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359:(c. 1600β1838) periods. Mound 1 of the Bat Creek Site was excavated in 1975. Investigators concluded that the mound was a "platform" mound typical of the Mississippian period. Pre-Mississippian artifacts dating to the Archaic and Woodland periods were also found. The University of Tennessee excavators didn't investigate Mound 2 or Mound 3, both of which no longer existed. Neither the University of Tennessee's excavation of the Bat Creek Site nor any other excavations in the Little Tennessee Valley uncovered any evidence that would indicate Pre-Columbian contact with Old World civilizations.
199:". The Myth of the Mound-builders is a damaging belief that discredits Native American peoples by claiming they were not the creators of the phenomenal mounds, and another group of people, frequently referred to as a "Vanished Race", are responsible for their creation and persisting splendor. This belief was influential and "adopted by many Americans in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries". The reasons are complicated for the popularity of this obfuscation of the facts of Native American societies, but it is clear that it reflects the sentiments of
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and Mound 3) on the west bank. Mound 1 had a diameter of 108 feet (33 m) and a height of 8 feet (2.4 m), and it was located on the first terrace above the river. Today, this mound is submerged by a reservoir. Mound 2 had a diameter of 44 feet (13 m) and height of 10 feet (3.0 m), and Mound 3 had a diameter of 28 feet (8.5 m) and height of 5 feet (1.5 m). Both Mound 2 and 3 were located higher than Mound 1. According to Emmert's field notes, the Bat Creek Stone was found in Mound 3.
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These eight characters are, on average, 2β3mm in depth. According to the
American Petrographic Services' evaluation of the stone, the marks are characterized by smooth, "rounded grooves". This shape suggests the stone's creator used a rounded instrument to make the engraving. Additionally, the entire surface of the stone appears to be polished, which further contributes to the smooth, rounded edges of the markings. An unknown party added two nearly
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463:, scholar of "Biblical and Near Eastern studies" and known "proponent of Precolumbian contacts between the old and new worlds". Gordon concluded that Thomas had been viewing the inscription "upside down", and when re-read in its proper orientation, the inscription represented "ancient Hebrew". He asserted that the inscription "could be translated as some variation of 'For the Jews'". The use of the stone as evidence for
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475:, and expressed, "My own conviction is that the Bat Creek inscription is a rustic, and therefore imperfect, specimen of paleo-Hebrew". He went on to claim, "it does not by itself indicate anything more than a minimal contact with the New World by a few Hebrew sailors". But these claims by Gordon and McCulloh have been silenced by
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extensive excavations at multiple sites throughout the valley. In the late 1960s and 1970s, the
Tellico Archaeological Project, conducted by the University of Tennessee Department of Anthropology investigated over two dozen sites and uncovered evidence of substantial habitation in the valley during the
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Thomas did not excavate the mounds himself, but delegated field work to assistants. John Emmert excavated Bat Creek Mound 3, doing so "alone and in isolation". According to Emmert, the site consisted of one large mound (Mound 1) on the east bank of the creek and two smaller mounds (Mound 2
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was "given the job of
Director of the Division of Mound Exploration within the federal bureau of the study of Ethnology". With a budget of $ 60,000 provided by the U.S. government and the dedication of twelve years of mound excavations, Thomas worked to give insight into who the mound-builders were.
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The stone itself is 11.4 centimeters (4.5 inches) long and 5.1 centimeters (2.0 inches) wide. The inscription consists of at least eight distinct characters. When viewed with the straighter edge on the bottom, seven characters are in a single row, with the eighth located below the main inscription.
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implement, and some small pieces of polished wood soft and colored green by contact with the copper bracelet". Additionally, his excavation revealed nine skeletons, seven of which were laid out in a row with their heads facing north, and two more skeletons laid out nearby, one with its head facing
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at the mouth of the Little
Tennessee in 1979 created a reservoir that spans the lower 33 miles (53 km) of the river. Bat Creek empties into the southwest bank of the Little Tennessee 12 miles (19 km) upstream from the mouth of the river. While much of the original confluence of Bat Creek
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When the Bat Creek
Inscription was found, it entered into this important debate about who the mound builders were. Although now, "the mounds of North America have been proven to be constructions by Native American peoples for a variety of purposes" at the start of the nineteenth century, there was
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constructed many of the earthen mounds and enclosures in eastern North
America". However, this initial identification as Cherokee was later proven to be flawed. The "Cherokee writing system was invented in 1819," and If the tablet were inscribed with Cherokee, this would suggest Mound 3 is much
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announced plans to build
Tellico Dam at the mouth of the Little Tennessee River and asked the University of Tennessee Department of Anthropology to conduct salvage excavations in the Little Tennessee Valley. Litigation and environmental concerns stalled the dam's completion until 1979, allowing
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explains, "The Bat Creek Stone was an outlier, impossible to put into genuine historical context, and though few said it out loud, it was assumed by many that the artifact had been faked". Yet despite this incongruity, at the time of its finding, there was little controversy regarding the
526:. This specific volume was "extensively reprinted during the latter half of the nineteenth century", and would have been available to the forger. Archaeologist Bradley T. Lepper concludes, "the historical detective work of Mainfort and Kwas has exposed one famous
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north and the other with its head facing south. He reported that the Bat Creek Stone was found under the skull of the south-facing skeleton. The two bracelets found in the Mound were initially identified by both Emmert and Thomas as "copper", but a 1970
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Robert
Mainfort and Mary Kwas have concluded that the inscription is not a genuine paleo-Hebrew artifact but rather a 19th-century forgery. Furthermore, the conclusions drawn by Mainfort and Kwas have been accepted by other archaeologists and members of
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211:". The forced removal of Native peoples from their land and the severing of Native people from their heritage was partially enacted by "destroying indigenous pyramid mounds" and "The creation of the Myth of the Mounds". These acts are a form of
207:. Historian Sarah E. Baires writes that the attribution of the mound builders to "any groupβother than Native Americans" reflects the "practices" of European settlers that primarily "included the erasure of Native American ties to their
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inscription, and in fact, "Thomas did not discuss the Bat Creek stone in any of his later substantive publications". But this accord was broken in the 1970s when the Bat Creek
Inscription was adopted by proponents of
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against Rome" and "belongs to the melodrama of
American archaeology in the late 19th century". McCarter concluded, "It seems probable that we are dealing here not with a coincidental similarity but with a fraud".
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question". Thomas's efforts were crucial because of their ability to destabilize the myth of the Mound Builders by providing irrefutable evidence that Indigenous Americans are responsible for constructing the
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But "Despite the preponderance of archaeological evidence that these mound complexes were the work of sophisticated Native American civilizations," this fact has been "obscured by the Myth of the
1138:. Tennessee Anthropological Association, Miscellaneous Paper No. 15, 1992. Reprints pp. 391β3 of Thomas (1894), McCulloch (1988), and Mainfort and Kwas (1991), with introduction by Faulkner.
164:, and their appearance in photos after 1970. Additionally, these markings are characterized by V shape carvings indicating they were created by a sharper tool than the initial eight characters.
248:. Due to the efforts of Thomas and his team, and with the aid of his published work which extensively presented his findings, "the myth of a vanished race had been dealt a fatal blow".
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Lithograph of the Bat Creek inscription, as first published by Thomas (1890) (the original illustration has been inverted to the orientation proposed by Gordon for "Paleo-Hebrew".)
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is an inscribed stone tablet found by John W. Emmert on February 14, 1889. Emmert claimed to have found the tablet in Tipton Mound 3 during an excavation of Hopewell mounds in
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at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. It has subsequently been loaned to the Museum of the Cherokee Indian in Cherokee, N.C., where it has been on display since 2015.
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1194:, Masonic Publishing Co., New York, 3rd ed., 1868, p. 134. (Same illustration appears on p. 169 of 1870 ed. and 1989 reprint ed., but not in 1867 ed.)
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Today the probable source used by the forger to create the inscription has been identified, yet the question of who made the tablet and why remains unanswered.
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Masonic artist's impression of Biblical phrase π€π€π€ π€π€π€π€
π€ (QDSh LYHWH) in paleo-Hebrew script (Macoy 1868: 134), compared with the inscribed stone.
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have supported the claim that the tablet is a fraud. Mainfort and Kwas have identified the source of the inscription. It was most likely copied from the
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and the Little Tennessee was submerged by the lake, the mound in which the Bat Creek Stone was found was located above the reservoir's operating levels.
84:. This excavation was part of a larger series of excavations that aimed to clarify the controversy regarding who is responsible for building the various
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from 1894 and 1970. This is evident by the lack of the markings in the first photograph of the stone, published in the 1890β1891 annual report of the
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103:, a scholar of Near Eastern Cultures and ancient languages, who reexamined the tablet in the 1970s and proposed that the inscription represented
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Robert Mainfort and Mary Kwas concluded the inscription is not genuine paleo-Hebrew but rather a 19th-century forgery, and other respected
563:, NMNH catalog number 8013771 and original US National Museum number A134902-0. From August 2002 to November 2013, it was on loan to the
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the inscription was first officially mentioned along with other artifacts recovered from the Bat Creek Mound excavations. In the report,
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Except for the identification of the characters as Cherokee, Thomas (1894: 391β3) is based almost verbatim on Emmert's field report.
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Catalogue No. A134902-0 in the Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution.
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Twelfth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1890β91,
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has commended Thomas's efforts, which "initiated the most extensive and intensive study" "conducted on the
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by European colonizers which enabled settlers "to make way for the movement of 'new' Americans into the
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1306:
Robert Macoy, George Oliver. General History, Cyclopedia and Dictionary of Freemasonry (1870). Pp 181
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Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology: From Atlantis to the Walam Olum: From Atlantis to the Walam Olum
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North America has a vast and significant history, a "rich history" that belongs to "sophisticated
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More specifically, Thomas focused on assessing the connection between the mound-builders and the
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Twelfth Annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution
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seafarers". This interpretation began in the 1970s when the stone was examined by professor Dr.
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1894. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. pp. 391β3 reprinted in Faulkner (1992).
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455:" in support of "the assertion that the Americas were regularly visited, if not colonized, by
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to the south and flows northward for just over 50 miles (80 km) before emptying into the
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95:, the director of the mound excavations, concluded the inscription presented letters from the
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1278:. University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, Report of Investigations No. 10, 1975.
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In Mound 3 Emmert reported finding "two copper bracelets, an engraved stone, a small drilled
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192:, a "widespread practice throughout the American southeast, Midwest, and northern plains".
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A recent image of the tablet where the parallel markings are present in the top left corner
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National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. Includes zoomable photograph.
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99:. This interpretation was accepted at the time but was contested about a century later by
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Mainfort, Robert C., Jr. and Mary L. Kwas. "The Bat Creek Stone: Judeans in Tennessee?"
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451:. In fact, the stone came to be recognized by some as "representing the most convincing
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letters similar to those Gordon (1971) claimed are present on the Bat Creek inscription.
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It may require cleanup to comply with Knowledge (XXG)'s content policies, particularly
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of the 1st or 2nd century. The consensus among archaeologists is that the tablet is a
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Mainfort, Robert C., Jr. and Mary L. Kwas. "The Bat Creek Fraud: A Final Statement".
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The Juan Pardo Expeditions: Explorations of the Carolinas and Tennessee, 1566β1568.
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younger than "the solid archaeological data" that identifies it as much older. As
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The Bat Creek Stone on display at the Museum of the Cherokee Indian, Cherokee NC
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111:, although some have argued that the ancient Hebrew text on the stone supports
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908:"White Settlers Buried the Truth About the Midwest's Mysterious Mound Cities"
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433:"claimed that the marks on the Bat Creek stone represented characters of the
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180:. Part of this history remains embedded in the advanced architecture of the
1325:(Link appears dead on 1 August 2018 and should be removed in near future.)
559:, and is catalogued in the collections of the Department of Anthropology,
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An 1890 lithograph of the tablet without the now present parallel markings
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McCulloch, J. Huston (1993b). "Did Judean Refugees Escape to Tennessee?"
530:". And Professor in Biblical Studies and Ancient Near Eastern Studies at
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Archaeological Investigations at the Harrison Branch and Bat Creek Sites
115:. Countering the notion of pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories,
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McKusick, Marshall. "Canaanites in America: A New Scripture in Stone?"
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was exacerbated in 1988 by J. Huston McCulloch, Economics professor at
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Per Barbara Duncan, Education Director, Museum of the Cherokee Indian.
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Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology
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McKusick, Marshall. "The Cherokee Solution to the Bat Creek Enigma".
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McCarter, P. Kyle, Jr. "Let's be Serious About the Bat Creek Stone".
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Frauds, Myths and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology
813:"The Bat Creek Inscription: Did Judean Refugees Escape to Tennessee?"
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genuine confusion about who built the mounds. To clarify the debate,
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analysis concluded the bracelets were in fact heavily leaded yellow
471:. McCulloch mostly agreed with Gordon's assessment of the stone as
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who lived in the area during European colonization. Archeologist
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Before Columbus: Links Between the Old World and Ancient America
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Per Timothy E. Baumann, Curator of Archaeology, McClung Museum.
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people. The Adena and Hopewell peoples constructed significant
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1297:"Report on the Mound Explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology"
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The Wine Dark Sea: Homer's Heroic Epic of the North Atlantic
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Tellico Archaeology: 12,000 Years of Native American History
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and used the inscription to support his hypothesis that the
1145:, 3rd ed. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co., 1999.
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In the late nineteenth century, when the tablet was found,
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General History, Cyclopedia and Dictionary of Freemasonry
969:"Introduction: Settler Colonialism, History, and Theory"
1090:"Additional digging uncovers source of Bat Creek hoax"
33:
A major contributor to this article appears to have a
1048:"Cyrus H. Gordon (1908β2001): A Giant among Scholars"
1169:(Spring 1991): 1β19. Reprinted in Faulkner (1992). (
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Tuscaloosa, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 2005.
675:Mainfort, Robert C.; Kwas, Mary L. (October 2004).
156:vertical strokes while the stone was stored in the
1218:(Fall 1988): 79β123. Reprinted in Faulkner (1992).
975:, New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, pp. 1β22,
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479:who "have rejected the Bat Creek stone as a fake".
1223:The Bat Creek Stone: A Reply to Mainfort and Kwas
176:civilizations" and pre-dates the introduction of
741:"Report of the Archaeopetrography Investigation"
677:"The Bat Creek Stone Revisited: A Fraud Exposed"
555:The Bat Creek Stone remains the property of the
1131:Norris, Tenn.: Tennessee Valley Authority, 1985
521:General History, Cyclopedia, and Dictionary of
1209:The Bat Creek Inscription: Cherokee or Hebrew?
8:
847:"Let's be Serious About the Bat Creek Stone"
609:(Smithsonian Bureau of Ethnology until 1897)
465:Pre-Columbian transatlantic contact theories
449:Pre-Columbian transatlantic contact theories
113:pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories
1374:Collection of the Smithsonian Institution
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64:Learn how and when to remove this message
607:Smithsonian Bureau of American Ethnology
423:Report on the Mound Explorations of the
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1283:"Funds for Ethnology and Mound Survey"
906:Baires, Sarah E. (February 23, 2018).
884:. Vol. 12. Washington, DC: G.P.O.
780:Feder, Kenneth L. (October 11, 2010).
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1152:. New York: Crown Publishers, 1971.
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410:Coin of the First Jewish War, with
1281:Smithsonian Institution Archives.
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131:Physical description of the tablet
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1369:Archaeological sites in Tennessee
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44:. Please discuss further on the
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1389:Inscriptions of disputed origin
1354:1889 archaeological discoveries
1249:, Summer 1979, pp. 137β40.
1242:(July/Aug. 1993): 46β53, 82β83.
1221:McCulloch, J. Huston (1993a). "
943:. Mayfield Publishing Company.
739:Wolter, Scott (July 14, 2010).
1292:N.D.C. Hodges, New York, 1890.
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1329:Museum of the Cherokee Indian
1260:(Jan./Feb. 1994): 83β84, 86.
1204:(July/Aug. 1993): 54β55, 83.
1088:Lepper, Brad (May 2, 2014).
973:American Settler Colonialism
178:European settler colonialism
1419:Nationalism and archaeology
1384:Hoaxes in the United States
1254:Biblical Archaeology Review
1237:Biblical Archaeology Review
1199:Biblical Archaeology Review
1052:The Jewish Quarterly Review
1046:Rendsburg, Gary A. (2001).
260:Bat Creek, now an inlet of
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967:Hixson, Walter L. (2013),
340:Tennessee Valley Authority
296:Archaeological excavations
1349:19th-century inscriptions
939:Kenneth L, Feder (1990).
1394:Loudon County, Tennessee
1364:Archaeological forgeries
1359:Archaeological artifacts
1267:. Chicago: Mertz, 1964.
1227:Tennessee Anthropologist
1213:Tennessee Anthropologist
1178:Tennessee Anthropologist
1164:Tennessee Anthropologist
532:Johns Hopkins University
82:Loudon County, Tennessee
1207:McCulloch, J. Huston. "
1094:Ohio History Connection
1036:Chapman (1985: 97β103).
981:10.1057/9781137374264_1
565:Frank H. McClung Museum
557:Smithsonian Institution
1414:Archaeology and racism
1285:, dated March 3, 1881.
1247:Biblical Archaeologist
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269:Little Tennessee River
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1379:Forgery controversies
1183:(Fall 1993): 87β93. (
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351:(1000 BC β 1000 AD),
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190:earthworks and mounds
168:Context of excavation
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78:Bat Creek inscription
42:neutral point of view
1274:Schroedl, Gerald F.
1232:(Spring 1993): 1β26.
1134:Faulker, Charles H.
1127:Chapman, Jefferson.
1027:Schroedl (1975: 103)
913:Smithsonian Magazine
878:J.W. Powell (1894).
287:. The completion of
1399:Mounds in Tennessee
1344:19th-century hoaxes
1187:on Wayback Machine)
1173:on Wayback Machine)
1136:The Bat Creek Stone
536:First Jewish Revolt
425:Bureau of Ethnology
363:Analysis and debate
355:(900β1600 AD), and
209:cultural landscapes
162:Bureau of Ethnology
1263:Mertz, Henriette.
1141:Feder, Kenneth L.
681:American Antiquity
597:Newark Holy Stones
582:Hopewell tradition
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435:Cherokee syllabary
380:Cherokee syllabary
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1409:Pseudoarchaeology
1295:Thomas, Cyrus H.
1288:Thomas, Cyrus H.
1155:Hudson, Charles.
1148:Gordon, Cyrus H.
990:978-1-137-37425-7
854:. August 24, 2015
819:. August 24, 2015
793:978-0-313-37919-2
587:Grave Creek Stone
334:Recent excavation
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54:August 2018
1338:Categories
624:References
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349:Woodland
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