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356:. When the model is abundant, mimics with imperfect model patterns or slightly different coloration from the model are still avoided by predators. This is because the predator has a strong incentive to avoid potentially lethal organisms, given the likelihood of encountering one. However, in areas where the model is scarce or locally extinct, mimics are driven to accurate aposematic coloration. This is because predators attack imperfect mimics more readily where there is little chance that they are the model species. Frequency-dependent selection may also have driven Batesian mimics to become polymorphic in rare cases where a single genetic switch controls appearance, as in the swallowtail butterflies (the
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perfection. They may gain advantage from resembling multiple models at once. Humans may evaluate mimics differently from actual predators. Mimics may confuse predators by resembling both model and nonmimic at the same time (satyric mimicry). Kin selection may enforce poor mimicry. The selective advantage of better mimicry may not outweigh the advantages of other strategies like thermoregulation or camouflage.
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22:
208:, as well as thousands of other insects specimens. In sorting these butterflies into similar groups based on appearance, inconsistencies began to arise. Some appeared superficially similar to others, so much so that even Bates could not tell some species apart based only on wing appearance. However, closer examination of less obvious
118:
of the model, the
Batesian mimic gains an advantage, without having to go to the expense of arming itself. The model, on the other hand, is disadvantaged, along with the dupe. If impostors appear in high numbers, positive experiences with the mimic may result in the model being treated as harmless.
582:
wasps. However, it is not a perfect mimic. Wasps have long black antennae and this fly does not. Instead, they wave their front legs above their heads to look like the antennae on the wasps. Many reasons have been suggested for imperfect mimicry. Imperfect mimics may simply be evolving towards
83:, a form of mutually beneficial convergence between two or more harmful species. However, because the mimic may have a degree of protection itself, the distinction is not absolute. It can also be contrasted with functionally different forms of mimicry. Perhaps the sharpest contrast here is with
351:
In
Batesian mimicry, the mimic effectively copies the coloration of an aposematic animal, known as the model, to deceive predators into behaving as if it were distasteful. The success of this dishonest display depends on the level of toxicity of the model and the abundance of the model in the
78:
Batesian mimicry is the most commonly known and widely studied of mimicry complexes, such that the word mimicry is often treated as synonymous with
Batesian mimicry. There are many other forms however, some very similar in principle, others far separated. It is often contrasted with
1305:
Brower, Lincoln P.; Westcott, Peter W. (1960-09-01). "Experimental
Studies of Mimicry. 5. The Reactions of Toads (Bufo terrestris) to Bumblebees (Bombus americanorum) and Their Robberfly Mimics (Mallophora bomboides), with a Discussion of Aggressive Mimicry".
127:), enabling them to mimic several different models and thereby to gain greater protection. Batesian mimicry is not always perfect. A variety of explanations have been proposed for this, including limitations in predators'
550:. In Müllerian mimicry, both model and mimic are aposematic, so mimicry may be mutual, does not necessarily constitute a bluff or deception and as in the wasps and bees may involve many species in a mimicry ring.
485:, where females of one species mimic the mating signals of another species, deceiving males to come close enough for them to eat. Mimicry sometimes does not involve a predator at all though. Such is the case in
352:
geographical area. The more toxic the model is, the more likely it is that the predator will avoid the mimic. The abundance of the model species is also important for the success of the mimic because of
539:
species of varying toxicity. Some feed on more toxic plants and store these toxins within themselves. The more palatable caterpillars thus profit from the more toxic members of the same species.
119:
At higher frequency there is also a stronger selective advantage for the predator to distinguish mimic from model. For this reason, mimics are usually less numerous than models, an instance of
1495:
would be a better term (Pasteur, 1972; Bees, 1977; Rothschild, 1979). Note that all of the antagonisms raised by
Batesian mimicry will arise, but now the model and the mimic are conspecific.
1483:, with one being completely potent with regard to cardiac glycoside toxicity, the second not. The first will fit all of the characteristics for warning coloration, the second not. In fact,
691:
to detect their prey. Some potential prey are unpalatable to bats, and produce an ultrasonic aposematic signal, the auditory equivalent of warning coloration. In response to echolocating
493:. In protective mimicry, the meeting between mimic and dupe is not such a fortuitous occasion for the mimic, and the signals it mimics tend to lower the probability of such an encounter.
243:, and were thus avoided by them. He extended that logic to forms that closely resembled such protected species and mimicked their warning coloration but not their toxicity.
212:
characters seemed to show that they were not even closely related. Shortly after his return to
England, he read a paper on his theory of mimicry at a meeting of the
504:
machinery identifies as belonging to the crop. Vavilovian mimicry is not
Batesian, because man and crop are not enemies. By contrast, a leaf-mimicking plant, the
1662:
821:
218:
558:
2312:
789:
Müllerian mimicry in its simplest form is not a bluff at all, but since toxicity is relative, there is a spectrum of mimicry from
Batesian to Müllerian.
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1278:
239:
and flew in a leisurely manner, almost as if taunting predators to eat them. He reasoned that these butterflies were unpalatable to birds and other
713:
moths that produce such warning sounds as well. Acoustic mimicry complexes, both
Batesian and Müllerian, may be widespread in the auditory world.
196:
in 1848. While
Wallace returned in 1852, Bates remained for over a decade. Bates's field research included collecting almost a hundred species of
508:, employs Batesian mimicry by adapting its leaf shape and colour to match that of its host to deter herbivores from eating its edible leaves.
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489:, where the mimic once again benefits from the encounter. For instance, some fungi have their spores dispersed by insects by smelling like
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showed that color proportions in these snakes were important in deceiving predators but that the order of the colored rings was not.
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on 21 November 1861, which was then published in 1862 as 'Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazon Valley' in the society's
166:
523:; the model is the same species as its mimic. Equivalent to Batesian mimicry within a single species, it occurs when there is a
635:
2321:
1663:
http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/bitstream/handle/2246/2364//v2/dspace/ingest/pdfSource/nov/N1492.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
1548:
Brower, L. P.; Ryerson, W. N.; Coppinger, L. L.; Glazier, S. C. (1968). "Ecological chemistry and the palatability spectrum".
2309:
1392:
Brower, L. P. (1970) Plant poisons in a terrestrial food chain and implications for mimicry theory. In K. L. Chambers (ed)
416:
2578:
353:
120:
1886:"Mimicry on the edge: Why do mimics vary in resemblance to their model in different parts of their geographical range?"
1759:
Dittrich, W.; Gilbert, F.; Green, P.; McGregor, P.; Grewcock, D. (1993). "Imperfect mimicry – a pigeons perspective".
2454:
496:
A case somewhat similar to Batesian mimicry is that of mimetic weeds, which imitate agricultural crops. In weed or
348:(warning) patterns. The brightness of such warning signs is correlated with the level of toxicity of the organism.
1935:
Kikuchi, David W.; Pfennig, David W. (December 2010). "Predator Cognition Permits Imperfect Coral Snake Mimicry".
102:. The predatory species mediating indirect interactions between the mimic and the model is variously known as the
2648:
213:
1526:
Müller, F. (1879). "Ituna and Thyridia; a remarkable case of mimicry in butterflies. (R. Meldola translation)".
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discharge of the electric eel. This is thought to be Batesian mimicry of the powerfully protected electric eel.
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produce warning sounds. Bats learn to avoid the harmful moths, but similarly avoid other species such as some
572:
In imperfect Batesian mimicry, the mimics do not exactly resemble their models. An example of this is the fly
405:
1224:
Foster, Brodie; McCulloch, Graham; Foster, Yasmin; Kroos, Gracie; King, Tania; Waters, Jonathan (July 2023).
2284:
729:, is capable of delivering a powerful electric shock that can stun or kill its prey. Bluntnose knifefishes,
679:
Predators may identify their prey by sound as well as sight; mimics have accordingly evolved to deceive the
596:
366:
313:
269:
247:
232:
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the second butterfly is a harmless Batesian mimic of the first, even though both belong to the same species
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2345:
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98:, while the imitated species (protected by its toxicity, foul taste or other defenses) is known as the
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where a harmless species has evolved to imitate the warning signals of a harmful species directed at a
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44:
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2387:
2113:
Stoddard, P. K. (1999). "Predation enhances complexity in the evolution of electric fish signals".
688:
658:
1677:"The relationship between mimetic imperfection and phenotypic variation in insect colour patterns"
481:, where the mimic profits from interactions with the signal receiver. One such case of this is in
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to become more efficient at defeating the prey's adaptations. Some organisms have evolved to make
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1960:
1866:
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1331:
1082:"High-model abundance may permit the gradual evolution of Batesian mimicry: an experimental test"
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877:
812:
497:
478:
177:
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84:
64:
25:
1657:
Curran, C. H. (1951). Synopsis of the North American species of Spilomyia (Syrphidae, Diptera).
620:
1796:
Howse, P. E.; Allen, J. A. (1994). "Satyric mimicry – the evolution of apparent imperfection".
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system, which means that all three parties are from different species. An example would be the
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Bates put forward the hypothesis that the close resemblance between unrelated species was an
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where a predator or parasite mimics a harmless species, avoiding detection and improving its
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638:, analogous to a herbivorous insect's mimicking a well-defended insect to deter predators.
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447:, where the mimic does best by avoiding confrontations with the signal receiver. It is a
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explanation required no supernatural forces, it met with considerable criticism from
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1964:
1819:
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Only certain traits may be required to deceive predators; for example, tests on the
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is an imperfect Batesian mimic of wasps, lacking their long antennae and wasp waist.
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2318:
1870:
1179:
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are aposematic by sound, emitting ultrasonic warning signals. They are mimicked by
357:
325:
205:
1569:
843:"Contributions to an insect fauna of the Amazon valley (Lepidoptera: Heliconidae)"
2310:
Review of Contributions to an insect fauna of the Amazon valley by Charles Darwin
2281:
Avoiding Attack: The Evolutionary Ecology of Crypsis, Warning Signals and Mimicry
817:"Contributions to an insect fauna of the Amazon valley. Lepidoptera: Heliconidae"
594:
border (where the two are in the same area, and where they are not) of the mimic
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Batesian mimicry of ants appears to have evolved in certain plants, as a visual
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285:
240:
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72:
68:
39:
2030:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1276:
Vane-Wright, R. I. (1976). "A unified classification of mimetic resemblances".
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640:
329:
317:
301:
201:
143:
30:
1507:
Müller, Fritz (1878). "Ueber die Vortheile der Mimicry bei Schmetterlingen".
1327:
1065:
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650:, have dark dots and stripes on their flowers thought to serve this purpose.
158:
signals of strongly electric fish, probably constituting electrical mimicry.
2050:
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While visual signals have attracted most study, Batesian mimicry can employ
35:
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2250:
Pasteur, Georges (1982). "A classificatory review of mimicry systems".
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1487:. L. Brower, J. Brower, and Corvino (1967) have termed this phenomenon
925:
904:
Pasteur, Georges (1982). "A classificatory review of mimicry systems".
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505:
490:
444:
391:
56:
1250:
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predators, constituting auditory Batesian mimicry, while some weakly
2200:
1948:
1319:
2136:
735:, create an electric discharge pattern similar to the low voltage
657:
619:
557:
372:
337:
333:
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Most living things have predators and therefore are in a constant
289:
165:
139:
20:
1981:
Lev-Yadun, Simcha (2009). "Ant mimicry by Passiflora Flowers?".
2334:
1833:
Johnstone, R. A. (2002). "The evolution of inaccurate mimics".
511:
Another analogous case within a single species has been termed
684:
147:
1351:"Leaf Mimicry in a Climbing Plant Protects against Herbivory"
1131:"Rapid evolution of mimicry following local model extinction"
332:. Others have developed chemical defences such as the deadly
1406:
Brower, L. P.; Van Brower, J. V. Z.; Corvino, J. M. (1967).
2187:
Evans, M. A. (1965). "Mimicry and the Darwinian Heritage".
780:
This is often described as parasitizing the honest signals.
477:
Batesian mimicry stands in contrast to other forms such as
2330:
675:
moths, which are not foul-tasting but emit similar sounds.
173:
described the form of mimicry that bears his name in 1861.
336:
of certain snakes and wasps, or the noxious scent of the
2268:
A detailed discussion of the different forms of mimicry.
1226:"ebony underpins Batesian mimicry in melanic stoneflies"
123:. Some mimetic populations have evolved multiple forms (
63:
of them both. It is named after the English naturalist
28:
from Bates 1861, illustrating Batesian mimicry between
2236:
Defence in Animals: A Survey of Anti-Predator Defences
2299:. Chapters 10 and 11 provide an up-to-date synopsis.
2223:(Translated from the German) McGraw-Hill, New York.
1601:"A Mullerian mimicry ring in Appalachian millipedes"
1528:
Proclamations of the Entomological Society of London
42:) (second and bottom rows). A non-Batesian species,
2500:
2462:
2368:
1047:"Antipredator deception in terrestrial vertebrates"
474:), which is noxious to predators due to its sting.
250:explanation fitted well with the recent account of
624:The elongated spots on the reproductive organs of
527:within a population of harmful prey. For example,
235:. He noted that some species showed very striking
2026:"Acoustic mimicry in a predator prey interaction"
1976:
1974:
1543:
1541:
16:Bluffing imitation of a strongly defended species
542:Another important form of protective mimicry is
1605:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
546:, discovered by and named after the naturalist
2238:. Harlow, Essex & NY: Longman 357 p.
1675:Holloway, G.; Gilbert, F.; Brandt, A. (2002).
1271:
1269:
519:and Jane Van Zandt Brower). This is a case of
272:, both in academic circles and in the broader
222:. He elaborated on his experiences further in
2346:
381:: the former is deceptive, the latter honest.
146:warning signals sent by unpalatable moths to
8:
2019:
2017:
1396:Corvallis, OR: Oregon State Univ. pp. 69-82.
1184:"Diversity in mimicry: paradox or paradigm?"
872:
870:
443:Batesian mimicry is a case of protective or
34:species (top row and third row) and various
2313:The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online
2183:Provides many examples of Batesian Mimicry.
1408:"Plant poisons in a terrestrial food chain"
2353:
2339:
2331:
2319:Biographical sketch of Bates, with picture
500:, the weed survives by having seeds which
2547:Coloration evidence for natural selection
2059:
2049:
1911:
1743:
1732:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
1702:
1634:
1624:
1465:Bell, William J.; Cardé, Ring T. (2013).
1441:
1431:
1388:
1386:
1366:
1279:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
1249:
1154:
1105:
1064:
1018:
1008:
967:
899:
897:
895:
893:
858:
847:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
2252:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
991:Gohli, Jostein; Högstedt, Göran (2010).
906:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
644:flowers of at least 22 species, such as
2000:Weins, D. (1978). "Mimicry in plants".
1080:Kikuchi, D. W.; Pfennig, D. W. (2009).
997:Communicative & Integrative Biology
807:
805:
801:
773:
1884:Harper, G. R.; Pfennig, D. W. (2007).
1129:Akcali, C. K.; Pfennig, D. W. (2014).
758:(females mimic multiple model species)
258:, as outlined in his famous 1859 book
2024:Barber, J. R.; Conner, W. E. (2007).
1728:"Why are there good and poor mimics?"
993:"Reliability in aposematic signaling"
687:are nocturnal predators that rely on
7:
2246:Chapter 4 discusses this phenomenon.
1491:, though others have suggested that
944:"The coevolution of warning signals"
344:to their attackers with conspicuous
294:The yellow-banded poison dart frog (
94:The imitating species is called the
2264:10.1146/annurev.es.13.110182.001125
918:10.1146/annurev.es.13.110182.001125
883:The Naturalist on the River Amazons
822:Transactions of the Linnean Society
630:may mimic ants to deter herbivores.
460:, which is a Batesian mimic of its
225:The Naturalist on the River Amazons
2487:Pouyannian (with pseudocopulation)
2231:Especially the first two chapters.
1891:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
1799:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
1762:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
1745:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2000.tb01234.x
1682:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
1599:Marek, P. E.; Bond, J. E. (2009).
1292:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1976.tb00240.x
1086:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
948:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
860:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1981.tb01842.x
835:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1860.tb00146.x
364:, and in the New Zealand stonefly
14:
340:. Such prey often send clear and
2613:
2612:
2453:
2388:Aristotelian/Distraction display
431:(top) resembles the unpalatable
415:
404:
2189:Journal of the History of Ideas
2175:. Methuen and Co, Ltd., London
2173:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
1471:. Springer. pp. 270–271.
386:Classification and comparisons
1:
2579:Frequency-dependent selection
2221:Mimicry in Plants and Animals
2213:For a historical perspective.
1570:10.1126/science.161.3848.1349
1203:10.1016/s0169-5347(98)01483-9
392:Mimicry § Classification
354:frequency-dependent selection
121:frequency-dependent selection
1983:Israel Journal of Entomology
841:Bates, Henry Walter (1981).
468:(now more commonly known as
324:less likely, for example by
1468:Chemical Ecology of Insects
180:(1825–1892) was an English
2665:
613:
554:Imperfect Batesian mimicry
389:
283:
2607:
2451:
1659:American Museum Novitates
1368:10.1016/j.cub.2014.03.010
1349:Gianoli, Ernesto (2014).
214:Linnean Society of London
2644:Antipredator adaptations
2508:Anti-predator adaptation
749:Phylogenetics of mimicry
434:Pachliopta aristolochiae
314:antipredator adaptations
2285:Oxford University Press
2279:; Speed, M. P. (2004).
2051:10.1073/pnas.0703627104
1937:The American Naturalist
1626:10.1073/pnas.0810408106
1394:Biochemical Coevolution
1308:The American Naturalist
636:anti-herbivory strategy
597:Lampropeltis elapsoides
535:) caterpillars feed on
367:Zelandoperla fenestrata
233:antipredator adaptation
142:; some moths mimic the
1904:10.1098/rspb.2007.0558
1812:10.1098/rspb.1994.0102
1775:10.1098/rspb.1993.0029
1695:10.1098/rspb.2001.1885
1147:10.1098/rsbl.2014.0304
1098:10.1098/rspb.2009.2000
1066:10.1093/czoolo/60.1.16
960:10.1098/rspb.2001.1944
676:
631:
569:
382:
342:honest warning signals
310:evolutionary arms race
305:
297:Dendrobates leucomelas
174:
114:. By parasitising the
49:
2599:Underwater camouflage
2378:Aggressive/Wicklerian
1509:Zoologischer Anzeiger
1433:10.1073/pnas.57.4.893
661:
623:
614:Further information:
610:Plants mimicking ants
575:Spilomyia longicornis
565:Spilomyia longicornis
561:
525:palatability spectrum
390:Further information:
376:
316:, while the predator
293:
261:The Origin of Species
194:Alfred Russel Wallace
169:
162:Historical background
116:honest warning signal
24:
2574:Evolutionary ecology
2559:Deception in animals
2553:Dazzled and Deceived
2513:Animal communication
2089:The Blind Watchmaker
2003:Evolutionary Biology
1726:Edmunds, M. (2000).
1182:(11 November 1998).
1010:10.4161/cib.3.1.9782
683:of their predators.
627:Passiflora incarnata
471:Bombus pensylvanicus
457:Mallophora bomboides
425:A well-known mimic,
396:Cleaner fish mimicry
362:pipevine swallowtail
154:appear to mimic the
45:Pseudopieris nehemia
2420:Emsleyan/Mertensian
2129:1999Natur.400..254S
2042:2007PNAS..104.9331B
1855:10.1038/nature00845
1847:2002Natur.418..524J
1617:2009PNAS..106.9755M
1562:1968Sci...161.1349B
1424:1967PNAS...57..893B
1242:2023MolEc..32.4986F
1180:Mallet, James L. B.
1092:(1684): 1041–1048.
940:Sherratt, Thomas N.
878:Bates, Henry Walter
813:Bates, Henry Walter
48:, is in the centre.
2564:Deimatic behaviour
2324:2008-09-29 at the
2234:Edmunds, M. 1974.
717:Electrical mimicry
677:
632:
570:
498:Vavilovian mimicry
479:aggressive mimicry
383:
306:
300:) has conspicuous
270:anti-evolutionists
200:from the families
178:Henry Walter Bates
175:
171:Henry Walter Bates
85:aggressive mimicry
65:Henry Walter Bates
50:
2626:
2625:
2594:Signalling theory
2569:Mimicry#Evolution
2542:Community ecology
2537:Animal coloration
2383:Ant/Myrmecomorphy
2294:978-0-19-852859-3
2273:Ruxton, Graeme D.
2123:(6741): 254–256.
2099:978-0-393-31570-7
2036:(22): 9331–9334.
1898:(1621): 1955–61.
1841:(6897): 524–526.
1806:(1349): 111–114.
1769:(1332): 195–200.
1689:(1489): 411–416.
1611:(24): 9755–9760.
1556:(3848): 1349–51.
1493:Browerian mimicry
1478:978-1-4899-3368-3
1251:10.1111/mec.17085
1236:(18): 4986–4998.
1230:Molecular Ecology
954:(1492): 741–746.
762:Locomotor mimicry
544:Müllerian mimicry
517:Lincoln P. Brower
513:Browerian mimicry
487:dispersal mimicry
445:defensive mimicry
379:Müllerian mimicry
190:Amazon rainforest
188:who surveyed the
81:Müllerian mimicry
67:, who worked on
2656:
2649:Chemical ecology
2618:Category mimicry
2616:
2615:
2457:
2355:
2348:
2341:
2332:
2298:
2267:
2212:
2157:
2156:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2092:. W. W. Norton.
2084:Dawkins, Richard
2080:
2074:
2073:
2063:
2053:
2021:
2012:
2011:
1997:
1991:
1990:
1978:
1969:
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1932:
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1403:
1397:
1390:
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1340:
1339:
1314:(878): 343–355.
1302:
1296:
1295:
1273:
1264:
1263:
1253:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1188:
1178:Joron, Mathieu;
1175:
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888:
887:
874:
865:
864:
862:
838:
809:
790:
787:
781:
778:
755:Papilio dardanus
654:Acoustic mimicry
603:Micrurus fulvius
533:Danaus plexippus
464:model and prey,
419:
408:
53:Batesian mimicry
2664:
2663:
2659:
2658:
2657:
2655:
2654:
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2629:
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2627:
2622:
2603:
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2364:
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2326:Wayback Machine
2306:
2295:
2277:Sherratt, T. N.
2271:
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2201:10.2307/2708228
2186:
2165:
2163:Further reading
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1197:(11): 461–466.
1186:
1177:
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1172:
1135:Biology Letters
1128:
1127:
1123:
1079:
1078:
1074:
1052:Current Zoology
1041:
1040:
1036:
990:
989:
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788:
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770:
745:
737:electrolocation
732:Brachyhypopomus
719:
656:
618:
612:
578:, which mimics
556:
466:B. americanorum
441:
440:
439:
438:
428:Papilio polytes
422:
421:
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411:
410:
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398:
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288:
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254:by Wallace and
164:
156:electrolocation
17:
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2502:
2501:Related topics
2498:
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2479:
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2440:In vertebrates
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2304:External links
2302:
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2195:(2): 211–220.
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2075:
2013:
1992:
1970:
1949:10.1086/657041
1943:(6): 830–834.
1927:
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1738:(3): 459–466.
1718:
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1361:(9): 984–987.
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1297:
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886:. John Murray.
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697:big brown bats
655:
652:
611:
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600:and the model
555:
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506:chameleon vine
424:
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414:
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412:
403:
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400:
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387:
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360:) such as the
284:Main article:
281:
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264:. Because the
256:Charles Darwin
163:
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138:of any of the
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2018:
2014:
2009:
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1996:
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1418:(4): 893–98.
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727:Electrophorus
724:
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712:
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706:Cycnia tenera
702:
698:
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674:
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668:Cycnia tenera
664:
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584:
581:
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566:
562:The hoverfly
560:
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210:morphological
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152:electric fish
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76:
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62:
58:
55:is a form of
54:
47:
46:
41:
37:
33:
32:
27:
23:
19:
2589:Polymorphism
2584:Phagomimicry
2551:
2532:Co-evolution
2397:
2280:
2255:
2251:
2235:
2220:
2192:
2188:
2172:
2120:
2114:
2108:
2088:
2078:
2033:
2029:
2007:
2001:
1995:
1986:
1982:
1940:
1936:
1930:
1895:
1889:
1879:
1838:
1834:
1828:
1803:
1797:
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1393:
1358:
1354:
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1311:
1307:
1300:
1283:
1277:
1233:
1229:
1219:
1194:
1190:
1173:
1138:
1134:
1124:
1089:
1085:
1075:
1056:
1050:
1037:
1000:
996:
986:
951:
947:
934:
909:
905:
882:
853:(1): 41–54.
850:
846:
826:
820:
785:
776:
753:
730:
726:
723:electric eel
720:
704:
689:echolocation
678:
666:
647:P. incarnata
645:
639:
633:
625:
601:
595:
585:
573:
571:
563:
548:Fritz Müller
541:
532:
524:
512:
510:
495:
486:
476:
469:
465:
455:
448:
442:
432:
426:
377:Batesian vs
365:
358:Papilionidae
350:
326:nocturnality
307:
295:
274:social realm
259:
248:naturalistic
245:
241:insectivores
230:
223:
219:Transactions
217:
206:Heliconiinae
176:
133:
125:polymorphism
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
93:
77:
52:
51:
43:
29:
18:
2518:Aposematism
2393:Automimicry
2258:: 169–199.
2217:Wickler, W.
1489:automimicry
1003:(1): 9–11.
912:: 169–199.
839:; Reprint:
701:tiger moths
663:Tiger moths
616:Ant mimicry
521:automimicry
312:to develop
304:coloration.
286:Aposematism
280:Aposematism
198:butterflies
75:of Brazil.
73:rainforests
69:butterflies
40:Nymphalidae
2633:Categories
2523:Camouflage
2492:Vavilovian
2482:Gilbertian
2445:Wasmannian
2370:In animals
2169:Cott, H.B.
2010:: 365–403.
1989:: 159–163.
797:References
641:Passiflora
453:robber fly
346:aposematic
330:camouflage
302:aposematic
237:coloration
202:Ithomiinae
186:naturalist
144:ultrasound
31:Dismorphia
2477:Dodsonian
2464:In plants
2430:Müllerian
2403:Locomotor
2153:204994529
1328:0003-0147
1286:: 25–56.
1059:: 16–25.
1043:Caro, Tim
592:allopatry
502:winnowing
483:fireflies
462:bumblebee
437:(bottom).
322:detection
266:Darwinian
252:evolution
136:deception
129:cognition
91:success.
36:Ithomiini
2472:Bakerian
2415:Chemical
2398:Batesian
2322:Archived
2145:10421365
2086:(1986).
2070:17517637
1965:35411437
1957:20950143
1922:17567563
1863:12152077
1820:84458742
1783:84467142
1713:11886630
1645:19487663
1586:45185502
1578:17831347
1534:: 20–29.
1515:: 54–55.
1377:24768053
1336:83531239
1260:37503654
1211:21238394
1165:24919704
1141:(6): 4.
1116:19955153
1045:(2014).
1029:20539774
978:11934367
942:(2002).
880:(1863).
815:(1861).
743:See also
703:such as
693:red bats
588:sympatry
537:milkweed
449:disjunct
182:explorer
112:operator
104:receiver
89:foraging
61:predator
2639:Mimicry
2527:Crypsis
2425:Eyespot
2362:Mimicry
2219:(1968)
2209:2708228
2171:(1940)
2125:Bibcode
2061:1890494
2038:Bibcode
1913:2275182
1871:4424680
1843:Bibcode
1704:1690905
1636:2700981
1613:Bibcode
1558:Bibcode
1550:Science
1452:5231352
1420:Bibcode
1238:Bibcode
1156:4090552
1107:2842773
1020:2881232
969:1690947
926:2097066
711:pyralid
681:hearing
673:pyralid
529:monarch
515:(after
491:carrion
71:in the
57:mimicry
2611:
2435:Sexual
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