductase, and nitrous oxide reductase, respectively. Protons are transported across the membrane by the initial NADH reductase, quinones, and nitrous oxide reductase to produce the electrochemical gradient critical for respiration. Some organisms (e.g.
743:. Fermentative organisms are very important industrially and are used to make many different types of food products. The different metabolic end products produced by each specific bacterial species are responsible for the different tastes and properties of each food.
2652:, an energetically favorable reaction. In purple bacteria, NADH is formed by reverse electron flow due to the lower chemical potential of this reaction center. In all cases, however, a proton motive force is generated and used to drive ATP production via an ATPase.
2390:– rocket fuel) is produced as an intermediate during anammox metabolism. To deal with the high toxicity of hydrazine, anammox bacteria contain a hydrazine-containing intracellular organelle called the anammoxasome, surrounded by highly compact (and unusual)
2648:
used in photosynthesis eventually being transferred back to the single reaction center. A proton motive force is generated using only the quinone pool. In heliobacteria, Green sulfur, and Green non-sulfur bacteria, NADH is formed using the protein
1592:. In organisms that use carbon compounds as electron donors, the ATP consumed is accounted for by fermentation of the carbon substrate. The hydrogen produced during fermentation is actually what drives respiration during sulfate reduction.
565:. The metabolic diversity and ability of prokaryotes to use a large variety of organic compounds arises from the much deeper evolutionary history and diversity of prokaryotes, as compared to eukaryotes. It is also noteworthy that the
2225:, which use ferrous iron to produce NADH for autotrophic carbon dioxide fixation. Biochemically, aerobic iron oxidation is a very energetically poor process which therefore requires large amounts of iron to be oxidized by the enzyme
2327:
Electron and proton cycling are very complex but as a net result only one proton is translocated across the membrane per molecule of ammonia oxidized. Nitrite oxidation is much simpler, with nitrite being oxidized by the enzyme
386:
obtain energy from light, carbon and reducing equivalents for biosynthetic reactions from organic compounds. Some species are strictly heterotrophic, many others can also fix carbon dioxide and are mixotrophic. Examples:
438:
Some microbes are heterotrophic (more precisely chemoorganoheterotrophic), using organic compounds as both carbon and energy sources. Heterotrophic microbes live off of nutrients that they scavenge from living hosts (as
2716:, responsible for nitrogen fixation, is very sensitive to oxygen which will inhibit it irreversibly, all nitrogen-fixing organisms must possess some mechanism to keep the concentration of oxygen low. Examples include:
479:
bacteria can be viewed as heterotrophic parasites of humans or the other eukaryotic species they affect. Heterotrophic microbes are extremely abundant in nature and are responsible for the breakdown of large organic
1622:) as an electron acceptor to produce acetate, the same electron donors and acceptors used in methanogenesis (see above). Bacteria that can autotrophically synthesize acetate are called homoacetogens. Carbon dioxide
1062:
as only carbon source. The biochemistry of this process is quite different from that of the carbon dioxide-reducing methanogens. Lastly, a third group of methanogens produce both methane and carbon dioxide from
2291:). Both of these processes are extremely energetically poor leading to very slow growth rates for both types of organisms. Biochemically, ammonia oxidation occurs by the stepwise oxidation of ammonia to
92:
strategies and species can often be differentiated from each other based on metabolic characteristics. The specific metabolic properties of a microbe are the major factors in determining that microbe's
2561:) can also be used by some organisms. Phylogenetically, all oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria are Cyanobacteria, while anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria belong to the purple bacteria (Pseudomonadota),
2399:
processes. Anammox has also been shown to have widespread occurrence in anaerobic aquatic systems and has been speculated to account for approximately 50% of nitrogen gas production in the ocean.
539:. These basic pathways are well conserved because they are also involved in biosynthesis of many conserved building blocks needed for cell growth (sometimes in reverse direction). However, many
1013:
gradient across the outer membrane thereby driving ATP synthesis. Several types of methanogenesis occur, differing in the starting compounds oxidized. Some methanogens reduce carbon dioxide (CO
2604:
As befits the large diversity of photosynthetic bacteria, there are many different mechanisms by which light is converted into energy for metabolism. All photosynthetic organisms locate their
1505:) are capable of sulfur disproportionation (splitting one compound into two different compounds, in this case an electron donor and an electron acceptor) using elemental sulfur (S), sulfite (
1087:) with the acetate being split between the two carbons. These acetate-cleaving organisms are the only chemoorganoheterotrophic methanogens. All autotrophic methanogens use a variation of the
1363:) reduce nitrate completely. Complete denitrification is an environmentally significant process because some intermediates of denitrification (nitric oxide and nitrous oxide) are important
2620:(Green sulfur and non-sulfur bacteria), or the cytoplasmic membrane itself (heliobacteria). Different photosynthetic bacteria also contain different photosynthetic pigments, such as
2354:
Anammox stands for anaerobic ammonia oxidation and the organisms responsible were relatively recently discovered, in the late 1990s. This form of metabolism occurs in members of the
2229:
to facilitate the formation of proton motive force. Like sulfur oxidation, reverse electron flow must be used to form the NADH used for carbon dioxide fixation via the Calvin cycle.
1841:
A number of organisms, instead of using inorganic compounds as terminal electron acceptors, are able to use organic compounds to accept electrons from respiration. Examples include:
511:
heterotrophic metabolism is much more versatile than that of eukaryotic organisms, although many prokaryotes share the most basic metabolic models with eukaryotes, e. g. using
2097:). In all cases the energy liberated is transferred to the electron transport chain for ATP and NADH production. In addition to aerobic sulfur oxidation, some organisms (e.g.
2760:
The production and activity of nitrogenases is very highly regulated, both because nitrogen fixation is an extremely energetically expensive process (16–24 ATP are used per
2333:
NADH for carbon dioxide fixation using the Calvin cycle is generated by reverse electron flow, thereby placing a further metabolic burden on an already energy-poor process.
1970:), often inhabit oxic-anoxic interfaces in nature to take advantage of the hydrogen produced by anaerobic fermentative organisms while still maintaining a supply of oxygen.
3288:
van Kessel, Maartje A. H. J.; Speth, Daan R.; Albertsen, Mads; Nielsen, Per H.; Op den Camp, Huub J. M.; Kartal, Boran; Jetten, Mike S. M.; LĂĽcker, Sebastian (2015-12-24).
3136:
Jugder, Bat-Erdene; Welch, Jeffrey; Aguey-Zinsou, Kondo-Francois; Marquis, Christopher P. (2013). "Fundamentals and electrochemical applications of -uptake hydrogenases".
1956:. In many organisms, a second cytoplasmic hydrogenase is used to generate reducing power in the form of NADH, which is subsequently used to fix carbon dioxide via the
1685:
ions in anaerobic respiration. While these processes may often be less significant ecologically, they are of considerable interest for bioremediation, especially when
2659:) are photoheterotrophs, meaning that they use organic carbon compounds as a carbon source for growth. Some photosynthetic organisms also fix nitrogen (see below).
3353:
Daims, Holger; Lebedeva, Elena V.; Pjevac, Petra; Han, Ping; Herbold, Craig; Albertsen, Mads; Jehmlich, Nico; Palatinszky, Marton; Vierheilig, Julia (2015-12-24).
1681:
Although ferric iron is the most prevalent inorganic electron acceptor, a number of organisms (including the iron-reducing bacteria mentioned above) can use other
4644:
3897:
2712:
Nitrogen fixation can be found distributed throughout nearly all bacterial lineages and physiological classes but is not a universal property. Because the enzyme
1650:, ending in oxygen or nitrate, except that in ferric iron-reducing organisms the final enzyme in this system is a ferric iron reductase. Model organisms include
1646:) is a widespread anaerobic terminal electron acceptor both for autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms. Electron flow in these organisms is similar to those in
1125:(hydrogen-using) methanogen is present the use of the hydrogen gas will significantly lower the concentration of hydrogen (down to 10 atm) and thereby shift the
1928:
have been mentioned previously (e.g. sulfate reducing- and acetogenic bacteria), the chemical energy of hydrogen can be used in the aerobic
Knallgas reaction:
1107:
that, on its own, would be energetically unfavorable. The best studied example of this process is the oxidation of fermentative end products (such as acetate,
819:. Several other less common substrates may also be used for metabolism, all of which lack carbon-carbon bonds. Examples of methylotrophs include the bacteria
4788:
3715:
2936:
Ishimoto M, Koyama J, Nagai Y (September 1954). "Biochemical
Studies on Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria: IV. The Cytochrome System of Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria".
2504:
can also be applied to chloroplasts. In addition to oxygenic photosynthesis, many bacteria can also photosynthesize anaerobically, typically using sulfide (
938:
In addition to aerobic methylotrophy, methane can also be oxidized anaerobically. This occurs by a consortium of sulfate-reducing bacteria and relatives of
2365:") and involves the coupling of ammonia oxidation to nitrite reduction. As oxygen is not required for this process, these organisms are strict anaerobes.
4858:
2820:
Tang, K.-H., Tang, Y. J., Blankenship, R. E. (2011). "Carbon metabolic pathways in phototrophic bacteria and their broader evolutionary implications"
2221:) live at the oxic-anoxic interfaces and are microaerophiles. The third type of iron-oxidizing microbes are anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria such as
57:
44:
4395:
3233:"Isolation and Characterization of a Genetically Tractable Photoautotrophic Fe(II)-Oxidizing Bacterium, Rhodopseudomonas palustris Strain TIE-1"
2643:
Biochemically, anoxygenic photosynthesis is very different from oxygenic photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria (and by extension, chloroplasts) use the
4868:
4596:
3725:
3493:
2093:. Some organisms, however, accomplish the same oxidation using a reversal of the APS reductase system used by sulfate-reducing bacteria (see
629:
instead of oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor. This means that these organisms do not use an electron transport chain to oxidize NADH to
4873:
2693:. Throughout all of nature, only specialized bacteria and Archaea are capable of nitrogen fixation, converting dinitrogen gas into ammonia (
1351:) only produce nitrate reductase and therefore can accomplish only the first reduction leading to the accumulation of nitrite. Others (e.g.
4430:
547:
utilize alternative metabolic pathways other than glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. A well-studied example is sugar metabolism via the
611:
that may be used. As discussed below, the use of terminal electron acceptors other than oxygen has important biogeochemical consequences.
5061:
246:
obtain energy from light and carbon from the fixation of carbon dioxide, using reducing equivalents from inorganic compounds. Examples:
4478:
4814:
4637:
3890:
2809:
1674:
as a carbon source, there is significant interest in using these organisms as bioremediation agents in ferric iron-rich contaminated
4150:
2135:
2640:
in
Cyanobacteria and chlorosomes in Green sulfur and non-sulfur bacteria), allowing for increased efficiency in light utilization.
651:
for the proper functioning of normal metabolic pathways (e.g. glycolysis). As oxygen is not required, fermentative organisms are
569:, the small membrane-bound intracellular organelle that is the site of eukaryotic oxygen-using energy metabolism, arose from the
4893:
4606:
4473:
4185:
2396:
1405:
676:
5151:
2963:
Mizuno O, Li YY, Noike T (May 1998). "The behavior of sulfate-reducing bacteria in acidogenic phase of anaerobic digestion".
2655:
Most photosynthetic microbes are autotrophic, fixing carbon dioxide via the Calvin cycle. Some photosynthetic bacteria (e.g.
2605:
2180:
1042:
687:
to form ATP. As a result of the need to produce high energy phosphate-containing organic compounds (generally in the form of
5278:
4923:
1231:
can use either oxygen or alternative terminal electron acceptors for respiration depending on the environmental conditions.
496:
which are generally indigestible to larger animals. Generally, the oxidative breakdown of large polymers to carbon dioxide (
2726:) where one cell does not photosynthesize but instead fixes nitrogen for its neighbors which in turn provide it with energy
2147:
or under anaerobic conditions. Under aerobic, moderate pH conditions ferrous iron is oxidized spontaneously to the ferric (
5324:
4878:
4630:
3883:
3616:
750:. Instead, some organisms are able to couple the oxidation of low-energy organic compounds directly to the formation of a
4756:
552:
475:(predators of other bacteria which are killed and used by cooperating swarms of many single cells of Myxobacteria). Most
3537:
Op den Camp HJ (February 2006). "Global impact and application of the anaerobic ammonium-oxidizing (anammox) bacteria".
2317:
1489:
1088:
5113:
4004:
3823:
2186:
1907:
782:. These reactions are extremely low-energy yielding. Humans and other higher animals also use fermentation to produce
620:
363:
obtain energy, carbon, and hydrogen for biosynthetic reactions from organic compounds. Examples: most bacteria, e. g.
2840:
2673:
Nitrogen is an element required for growth by all biological systems. While extremely common (80% by volume) in the
1449:
Many sulfate reducers are organotrophic, using carbon compounds such as lactate and pyruvate (among many others) as
926:
5178:
4898:
4102:
3999:
2217:
2099:
2048:
1216:
608:
122:
945:
working syntrophically (see below). Little is currently known about the biochemistry and ecology of this process.
229:
obtain energy from the oxidation of inorganic compounds and carbon from the fixation of carbon dioxide. Examples:
49:
5359:
4971:
4863:
4721:
4706:
4701:
4092:
2572:
1400:
562:
355:
5118:
3192:. Purification, Characterization, and Molecular Biology of a Heterodimeric Member of the Sulfite Oxidase Family"
5454:
5349:
5344:
5314:
4581:
4463:
2743:
2629:
2439:
1353:
1131:
600:
497:
3114:
1121:. Alone, the oxidation of butyrate to acetate and hydrogen gas is energetically unfavorable. However, when a
786:
from excess NADH, although this is not the major form of metabolism as it is in fermentative microorganisms.
516:
5193:
5056:
4966:
4834:
4716:
4686:
4543:
4508:
4228:
4195:
4170:
2205:
1652:
1589:
1409:
998:
768:
692:
591:. Therefore, it is not surprising that all mitrochondriate eukaryotes share metabolic properties with these
234:
1383:
treatment where it is used to reduce the amount of nitrogen released into the environment thereby reducing
5339:
5283:
5218:
5081:
5016:
4951:
4611:
4513:
4301:
4009:
3989:
2752:
2445:
2329:
2203:. The second type of microbes oxidize ferrous iron at near-neutral pH. These micro-organisms (for example
2175:
2053:
1854:
1388:
1103:
Syntrophy, in the context of microbial metabolism, refers to the pairing of multiple species to achieve a
778:
528:
3590:
451:). Microbial metabolism is the main contribution for the bodily decay of all organisms after death. Many
5243:
5188:
5051:
5036:
4819:
4776:
4766:
4761:
4518:
4498:
4354:
4344:
4286:
4281:
4117:
3969:
2562:
2362:
2309:
2265:). Nitrification is actually the net result of two distinct processes: oxidation of ammonia to nitrite (
2058:
1236:
893:
684:
1441:) is produced as a metabolic end product. For sulfate reduction electron donors and energy are needed.
640:
and therefore must have an alternative method of using this reducing power and maintaining a supply of
5369:
5334:
5329:
5253:
5248:
5203:
5101:
5071:
5066:
4918:
4781:
4771:
4155:
3944:
3788:
3654:
3476:
Zhu G, Peng Y, Li B, Guo J, Yang Q, Wang S (2008). "Biological
Removal of Nitrogen from Wastewater".
3434:
3366:
3301:
3244:
3145:
3070:
3015:
2972:
2609:
1359:
1228:
1224:
1188:
1135:
1126:
672:
660:
596:
469:(an intracellular parasite of other bacteria, causing death of its victims) and Myxobacteria such as
3875:
1138:
over geologic time scales, releasing it back to the biosphere in usable forms such as methane and CO
1058:) as a substrate for methanogenesis. These are chemoorganotrophic, but still autotrophic in using CO
910:
401:
5449:
5419:
5394:
5258:
5228:
5173:
5086:
4976:
4961:
4908:
4741:
4676:
4558:
4488:
4019:
2781:
2408:
2211:
1712:
931:
827:
755:
751:
716:
656:
230:
171:
4622:
3744:
Bryant DA, Frigaard NU (November 2006). "Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated".
2492:. Along with plants these microbes are responsible for all biological generation of oxygen gas on
800:
548:
5430:
5379:
5374:
5183:
5146:
4844:
4809:
4666:
4591:
4493:
4425:
4415:
4349:
4296:
4107:
4052:
4014:
3939:
3696:
3572:
3511:
3458:
3039:
2613:
2601:, a light-driven proton pump. However, there are no known Archaea that carry out photosynthesis.
2200:
2044:
1966:
1868:
1647:
1467:
1220:
963:
952:
652:
316:
184:
4888:
2500:
were derived from a lineage of the
Cyanobacteria, the general principles of metabolism in these
1408:
is a relatively energetically poor process used by many Gram-negative bacteria found within the
1164:
3419:
174:(hydrogen atoms or electrons) used either in energy conservation or in biosynthetic reactions:
5319:
5288:
5076:
4903:
4711:
4576:
4553:
4410:
4291:
4067:
3979:
3964:
3949:
3929:
3845:
3804:
3761:
3721:
3688:
3670:
3564:
3499:
3489:
3450:
3400:
3382:
3335:
3317:
3270:
3213:
3161:
3096:
3031:
2918:
2910:
2871:
2805:
2709:
and their nitrogen-fixing partners to provide the nitrogen needed by these plants for growth.
2690:
2668:
2644:
2598:
1342:
1338:
1285:
1104:
664:
520:
351:
238:
216:
667:
fermentative organisms usually do not have a complete citric acid cycle. Instead of using an
5273:
5136:
5128:
5046:
4928:
4913:
4849:
4829:
4746:
4736:
4731:
4696:
4528:
4468:
4339:
4140:
4082:
3994:
3954:
3835:
3796:
3753:
3678:
3662:
3554:
3546:
3481:
3442:
3390:
3374:
3325:
3309:
3260:
3252:
3203:
3153:
3086:
3078:
3023:
2980:
2945:
2902:
2863:
2785:
2633:
2585:(Low %G+C Gram positives). In addition to these organisms, some microbes (e.g. the Archaeon
2449:
2222:
2159:
2065:
gradient to produce NADH. Biochemically, reduced sulfur compounds are converted to sulfite (
1894:
1872:
1501:
1495:
1425:
1414:
1212:
1193:
1180:
1122:
969:
626:
561:. Moreover, there is a third alternative sugar-catabolic pathway used by some bacteria, the
395:
365:
273:
156:
94:
2472:
for electron transfer during photosynthesis. Phototrophic bacteria are found in the phyla "
2199:. These microbes oxidize iron in environments that have a very low pH and are important in
997:. The biochemistry of methanogenesis is unique in nature in its use of a number of unusual
5409:
5268:
5238:
5233:
5223:
5156:
5141:
5021:
5001:
4883:
4751:
4657:
4548:
4458:
4400:
4385:
3984:
3910:
3523:
2949:
2355:
2090:
1817:
1248:
897:
747:
310:
obtain energy from the oxidation of inorganic compounds, but cannot fix carbon dioxide (CO
102:
3182:
Kappler U, Bennett B, Rethmeier J, Schwarz G, Deutzmann R, McEwan AG, Dahl C (May 2000).
3792:
3658:
3438:
3370:
3305:
3248:
3149:
3074:
3019:
2999:
2976:
2867:
2444:
Many microbes (phototrophs) are capable of using light as a source of energy to produce
5389:
5213:
5166:
5096:
5091:
4986:
4853:
4726:
4533:
4523:
4503:
4380:
4306:
4271:
4210:
4087:
4042:
3934:
3683:
3642:
3395:
3354:
3330:
3289:
3265:
3232:
2736:
2481:
2469:
2140:
1862:
1450:
1384:
1364:
1117:
981:
975:
948:
592:
501:
407:
377:
140:
3800:
2984:
2906:
2636:. Some groups of organisms contain more specialized light-harvesting structures (e.g.
222:
In practice, these terms are almost freely combined. Typical examples are as follows:
5443:
5414:
4390:
4364:
4321:
4311:
4266:
4253:
4233:
4125:
3959:
3914:
3700:
3091:
3058:
2637:
2587:
2582:
2485:
2473:
2292:
2062:
2013:
1978:
Sulfur oxidation involves the oxidation of reduced sulfur compounds (such as sulfide
1420:
1309:
1203:) can also use an unrelated cytochrome bd complex as a respiratory terminal oxidase.
1172:
1168:
1152:
957:
921:
759:
587:
570:
566:
419:
268:
264:
247:
98:
81:
17:
3256:
3082:
2174:). There are three distinct types of ferrous iron-oxidizing microbes. The first are
951:
is the biological production of methane. It is carried out by methanogens, strictly
5399:
5384:
5041:
5011:
4956:
4839:
4804:
4681:
4180:
3576:
3462:
3043:
2890:
2577:
2501:
2453:
2281:
1957:
1690:
1686:
1601:
1305:
1156:
1006:
993:
987:
915:
832:
821:
812:
808:
740:
720:
712:
668:
465:
425:
288:
2804:
Morris, J. et al. (2019). "Biology: How Life Works", 3rd edition, W. H. Freeman.
1009:. These cofactors are responsible (among other things) for the establishment of a
1465:) as an electron donor. Some unusual autotrophic sulfate-reducing bacteria (e.g.
4691:
4420:
4238:
4200:
4175:
4165:
4130:
4077:
4057:
3485:
2713:
2625:
2621:
2593:
2497:
2477:
2287:
2226:
2195:
1949:
1667:
1199:
816:
783:
736:
732:
557:
508:
413:
389:
328:
190:
151:
1223:
use other electron acceptors. These inorganic compounds release less energy in
896:. As oxygen is required for this process, all (conventional) methanotrophs are
5404:
4981:
4946:
4586:
4538:
4483:
4453:
4359:
4276:
4220:
4097:
4047:
3757:
3666:
3027:
2854:
DiMarco AA, Bobik TA, Wolfe RS (1990). "Unusual coenzymes of methanogenesis".
2674:
2649:
2617:
2567:
2421:
2338:
2285:) and oxidation of nitrite to nitrate by the nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (e.g.
1953:
1380:
1176:
1160:
1002:
939:
724:
688:
575:
512:
471:
460:
452:
448:
440:
211:
203:
179:
113:
89:
3674:
3386:
3321:
3208:
3183:
3165:
2914:
2828:
166:– carbon is obtained from both organic compounds and by fixing carbon dioxide
5309:
5263:
4991:
4435:
4405:
4205:
4160:
4135:
4072:
4062:
4037:
4029:
3974:
3004:
sp. nov., a new marine sulfate reducer that oxidizes phosphite to phosphate"
2731:
2489:
2416:
2391:
2366:
2321:
2313:
2039:
1925:
1849:
1697:
1682:
1658:
1472:
1376:
763:
680:
581:
485:
456:
334:
322:
162:
135:
3849:
3808:
3765:
3692:
3568:
3503:
3454:
3404:
3339:
3274:
3217:
3100:
3035:
35:
3840:
2922:
2875:
2468:
are particularly significant because they are oxygenic, using water as an
5364:
5293:
4824:
4331:
4243:
4190:
4145:
2722:
2343:
2191:
1845:
1761:
1745:
1729:
1368:
1167:. Most of the known eukaryotes carry out aerobic metabolism within their
1112:
804:
696:
695:
to produce many different reduced metabolic by-products, often including
540:
476:
444:
371:
127:
All microbial metabolisms can be arranged according to three principles:
3378:
3313:
2772:
fixed) and due to the extreme sensitivity of the nitrogenase to oxygen.
1924:) as a source of energy. While several mechanisms of anaerobic hydrogen
5354:
5161:
5031:
5026:
4653:
4601:
4261:
3906:
3550:
3157:
2735:) with plants that supply oxygen to the bacteria bound to molecules of
2461:
2419:
after performing unrelated experiments and named its bacterial species
2267:
2238:
1783:
1767:
1675:
1671:
1573:
1347:
1289:
1254:
1184:
1108:
1064:
942:
901:
836:
773:
728:
544:
536:
524:
481:
117:
Flow chart to determine the metabolic characteristics of microorganisms
88:) it needs to live and reproduce. Microbes use many different types of
3559:
2316:, followed by the oxidation of hydroxylamine to nitrite by the enzyme
2061:, an energy-requiring process that pushes the electrons against their
625:
Fermentation is a specific type of heterotrophic metabolism that uses
2891:"Evolution of energetic metabolism: the respiration-early hypothesis"
2706:
2597:, among others) can utilize light to produce energy using the enzyme
1952:
causing proton pumping via electron transfer to various quinones and
1801:
1010:
655:. Many organisms can use fermentation under anaerobic conditions and
604:
493:
489:
85:
3779:
McFadden G (1999). "Endosymbiosis and evolution of the plant cell".
3059:"Thiosulfate Disproportionation by Desulfotomaculum thermobenzoicum"
2115:) as a terminal electron acceptor and therefore grow anaerobically.
1606:
Acetogenesis is a type of microbial metabolism that uses hydrogen (
1001:
to sequentially reduce methanogenic substrates to methane, such as
3446:
2493:
2465:
2457:
1623:
1372:
112:
3617:"Bacteria that eats metal accidentally discovered by scientists"
1883:
1288:. Denitrification involves the stepwise reduction of nitrate to
1270:
532:
4626:
3879:
2628:, allowing them to take advantage of different portions of the
851:) as a carbon source by oxidizing it sequentially to methanol (
130:
1. How the organism obtains carbon for synthesizing cell mass:
835:
are a specific type of methylotroph that are also able to use
29:
2517:) as an electron donor to produce sulfate. Inorganic sulfur (
2336:
In 2015, two groups independently showed the microbial genus
1948:
In these organisms, hydrogen is oxidized by a membrane-bound
27:
Biochemical pathways used by microbes to satisfy energy needs
1134:
of these compounds. These reactions help prevent the excess
683:
group is transferred from a high-energy organic compound to
2144:
198:
3. How the organism obtains energy for living and growing:
3591:"Bacteria with a metal diet discovered in dirty glassware"
2143:
is a soluble form of iron that is stable at extremely low
799:
Methylotrophy refers to the ability of an organism to use
762:. Examples of these unusual forms of fermentation include
194:– reducing equivalents are obtained from organic compounds
3418:
Strous M, Fuerst JA, Kramer EH, et al. (July 1999).
2689:) is generally biologically inaccessible due to its high
2616:("Cyanobacteria"), specialized antenna structures called
3643:"Bacterial chemolithoautotrophy via manganese oxidation"
2037:). A classic example of a sulfur-oxidizing bacterium is
1227:, which leads to slower growth rates than aerobes. Many
3822:
Cabello P, Roldán MD, Moreno-Vivián C (November 2004).
2998:
Schink B, Thiemann V, Laue H, Friedrich MW (May 2002).
711:). These reduced organic compounds are generally small
3231:
Jiao Y, Kappler A, Croal LR, Newman DK (August 2005).
1627:
produce acetate, which is secreted as an end product.
1191:
3824:"Nitrate reduction and the nitrogen cycle in archaea"
3478:
2608:
within a membrane, which may be invaginations of the
1453:, while others are lithotrophic, using hydrogen gas (
429:(alternatively to photolithoautotrophy with hydrogen)
3420:"Missing lithotroph identified as new planctomycete"
5302:
5202:
5127:
5000:
4937:
4797:
4665:
4567:
4446:
4373:
4330:
4252:
4219:
4116:
4028:
3922:
746:Not all fermentative organisms use substrate-level
691:-esters) fermentative organisms use NADH and other
97:, and often allow for that microbe to be useful in
3290:"Complete nitrification by a single microorganism"
2889:Castresana, Jose; Saraste, Matti (November 1995).
2158:) form and is hydrolyzed abiotically to insoluble
1693:are used as electron acceptors. Examples include:
1596:Acetogenesis – carbon dioxide as electron acceptor
1379:. Denitrification is also important in biological
1029:) using electrons (most often) from hydrogen gas (
2407:In July 2020 researchers report the discovery of
1662:. Since some ferric iron-reducing bacteria (e.g.
909:(at the level of formaldehyde), using either the
573:of a bacterium related to obligate intracellular
463:, properties also found in some bacteria such as
2841:"Chemolithotrophy | Boundless Microbiology"
1395:Sulfate reduction – sulfate as electron acceptor
3867:Madigan, Michael T.; Martinko, John M. (2005).
3355:"Complete nitrification by Nitrospira bacteria"
675:, ATP in fermentative organisms is produced by
1912:Many organisms are capable of using hydrogen (
1243:Denitrification – nitrate as electron acceptor
1045:. A second group of methanogens use methanol (
447:) or find in dead organic matter of all kind (
4638:
3891:
1618:) as an electron donor and carbon dioxide (CO
935:), depending on the species of methylotroph.
8:
3641:Yu, Hang; Leadbetter, Jared R. (July 2020).
1487:) as an electron donor whereas others (e.g.
659:when oxygen is present. These organisms are
263:) as reducing equivalent = hydrogen donor),
803:as energy sources. These compounds include
4859:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
4645:
4631:
4623:
3898:
3884:
3876:
3177:
3175:
1991:), inorganic sulfur (S), and thiosulfate (
1387:. Denitrification can be determined via a
3839:
3739:
3737:
3682:
3558:
3394:
3329:
3264:
3207:
3090:
2829:http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/micb.2011.00165
2720:heterocyst formation (cyanobacteria e.g.
2094:
2077:) and subsequently converted to sulfate (
183:– reducing equivalents are obtained from
4757:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
4396:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
3057:Jackson BE, McInerney MJ (August 2000).
1960:. Hydrogen-oxidizing organisms, such as
1882:TMAO is a chemical commonly produced by
60:of all important aspects of the article.
4789:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
3714:Gräber, Peter; Milazzo, Giulio (1997).
2797:
1375:to produce nitric acid, a component of
663:. To avoid the overproduction of NADH,
84:obtains the energy and nutrients (e.g.
4597:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
3519:
3509:
2342:is capable of complete nitrification (
2237:Nitrification is the process by which
1760:) and selenite reduction to inorganic
1412:, Gram-positive organisms relating to
1253:Denitrification is the utilization of
56:Please consider expanding the lead to
2950:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a126495
2412:
7:
4612:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
2043:, a microbe originally described by
1538:) to produce both hydrogen sulfide (
455:microorganisms are heterotrophic by
350:as reducing equivalent donor), some
5062:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
2868:10.1146/annurev.bi.59.070190.002035
1837:Organic terminal electron acceptors
1215:during respiration use oxygen as a
549:keto-deoxy-phosphogluconate pathway
215:– energy is obtained from external
4815:Ecological effects of biodiversity
3480:. Vol. 192. pp. 159–95.
1631:Other inorganic electron acceptors
531:and reducing power in the form of
527:, producing energy in the form of
434:Heterotrophic microbial metabolism
25:
4151:Generalist and specialist species
2279:) by nitrosifying bacteria (e.g.
2136:Acidophiles in acid mine drainage
1171:which is an organelle that had a
4874:Occupancy–abundance relationship
900:. Reducing power in the form of
34:
4894:Relative abundance distribution
4607:Plant defense against herbivory
4474:Competitive exclusion principle
4186:Mesopredator release hypothesis
3869:Brock Biology of Microorganisms
3257:10.1128/AEM.71.8.4487-4496.2005
3083:10.1128/AEM.66.8.3650-3653.2000
2606:photosynthetic reaction centers
2397:industrial wastewater treatment
1406:Dissimilatory sulfate reduction
677:substrate-level phosphorylation
579:, and also to plant-associated
519:) for sugar metabolism and the
304:) as reducing equivalent donor)
207:– energy is obtained from light
48:may be too short to adequately
4479:Consumer–resource interactions
2895:Trends in Biochemical Sciences
2784:, a minority of bacteria with
2632:and thereby inhabit different
2181:Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans
1043:interspecies hydrogen transfer
927:ribulose monophosphate pathway
58:provide an accessible overview
1:
5325:Biological data visualization
5152:Environmental niche modelling
4879:Population viability analysis
3801:10.1016/S1369-5266(99)00025-4
3002:Desulfotignum phosphitoxidans
2985:10.1016/S0043-1354(97)00372-2
2907:10.1016/s0968-0004(00)89098-2
1468:Desulfotignum phosphitoxidans
233:, sulfur-oxidizing bacteria,
4810:Density-dependent inhibition
2729:root nodule symbioses (e.g.
2424:Manganitrophus noduliformans
2318:hydroxylamine oxidoreductase
1490:Desulfovibrio sulfodismutans
1095:and obtain cellular carbon.
1089:reductive acetyl-CoA pathway
790:Special metabolic properties
170:2. How the organism obtains
5279:Liebig's law of the minimum
5114:Resource selection function
4005:Metabolic theory of ecology
3486:10.1007/978-0-387-71724-1_5
2750:very fast metabolism (e.g.
2253:) is converted to nitrate (
2187:Leptospirillum ferrooxidans
1908:Hydrogen oxidizing bacteria
892:initially using the enzyme
621:Fermentation (biochemistry)
5471:
5179:Niche apportionment models
4899:Relative species abundance
4103:Primary nutritional groups
4000:List of feeding behaviours
3720:. Birkhäuser. p. 80.
2741:anaerobic lifestyle (e.g.
2666:
2437:
2428:Ramlibacter lithotrophicus
2218:Mariprofundus ferrooxydans
2133:
2100:Thiobacillus denitrificans
2049:environmental microbiology
1905:
1599:
1496:Desulfocapsa thiozymogenes
1398:
1246:
1217:terminal electron acceptor
618:
609:terminal electron acceptor
155:– carbon is obtained from
139:– carbon is obtained from
123:Primary nutritional groups
120:
5428:
5360:Ecosystem based fisheries
4972:Interspecific competition
4864:Minimum viable population
4722:Maximum sustainable yield
4707:Intraspecific competition
4702:Effective population size
4582:Anti-predator adaptations
4093:Photosynthetic efficiency
3758:10.1016/j.tim.2006.09.001
3667:10.1038/s41586-020-2468-5
3028:10.1007/s00203-002-0402-x
2822:Frontiers in Microbiology
2573:green non-sulfur bacteria
2047:, one of the founders of
1659:Geobacter metallireducens
1502:Desulfocapsa sulfoexigens
1401:Sulfate-reducing bacteria
905:completely oxidized to CO
563:pentose phosphate pathway
356:sulfate-reducing bacteria
5350:Ecological stoichiometry
5315:Alternative stable state
3871:. Pearson Prentice Hall.
3209:10.1074/jbc.275.18.13202
2744:Clostridium pasteurianum
2630:electromagnetic spectrum
2440:Phototrophic prokaryotes
1878:Reductive dechlorination
1354:Paracoccus denitrificans
888:), and carbon dioxide CO
601:electron transport chain
80:is the means by which a
5194:Ontogenetic niche shift
5057:Ideal free distribution
4967:Ecological facilitation
4717:Malthusian growth model
4687:Consumer-resource model
4544:Paradox of the plankton
4509:Energy systems language
4229:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
4196:Optimal foraging theory
4171:Heterotrophic nutrition
2411:bacterial culture that
2178:, such as the bacteria
1653:Shewanella putrefaciens
1410:Thermodesulfobacteriota
1136:sequestration of carbon
1115:) by organisms such as
769:Propionigenium modestum
384:photoorganoheterotrophs
361:chemoorganoheterotrophs
235:iron-oxidizing bacteria
5340:Ecological forecasting
5284:Marginal value theorem
5082:Landscape epidemiology
5017:Cross-boundary subsidy
4952:Biological interaction
4302:Microbial intelligence
3990:Green world hypothesis
3237:Appl Environ Microbiol
3063:Appl Environ Microbiol
2753:Azotobacter vinelandii
2330:nitrite oxidoreductase
2206:Gallionella ferruginea
1389:nitrate reductase test
779:Oxalobacter formigenes
308:chemolithoheterotrophs
286:) as hydrogen donor),
118:
5345:Ecological humanities
5244:Ecological energetics
5189:Niche differentiation
5052:Habitat fragmentation
4820:Ecological extinction
4767:Small population size
4519:Feed conversion ratio
4499:Ecological succession
4431:San Francisco Estuary
4345:Ecological efficiency
4287:Microbial cooperation
3841:10.1099/mic.0.27303-0
3190:Thiobacillus novellus
2563:green sulfur bacteria
2409:chemolithoautotrophic
2363:Brocadia anammoxidans
2310:ammonia monooxygenase
2134:Further information:
2059:reverse electron flow
2051:. Another example is
1237:anaerobic respiration
1229:facultative anaerobes
1207:Anaerobic respiration
894:methane monooxygenase
723:, the end product of
661:facultative anaerobes
116:
18:Bacterial metabolisms
5370:Evolutionary ecology
5335:Ecological footprint
5330:Ecological economics
5254:Ecological threshold
5249:Ecological indicator
5119:Source–sink dynamics
5072:Land change modeling
5067:Insular biogeography
4919:Species distribution
4658:Modelling ecosystems
4317:Microbial metabolism
4156:Intraguild predation
3945:Biogeochemical cycle
3911:Modelling ecosystems
3781:Curr Opin Plant Biol
3188:Oxidoreductase from
3184:"Sulfite:Cytochrome
2610:cytoplasmic membrane
2550:) and ferrous iron (
1871:(DMSO) reduction to
1861:(TMAO) reduction to
1567:Energy for reduction
1517:), and thiosulfate (
1360:Pseudomonas stutzeri
1225:cellular respiration
244:photolithoautotrophs
227:chemolithoautotrophs
172:reducing equivalents
99:industrial processes
78:Microbial metabolism
5420:Theoretical ecology
5395:Natural environment
5259:Ecosystem diversity
5229:Ecological collapse
5219:Bateman's principle
5174:Limiting similarity
5087:Landscape limnology
4909:Species homogeneity
4747:Population modeling
4742:Population dynamics
4559:Trophic state index
3793:1999COPB....2..513M
3659:2020Natur.583..453Y
3439:1999Natur.400..446S
3379:10.1038/nature16461
3371:2015Natur.528..504D
3314:10.1038/nature16459
3306:2015Natur.528..555V
3249:2005ApEnM..71.4487J
3150:2013RSCAd...3.8142J
3115:"knallgas reaction"
3075:2000ApEnM..66.3650J
3020:2002ArMic.177..381S
2977:1998WatRe..32.1626M
2782:Lipophilic bacteria
2614:thylakoid membranes
2403:Manganese oxidation
2212:Leptothrix ochracea
1962:Cupriavidus necator
1325:), and dinitrogen (
1284:) and some organic
1221:anaerobic organisms
1146:Aerobic respiration
756:sodium-motive force
752:proton motive force
727:. Examples include
657:aerobic respiration
271:(hydrogen sulfide (
231:Nitrifying bacteria
185:inorganic compounds
101:or responsible for
5431:Outline of ecology
5380:Industrial ecology
5375:Functional ecology
5239:Ecological deficit
5184:Niche construction
5147:Ecosystem engineer
4924:Species–area curve
4845:Introduced species
4660:: Other components
4592:Deimatic behaviour
4494:Ecological network
4426:North Pacific Gyre
4411:hydrothermal vents
4350:Ecological pyramid
4297:Microbial food web
4108:Primary production
4053:Foundation species
3834:(Pt 11): 3527–46.
3551:10.1042/BST0340174
3158:10.1039/c3ra22668a
3117:. Oxford Reference
2856:Annu. Rev. Biochem
2677:, dinitrogen gas (
2612:(Pseudomonadota),
2201:acid mine drainage
2045:Sergei Winogradsky
1967:Ralstonia eutropha
1902:Hydrogen oxidation
1869:Dimethyl sulfoxide
1664:G. metallireducens
1648:electron transport
1286:electron acceptors
1189:cytochrome oxidase
964:Methanocaldococcus
314:). Examples: some
217:chemical compounds
119:
5437:
5436:
5320:Balance of nature
5077:Landscape ecology
4962:Community ecology
4904:Species diversity
4840:Indicator species
4835:Gradient analysis
4712:Logistic function
4620:
4619:
4577:Animal coloration
4554:Trophic mutualism
4292:Microbial ecology
4083:Photoheterotrophs
4068:Myco-heterotrophy
3980:Ecosystem ecology
3965:Carrying capacity
3930:Abiotic component
3727:978-3-7643-5295-0
3653:(7816): 453–458.
3539:Biochem Soc Trans
3495:978-0-387-71723-4
3365:(7583): 504–509.
3300:(7583): 555–559.
2691:activation energy
2669:Nitrogen fixation
2663:Nitrogen fixation
2599:bacteriorhodopsin
2591:or the bacterium
2450:organic compounds
2190:, as well as the
1343:nitrite reductase
1339:nitrate reductase
1337:) by the enzymes
1213:aerobic organisms
1181:aerobic organisms
1105:chemical reaction
864:), formaldehyde (
521:citric acid cycle
352:Knallgas-bacteria
239:Knallgas-bacteria
157:organic compounds
75:
74:
16:(Redirected from
5462:
5137:Ecological niche
5109:selection theory
4929:Umbrella species
4914:Species richness
4850:Invasive species
4830:Flagship species
4737:Population cycle
4732:Overexploitation
4697:Ecological yield
4647:
4640:
4633:
4624:
4529:Mesotrophic soil
4469:Climax community
4401:Marine food webs
4340:Biomagnification
4141:Chemoorganotroph
3995:Keystone species
3955:Biotic component
3900:
3893:
3886:
3877:
3872:
3854:
3853:
3843:
3819:
3813:
3812:
3776:
3770:
3769:
3746:Trends Microbiol
3741:
3732:
3731:
3711:
3705:
3704:
3686:
3638:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3627:
3612:
3606:
3605:
3603:
3601:
3587:
3581:
3580:
3562:
3534:
3528:
3527:
3521:
3517:
3515:
3507:
3473:
3467:
3466:
3424:
3415:
3409:
3408:
3398:
3350:
3344:
3343:
3333:
3285:
3279:
3278:
3268:
3228:
3222:
3221:
3211:
3202:(18): 13202–12.
3179:
3170:
3169:
3133:
3127:
3126:
3124:
3122:
3111:
3105:
3104:
3094:
3054:
3048:
3047:
2995:
2989:
2988:
2960:
2954:
2953:
2933:
2927:
2926:
2886:
2880:
2879:
2851:
2845:
2844:
2837:
2831:
2818:
2812:
2802:
2786:lipid metabolism
2771:
2770:
2769:
2704:
2703:
2702:
2688:
2687:
2686:
2560:
2559:
2558:
2549:
2548:
2547:
2539:
2538:
2529:), thiosulfate (
2528:
2527:
2526:
2516:
2514:
2513:
2389:
2388:
2387:
2379:
2378:
2308:) by the enzyme
2307:
2305:
2304:
2278:
2276:
2275:
2264:
2263:
2262:
2252:
2251:
2250:
2223:Rhodopseudomonas
2173:
2172:
2171:
2160:ferric hydroxide
2157:
2156:
2155:
2129:
2128:
2127:
2114:
2113:
2112:
2089:) by the enzyme
2088:
2087:
2086:
2076:
2075:
2074:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2026:
2025:
2011:
2010:
2009:
2001:
2000:
1990:
1988:
1987:
1974:Sulfur oxidation
1923:
1922:
1921:
1895:Chemolithotrophy
1890:Chemolithotrophy
1873:dimethyl sulfide
1831:
1830:
1829:
1815:
1814:
1813:
1797:
1796:
1795:
1781:
1780:
1779:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1743:
1742:
1741:
1725:
1724:
1723:
1710:
1709:
1708:
1666:) can use toxic
1645:
1644:
1643:
1617:
1616:
1615:
1587:
1586:
1585:
1562:
1561:
1560:
1550:
1548:
1547:
1537:
1536:
1535:
1527:
1526:
1516:
1515:
1514:
1486:
1485:
1484:
1464:
1463:
1462:
1440:
1438:
1437:
1426:Hydrogen sulfide
1418:or the archaeon
1415:Desulfotomaculum
1367:that react with
1365:greenhouse gases
1336:
1335:
1334:
1324:
1322:
1321:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1283:
1282:
1281:
1268:
1267:
1266:
1239:are also known.
1123:hydrogenotrophic
1086:
1085:
1084:
1077:
1076:
1057:
1055:
1054:
1040:
1039:
1038:
1028:
1027:
1026:
970:Methanobacterium
955:Archaea such as
898:obligate aerobes
887:
886:
885:
876:
874:
873:
863:
861:
860:
850:
849:
848:
776:fermentation by
766:fermentation by
710:
709:
708:
650:
649:
648:
639:
638:
637:
607:is not the only
595:. Most microbes
396:Rhodopseudomonas
366:Escherichia coli
349:
348:
347:
303:
302:
301:
285:
282:
281:
262:
260:
259:
95:ecological niche
70:
67:
61:
38:
30:
21:
5470:
5469:
5465:
5464:
5463:
5461:
5460:
5459:
5455:Trophic ecology
5440:
5439:
5438:
5433:
5424:
5410:Systems ecology
5298:
5269:Extinction debt
5234:Ecological debt
5224:Bioluminescence
5205:
5198:
5167:marine habitats
5142:Ecological trap
5123:
5003:
4996:
4939:
4933:
4889:Rapoport's rule
4884:Priority effect
4825:Endemic species
4793:
4752:Population size
4668:
4661:
4651:
4621:
4616:
4569:
4563:
4549:Trophic cascade
4459:Bioaccumulation
4442:
4369:
4326:
4248:
4215:
4112:
4024:
3985:Ecosystem model
3918:
3904:
3866:
3863:
3861:Further reading
3858:
3857:
3821:
3820:
3816:
3778:
3777:
3773:
3743:
3742:
3735:
3728:
3713:
3712:
3708:
3640:
3639:
3635:
3625:
3623:
3615:Woodyatt, Amy.
3614:
3613:
3609:
3599:
3597:
3589:
3588:
3584:
3545:(Pt 1): 174–8.
3536:
3535:
3531:
3518:
3508:
3496:
3475:
3474:
3470:
3433:(6743): 446–9.
3422:
3417:
3416:
3412:
3352:
3351:
3347:
3287:
3286:
3282:
3230:
3229:
3225:
3181:
3180:
3173:
3135:
3134:
3130:
3120:
3118:
3113:
3112:
3108:
3056:
3055:
3051:
2997:
2996:
2992:
2962:
2961:
2957:
2935:
2934:
2930:
2901:(11): 443–448.
2888:
2887:
2883:
2853:
2852:
2848:
2839:
2838:
2834:
2819:
2815:
2803:
2799:
2794:
2778:
2768:
2765:
2764:
2763:
2761:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2685:
2682:
2681:
2680:
2678:
2671:
2665:
2557:
2555:
2554:
2553:
2551:
2546:
2543:
2542:
2541:
2537:
2534:
2533:
2532:
2530:
2525:
2522:
2521:
2520:
2518:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2507:
2505:
2442:
2436:
2405:
2386:
2383:
2382:
2381:
2377:
2374:
2373:
2372:
2370:
2356:Planctomycetota
2352:
2303:
2300:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2274:
2271:
2270:
2269:
2266:
2261:
2258:
2257:
2256:
2254:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2244:
2242:
2235:
2170:
2167:
2166:
2165:
2163:
2154:
2152:
2151:
2150:
2148:
2138:
2132:
2126:
2124:
2123:
2122:
2120:
2111:
2108:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2103:) use nitrate (
2091:sulfite oxidase
2085:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2078:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2033:
2030:
2029:
2028:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2019:
2017:
2008:
2005:
2004:
2003:
1999:
1996:
1995:
1994:
1992:
1986:
1983:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1904:
1892:
1855:Trimethylamine
1839:
1828:
1825:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1818:uranium dioxide
1816:) reduction to
1812:
1809:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1794:
1791:
1790:
1789:
1787:
1782:) reduction to
1778:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1771:
1756:
1753:
1752:
1751:
1749:
1744:) reduction to
1740:
1737:
1736:
1735:
1733:
1722:
1720:
1719:
1718:
1716:
1711:) reduction to
1707:
1705:
1704:
1703:
1701:
1642:
1640:
1639:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1621:
1614:
1611:
1610:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1598:
1584:
1581:
1580:
1579:
1577:
1569:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1554:
1552:
1551:) and sulfate (
1546:
1543:
1542:
1541:
1539:
1534:
1531:
1530:
1529:
1525:
1522:
1521:
1520:
1518:
1513:
1510:
1509:
1508:
1506:
1483:
1480:
1479:
1478:
1476:
1461:
1458:
1457:
1456:
1454:
1451:electron donors
1447:
1445:Electron donors
1436:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1429:
1403:
1397:
1333:
1330:
1329:
1328:
1326:
1320:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1313:
1300:
1297:
1296:
1295:
1293:
1280:
1278:
1277:
1276:
1274:
1265:
1262:
1261:
1260:
1258:
1251:
1249:Denitrification
1245:
1209:
1148:
1141:
1101:
1094:
1083:
1081:
1080:
1079:
1075:
1072:
1071:
1070:
1068:
1061:
1053:
1050:
1049:
1048:
1046:
1037:
1034:
1033:
1032:
1030:
1025:
1022:
1021:
1020:
1018:
1016:
908:
891:
884:
882:
881:
880:
878:
872:
869:
868:
867:
865:
859:
856:
855:
854:
852:
847:
844:
843:
842:
840:
797:
792:
748:phosphorylation
707:
704:
703:
702:
700:
647:
645:
644:
643:
641:
636:
634:
633:
632:
630:
623:
617:
507:Biochemically,
436:
346:
343:
342:
341:
339:
313:
300:
297:
296:
295:
293:
280:
277:
276:
275:
272:
258:
255:
254:
253:
251:
146:
125:
111:
71:
65:
62:
55:
43:This article's
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5468:
5466:
5458:
5457:
5452:
5442:
5441:
5435:
5434:
5429:
5426:
5425:
5423:
5422:
5417:
5412:
5407:
5402:
5397:
5392:
5390:Microecosystem
5387:
5382:
5377:
5372:
5367:
5362:
5357:
5352:
5347:
5342:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5306:
5304:
5300:
5299:
5297:
5296:
5291:
5289:Thorson's rule
5286:
5281:
5276:
5271:
5266:
5261:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5241:
5236:
5231:
5226:
5221:
5216:
5214:Assembly rules
5210:
5208:
5200:
5199:
5197:
5196:
5191:
5186:
5181:
5176:
5171:
5170:
5169:
5159:
5154:
5149:
5144:
5139:
5133:
5131:
5125:
5124:
5122:
5121:
5116:
5111:
5099:
5097:Patch dynamics
5094:
5092:Metapopulation
5089:
5084:
5079:
5074:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5039:
5034:
5029:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5008:
5006:
4998:
4997:
4995:
4994:
4989:
4987:Storage effect
4984:
4979:
4974:
4969:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4943:
4941:
4935:
4934:
4932:
4931:
4926:
4921:
4916:
4911:
4906:
4901:
4896:
4891:
4886:
4881:
4876:
4871:
4869:Neutral theory
4866:
4861:
4856:
4854:Native species
4847:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4801:
4799:
4795:
4794:
4792:
4791:
4786:
4785:
4784:
4779:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4727:Overpopulation
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4673:
4671:
4663:
4662:
4652:
4650:
4649:
4642:
4635:
4627:
4618:
4617:
4615:
4614:
4609:
4604:
4599:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4573:
4571:
4565:
4564:
4562:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4534:Nutrient cycle
4531:
4526:
4524:Feeding frenzy
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4504:Energy quality
4501:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4471:
4466:
4464:Cascade effect
4461:
4456:
4450:
4448:
4444:
4443:
4441:
4440:
4439:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4423:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4377:
4375:
4371:
4370:
4368:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4342:
4336:
4334:
4328:
4327:
4325:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4307:Microbial loop
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4272:Lithoautotroph
4269:
4264:
4258:
4256:
4254:Microorganisms
4250:
4249:
4247:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4225:
4223:
4217:
4216:
4214:
4213:
4211:Prey switching
4208:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4122:
4120:
4114:
4113:
4111:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4088:Photosynthesis
4085:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4043:Chemosynthesis
4040:
4034:
4032:
4026:
4025:
4023:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3982:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3935:Abiotic stress
3932:
3926:
3924:
3920:
3919:
3905:
3903:
3902:
3895:
3888:
3880:
3874:
3873:
3862:
3859:
3856:
3855:
3814:
3771:
3752:(11): 488–96.
3733:
3726:
3706:
3633:
3607:
3582:
3529:
3520:|journal=
3494:
3468:
3410:
3345:
3280:
3243:(8): 4487–96.
3223:
3171:
3128:
3106:
3049:
3008:Arch Microbiol
2990:
2971:(5): 1626–34.
2965:Water Research
2955:
2928:
2881:
2846:
2832:
2813:
2810:978-1319017637
2796:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2789:
2788:
2777:
2774:
2766:
2758:
2757:
2748:
2739:
2737:leghaemoglobin
2727:
2699:
2683:
2667:Main article:
2664:
2661:
2638:phycobilisomes
2556:
2544:
2535:
2523:
2510:
2482:Pseudomonadota
2470:electron donor
2438:Main article:
2435:
2432:
2404:
2401:
2384:
2375:
2351:
2348:
2301:
2272:
2259:
2247:
2234:
2231:
2168:
2153:
2131:
2125:
2119:Ferrous iron (
2117:
2109:
2083:
2071:
2031:
2022:
2006:
1997:
1984:
1975:
1972:
1946:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1918:
1906:Main article:
1903:
1900:
1891:
1888:
1880:
1879:
1876:
1866:
1863:trimethylamine
1852:
1838:
1835:
1834:
1833:
1826:
1810:
1799:
1792:
1776:
1765:
1754:
1738:
1727:
1721:
1706:
1641:
1632:
1629:
1619:
1612:
1600:Main article:
1597:
1594:
1582:
1568:
1565:
1557:
1544:
1532:
1523:
1511:
1481:
1459:
1446:
1443:
1434:
1399:Main article:
1396:
1393:
1385:eutrophication
1331:
1318:
1298:
1279:
1263:
1247:Main article:
1244:
1241:
1208:
1205:
1147:
1144:
1139:
1132:mineralization
1118:Syntrophomonas
1100:
1097:
1092:
1082:
1073:
1059:
1051:
1035:
1023:
1017:) to methane (
1014:
982:Methanosarcina
976:Methanothermus
949:Methanogenesis
911:serine pathway
906:
889:
883:
870:
857:
845:
796:
793:
791:
788:
758:and therefore
705:
646:
635:
627:organic carbon
619:Main article:
616:
613:
593:Pseudomonadota
502:bioremediation
498:mineralization
435:
432:
431:
430:
420:Heliobacterium
408:Rhodomicrobium
402:Rhodospirillum
381:
378:Actinomycetota
358:
344:
311:
305:
298:
278:
256:
241:
220:
219:
208:
196:
195:
187:
168:
167:
159:
148:
144:
141:carbon dioxide
121:Main article:
110:
107:
103:biogeochemical
73:
72:
52:the key points
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5467:
5456:
5453:
5451:
5448:
5447:
5445:
5432:
5427:
5421:
5418:
5416:
5415:Urban ecology
5413:
5411:
5408:
5406:
5403:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5393:
5391:
5388:
5386:
5383:
5381:
5378:
5376:
5373:
5371:
5368:
5366:
5363:
5361:
5358:
5356:
5353:
5351:
5348:
5346:
5343:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5307:
5305:
5301:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5274:Kleiber's law
5272:
5270:
5267:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5240:
5237:
5235:
5232:
5230:
5227:
5225:
5222:
5220:
5217:
5215:
5212:
5211:
5209:
5207:
5201:
5195:
5192:
5190:
5187:
5185:
5182:
5180:
5177:
5175:
5172:
5168:
5165:
5164:
5163:
5160:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5134:
5132:
5130:
5126:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5108:
5104:
5100:
5098:
5095:
5093:
5090:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5047:Foster's rule
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5030:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5009:
5007:
5005:
4999:
4993:
4990:
4988:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4978:
4975:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4944:
4942:
4936:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4915:
4912:
4910:
4907:
4905:
4902:
4900:
4897:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4887:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4877:
4875:
4872:
4870:
4867:
4865:
4862:
4860:
4857:
4855:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4802:
4800:
4796:
4790:
4787:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4774:
4773:
4770:
4768:
4765:
4763:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4674:
4672:
4670:
4664:
4659:
4655:
4648:
4643:
4641:
4636:
4634:
4629:
4628:
4625:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4574:
4572:
4566:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4451:
4449:
4445:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4403:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4382:
4379:
4378:
4376:
4372:
4366:
4365:Trophic level
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4337:
4335:
4333:
4329:
4323:
4322:Phage ecology
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4312:Microbial mat
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4267:Bacteriophage
4265:
4263:
4260:
4259:
4257:
4255:
4251:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4234:Decomposition
4232:
4230:
4227:
4226:
4224:
4222:
4218:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4181:Mesopredators
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4126:Apex predator
4124:
4123:
4121:
4119:
4115:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4035:
4033:
4031:
4027:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3960:Biotic stress
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3927:
3925:
3921:
3916:
3912:
3908:
3901:
3896:
3894:
3889:
3887:
3882:
3881:
3878:
3870:
3865:
3864:
3860:
3851:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3818:
3815:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3775:
3772:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3740:
3738:
3734:
3729:
3723:
3719:
3718:
3717:Bioenergetics
3710:
3707:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3637:
3634:
3622:
3618:
3611:
3608:
3596:
3592:
3586:
3583:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3533:
3530:
3525:
3513:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3472:
3469:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3447:10.1038/22749
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3421:
3414:
3411:
3406:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3349:
3346:
3341:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3284:
3281:
3276:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3227:
3224:
3219:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3191:
3187:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3132:
3129:
3116:
3110:
3107:
3102:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3069:(8): 3650–3.
3068:
3064:
3060:
3053:
3050:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3014:(5): 381–91.
3013:
3009:
3005:
3003:
2994:
2991:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2959:
2956:
2951:
2947:
2944:(6): 763–70.
2943:
2939:
2932:
2929:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2885:
2882:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2850:
2847:
2842:
2836:
2833:
2830:
2827:: Atc. 165.
2826:
2823:
2817:
2814:
2811:
2807:
2801:
2798:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2780:
2779:
2775:
2773:
2755:
2754:
2749:
2746:
2745:
2740:
2738:
2734:
2733:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2719:
2718:
2717:
2715:
2710:
2708:
2692:
2676:
2670:
2662:
2660:
2658:
2653:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2602:
2600:
2596:
2595:
2590:
2589:
2588:Halobacterium
2584:
2583:heliobacteria
2580:
2579:
2574:
2570:
2569:
2564:
2503:
2502:endosymbionts
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2486:Chloroflexota
2483:
2479:
2475:
2474:Cyanobacteria
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2454:carbohydrates
2451:
2447:
2441:
2433:
2431:
2429:
2425:
2423:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2402:
2400:
2398:
2393:
2368:
2364:
2361:
2357:
2349:
2347:
2345:
2341:
2340:
2334:
2331:
2325:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2294:
2293:hydroxylamine
2290:
2289:
2284:
2283:
2277:
2240:
2233:Nitrification
2232:
2230:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2219:
2214:
2213:
2208:
2207:
2202:
2198:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2188:
2183:
2182:
2177:
2161:
2146:
2142:
2137:
2118:
2116:
2102:
2101:
2096:
2092:
2064:
2063:thermodynamic
2060:
2056:
2055:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2041:
2015:
2014:sulfuric acid
1973:
1971:
1969:
1968:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1931:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1909:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1889:
1887:
1885:
1877:
1874:
1870:
1867:
1864:
1860:
1858:
1853:
1851:
1848:reduction to
1847:
1844:
1843:
1842:
1836:
1819:
1803:
1800:
1785:
1769:
1766:
1763:
1747:
1731:
1728:
1714:
1713:manganous ion
1699:
1696:
1695:
1694:
1692:
1691:radionuclides
1688:
1684:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1660:
1655:
1654:
1649:
1635:Ferric iron (
1630:
1628:
1625:
1603:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1575:
1566:
1564:
1504:
1503:
1498:
1497:
1492:
1491:
1474:
1470:
1469:
1452:
1444:
1442:
1427:
1423:
1422:
1421:Archaeoglobus
1417:
1416:
1411:
1407:
1402:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1361:
1356:
1355:
1350:
1349:
1344:
1340:
1311:
1310:nitrous oxide
1307:
1291:
1287:
1272:
1256:
1250:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1232:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1201:
1196:
1195:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1173:symbiogenesis
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1153:Haiobacterium
1145:
1143:
1137:
1133:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1119:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1098:
1096:
1090:
1066:
1044:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
995:
990:
989:
984:
983:
978:
977:
972:
971:
966:
965:
960:
959:
958:Methanococcus
954:
950:
946:
944:
941:
936:
934:
933:
932:Methylococcus
928:
924:
923:
922:Methylocystis
918:
917:
912:
903:
899:
895:
838:
834:
833:Methanotrophs
830:
829:
828:Methylobacter
824:
823:
818:
814:
810:
809:methyl amines
806:
802:
795:Methylotrophy
794:
789:
787:
785:
781:
780:
775:
771:
770:
765:
761:
760:ATP synthesis
757:
753:
749:
744:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
719:derived from
718:
714:
713:organic acids
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
628:
622:
614:
612:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
589:
588:Agrobacterium
584:
583:
578:
577:
572:
571:endosymbiosis
568:
567:mitochondrion
564:
560:
559:
554:
551:(also called
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
515:(also called
514:
510:
505:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
478:
474:
473:
468:
467:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
433:
428:
427:
422:
421:
416:
415:
410:
409:
404:
403:
398:
397:
392:
391:
385:
382:
380:
379:
374:
373:
368:
367:
362:
359:
357:
353:
337:
336:
331:
330:
325:
324:
319:
318:
309:
306:
291:
290:
284:
270:
269:Chromatiaceae
266:
265:Chlorobiaceae
249:
248:Cyanobacteria
245:
242:
240:
236:
232:
228:
225:
224:
223:
218:
214:
213:
209:
206:
205:
201:
200:
199:
193:
192:
191:organotrophic
188:
186:
182:
181:
177:
176:
175:
173:
165:
164:
160:
158:
154:
153:
152:heterotrophic
149:
142:
138:
137:
133:
132:
131:
128:
124:
115:
108:
106:
104:
100:
96:
91:
87:
83:
79:
69:
66:December 2020
59:
53:
51:
46:
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
5400:Regime shift
5385:Macroecology
5106:
5102:
5042:Edge effects
5012:Biogeography
4957:Commensalism
4805:Biodiversity
4682:Allee effect
4421:kelp forests
4374:Example webs
4316:
4239:Detritivores
4078:Organotrophs
4058:Kinetotrophs
4010:Productivity
3868:
3831:
3828:Microbiology
3827:
3817:
3787:(6): 513–9.
3784:
3780:
3774:
3749:
3745:
3716:
3709:
3650:
3646:
3636:
3624:. Retrieved
3620:
3610:
3598:. Retrieved
3594:
3585:
3542:
3538:
3532:
3477:
3471:
3430:
3426:
3413:
3362:
3358:
3348:
3297:
3293:
3283:
3240:
3236:
3226:
3199:
3195:
3189:
3185:
3144:(22): 8142.
3141:
3138:RSC Advances
3137:
3131:
3119:. Retrieved
3109:
3066:
3062:
3052:
3011:
3007:
3001:
2993:
2968:
2964:
2958:
2941:
2937:
2931:
2898:
2894:
2884:
2859:
2855:
2849:
2835:
2824:
2821:
2816:
2800:
2759:
2751:
2742:
2730:
2721:
2711:
2672:
2657:Chloroflexus
2656:
2654:
2642:
2622:chlorophylls
2603:
2592:
2586:
2578:Chloroflexus
2576:
2566:
2498:chloroplasts
2464:. Of these,
2443:
2427:
2420:
2406:
2359:
2353:
2337:
2335:
2326:
2286:
2282:Nitrosomonas
2280:
2236:
2216:
2210:
2204:
2194:
2185:
2179:
2141:Ferrous iron
2139:
2098:
2052:
2038:
1977:
1965:
1961:
1958:Calvin cycle
1947:
1911:
1893:
1881:
1856:
1840:
1698:Manganic ion
1687:heavy metals
1680:
1668:hydrocarbons
1663:
1657:
1651:
1634:
1605:
1602:Acetogenesis
1570:
1500:
1494:
1488:
1466:
1448:
1419:
1413:
1404:
1358:
1352:
1346:
1306:nitric oxide
1252:
1233:
1210:
1198:
1192:
1175:origin from
1169:mitochondria
1157:Thermoplasma
1149:
1116:
1102:
1007:methanofuran
994:Methanopyrus
992:
988:Methanosaeta
986:
980:
974:
968:
962:
956:
947:
940:methanogenic
937:
930:
920:
916:Methylosinus
914:
877:), formate (
826:
822:Methylomonas
820:
813:formaldehyde
801:C1-compounds
798:
777:
767:
745:
669:ATP synthase
624:
615:Fermentation
603:), although
586:
580:
574:
556:
506:
470:
466:Bdellovibrio
464:
437:
426:Chloroflexus
424:
418:
412:
406:
400:
394:
388:
383:
376:
370:
364:
360:
333:
327:
321:
315:
307:
289:Chloroflexus
287:
243:
226:
221:
212:chemotrophic
210:
204:phototrophic
202:
197:
189:
180:lithotrophic
178:
169:
161:
150:
134:
129:
126:
77:
76:
63:
47:
45:lead section
5037:Disturbance
4940:interaction
4762:Recruitment
4692:Depensation
4484:Copiotrophs
4355:Energy flow
4277:Lithotrophy
4221:Decomposers
4201:Planktivore
4176:Insectivore
4166:Heterotroph
4131:Bacterivore
4098:Phototrophs
4048:Chemotrophs
4020:Restoration
3970:Competition
3196:J Biol Chem
2714:nitrogenase
2626:carotenoids
2618:chlorosomes
2594:Roseobacter
2478:Chlorobiota
2434:Phototrophy
2288:Nitrobacter
2227:rusticyanin
2196:Ferroplasma
2176:acidophiles
2130:) oxidation
1954:cytochromes
1950:hydrogenase
1200:Acetobacter
1127:equilibrium
673:respiration
558:Pseudomonas
523:to degrade
517:EMP pathway
509:prokaryotic
449:saprophages
414:Rhodocyclus
390:Rhodobacter
329:Nitrobacter
317:Thiobacilus
292:(hydrogen (
163:mixotrophic
136:autotrophic
5450:Metabolism
5444:Categories
5405:Sexecology
4982:Parasitism
4947:Antibiosis
4782:Resistance
4777:Resilience
4667:Population
4587:Camouflage
4539:Oligotroph
4454:Ascendency
4416:intertidal
4406:cold seeps
4360:Food chain
4161:Herbivores
4136:Carnivores
4063:Mixotrophs
4038:Autotrophs
3917:components
3560:2066/35814
3121:August 19,
2862:: 355–94.
2792:References
2675:atmosphere
2650:ferredoxin
2581:), or the
2568:Chlorobium
2496:. Because
2422:Candidatus
2415:the metal
2360:Candidatus
2339:Nitrospira
2054:Paracoccus
2012:) to form
1964:(formerly
1944:O + energy
1802:Uranyl ion
1471:) can use
1381:wastewater
1165:Yymbaculum
1161:Sulfolobus
1003:coenzyme M
725:glycolysis
689:Coenzyme A
665:obligately
576:Rickettsia
553:ED pathway
513:glycolysis
477:pathogenic
472:Myxococcus
461:parasitism
453:eukaryotic
441:commensals
5310:Allometry
5264:Emergence
4992:Symbiosis
4977:Mutualism
4772:Stability
4677:Abundance
4489:Dominance
4447:Processes
4436:tide pool
4332:Food webs
4206:Predation
4191:Omnivores
4118:Consumers
4073:Mycotroph
4030:Producers
3975:Ecosystem
3940:Behaviour
3701:220541911
3675:1476-4687
3626:16 August
3600:16 August
3522:ignored (
3512:cite book
3387:0028-0836
3322:0028-0836
3166:2046-2069
2938:J Biochem
2915:0968-0004
2732:Rhizobium
2490:Bacillota
2417:manganese
2392:ladderane
2367:Hydrazine
2322:periplasm
2314:cytoplasm
2040:Beggiatoa
1926:oxidation
1850:succinate
1683:inorganic
1624:reduction
1473:phosphite
1377:acid rain
1099:Syntrophy
1091:to fix CO
999:cofactors
953:anaerobic
925:) or the
764:succinate
693:cofactors
681:phosphate
653:anaerobic
582:Rhizobium
486:cellulose
457:predation
445:parasites
335:Wolinella
323:Beggiatoa
90:metabolic
50:summarize
5365:Endolith
5294:Xerosere
5206:networks
5022:Ecocline
4568:Defense,
4244:Detritus
4146:Foraging
4015:Resource
3850:15528644
3809:10607659
3766:16997562
3693:32669693
3595:phys.org
3569:16417514
3504:18020306
3455:10440372
3405:26610024
3340:26610025
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3218:10788424
3101:10919837
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2645:Z scheme
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1846:Fumarate
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4938:Species
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4654:Ecology
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3950:Biomass
3923:General
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3789:Bibcode
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3655:Bibcode
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3463:2222680
3435:Bibcode
3396:5152751
3367:Bibcode
3331:4878690
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1859:-oxide
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1308:(NO),
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1011:proton
815:, and
739:, and
671:as in
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3423:(PDF)
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1875:(DMS)
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3805:PMID
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3621:CNN
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