Battle of Gaugamela - Knowledge (XXG)

1253: 1992: 1339:. The use of the scorched-earth tactic and scythed chariots by Darius suggests that he wanted to repeat that battle. Alexander would have been unable to adequately supply his army if he had taken the southern route, even if the scorched-earth tactic had failed. The Macedonian army, underfed and exhausted from the heat, would then be defeated at the plain of Cunaxa by Darius. When Alexander took the northern route, Mazaeus must have returned to Babylon to bring the news. Darius most likely decided to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. This plan failed because Alexander probably took a river crossing that was closer to Thapsacus than Babylon. He would have improvised and chosen Gaugamela as his most favourable site for a battle. Historian 50: 420: 2084: 1806: 2008:

chariots would become useless, if the Macedonians advanced into the uneven ground, ordered the front ranks of his left wing to ride round the right wing of the Macedonians, where Alexander was commanding, to prevent him from marching his wing any further. This being done, Alexander ordered the cavalry of the Grecian mercenaries under the command of Menidas to attack them. But the Scythian cavalry and the Bactrians, who had been drawn up with them, sallied forth against them and being much more numerous they put the small body of Greeks to rout. Alexander then ordered

4427: 1814: 1983:. His plan was to draw as much of the Persian cavalry as possible to the flanks, to create a gap within the enemy line where a decisive blow could then be struck at Darius in the centre. This required almost perfect timing and maneuvering and Alexander himself to act first. He would force Darius to attack (as they would soon move off the prepared ground), though Darius did not want to be the first to attack after seeing what happened at Issus against a similar formation. In the end, Darius' hand was forced, and he attacked. 759: 1577: 1398: 1219:(1st century). Plutarch and Arrian mention the ransom offered for the prisoners was 10,000 talents, but Diodorus, Curtius and Justin had given the figure of 30,000. Arrian writes that Darius' third attempt took place during the Siege of Tyre, but the other historians place the second negotiation attempt at that time. In spite of everything, with the failure of his negotiation attempts, Darius had now decided to prepare for another battle with Alexander. 888: 2069:, with him leading the charge. The Persian infantry at the center was still fighting the phalanxes, hindering any attempts to counter Alexander's charge. This large wedge then smashed into the weakened Persian center, taking out Darius' royal guard and the Greek mercenaries. Darius was in danger of being cut off, and the widely held modern view is that he now broke and ran, with the rest of his army following him. This is based on Arrian's account: 691: 387: 708: 2133: 776: 854: 793: 742: 2057: 905: 725: 820: 2013:

about a general cavalry engagement, in which more of Alexander's men fell, not only being overwhelmed by the multitude of the barbarians, but also because the Scythians themselves and their horses were much more completely protected with armour for guarding their bodies. Notwithstanding this, the Macedonians sustained their assaults, and assailing them violently squadron by squadron, they succeeded in pushing them out of rank.

837: 871: 653: 660: 1175:, writing in the 1st and 2nd centuries, say that Darius had sent a letter to Alexander after the Battle of Issus. The letter demanded that Alexander withdraw from Asia as well as release all of his prisoners. According to Curtius and Justin, Darius offered a ransom for his prisoners, although Arrian does not mention a ransom. Curtius describes the tone of the letter as offensive, and Alexander refused his demands. 4466: 1309: 1190:(1st century Greek historian) likewise mentions the offer of all territory west of the Halys river, a treaty of friendship and a large ransom for Darius' captives. Diodorus is the only ancient historian who mentions the fact that Alexander concealed this letter and presented his friends with a forged one that was favorable to his own interests. Again, Alexander refused Darius' offers. 667: 427: 394: 1252: 2172:

Persian Empire, before angrily pursuing Bessus, capturing and executing him the following year. The majority of the remaining satraps gave their loyalty to Alexander and were allowed to keep their positions. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is traditionally considered to have ended with the death of Darius.

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Reinhold Bichler's case study surveyed 20 different sources published between 1920 and 2014, showing that various authors have given widely divergent estimates of Darius's forces, with others remarking that it is not possible to reach any conclusion other than that Alexander's army was outnumbered by

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towards the center of the enemy line. The Macedonians advanced with the wings echeloned back at 45 degrees to lure the Persian cavalry to attack. While the phalanxes battled the Persian infantry, Darius sent a large part of his cavalry and some of his regular infantry to attack Parmenion's forces on

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was the only one who spoke up, saying, "If I were Alexander, I should accept what was offered and make a treaty." Alexander reportedly replied, "So should I, if I were Parmenion." Alexander, in the end, refused the offer of Darius, and insisted that there could be only one king of Asia. He called on

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As the Persians advanced farther and farther to the Greek flanks in their attack, Alexander slowly filtered in his rear guard. He disengaged his Companions and prepared for the decisive attack. Behind them were the guard's brigade along with any phalanx battalions he could withdraw from the battle.

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The Scythian cavalry from the Persian left wing opened the battle by attempting to flank Alexander's extreme right. What followed was a long and fierce cavalry battle between the Persian left and the Macedonian right, in which the latter, being greatly outnumbered, was often hard-pressed. However,

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one or two, who gave information about the location of Darius' army at Gaugamela, some eight miles away. In light of the ground-flattening efforts taking place at Gaugamela, Alexander determined that Darius did not intend to change locations, and allowed his troops four days to rest before engaging

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and others to discredit Parmenion) on the left. Parmenion's wing was apparently encircled by the cavalry of the Persian right wing; being attacked from all sides, it was in a state of confusion. Alexander was faced with the choice of pursuing Darius and having the chance of killing him, ending the

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Then the Scythian cavalry rode along the line and came into conflict with the front men of Alexander's array, but he nevertheless still continued to march towards the right, and almost entirely got beyond the ground which had been cleared and levelled by the Persians. Then Darius, fearing that his

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Although there is general acceptance among modern scholars of Arrian's numbers for Alexander's forces, the opposite is true with respect to the ancient sources' reports on Darius's troop size. According to Bichler, among modern authors, "heir common ground is only that the excessively high numbers

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Alexander crossed the Euphrates in the summer of 331 BC. From there, Alexander followed a northern route instead of a direct southeastern route to Babylon. While doing so he had the Euphrates and the mountains of Armenia on his left. The northern route made it easier to forage for supplies and his

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Darius tried to dissuade Alexander from further attacks on his empire by diplomacy. Nawotka writes that "onflicting reports of ancient authors make the reconstruction of peace negotiations hypothetical." Ancient historians provide different accounts of his negotiations with Alexander, which can be

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The satraps, however, had other intentions. Bessus murdered Darius before fleeing eastwards. When Alexander discovered Darius murdered, he was saddened to see an enemy he respected killed in such a fashion, and gave Darius a full burial ceremony at Persepolis, the former ceremonial capital of the

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being unable to follow Alexander in his decisive attack, as they were being hard-pressed. The Persian and Indian cavalry in the center with Darius broke through. Instead of taking the phalanx or Parmenion in the rear, however, they continued towards the camp to loot. They also tried to rescue the

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at the head of the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries to attack the Scythians, and the barbarians gave way. But the rest of the Bactrians, drawing near to the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries, caused their own comrades who were already in flight to turn and renew the battle; and thus they brought

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Darius placed himself in the center with his best infantry, as was the tradition among Persian kings. He was surrounded by, on his right, the Carian cavalry, Greek mercenaries and Persian horse guards. In the right-center, he placed Persian foot guards (Apple Bearers/Immortals to the Greeks), the

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For a short time there ensued a hand-to-hand fight; but when the Macedonian cavalry, commanded by Alexander himself, pressed on vigorously, thrusting themselves against the Persians and striking their faces with their spears, and when the Macedonian phalanx in dense array and bristling with long

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mercenaries. To their right was another part of the allied Greek cavalry. From there came the phalanx, in a double line. Outnumbered over 5:1 in the cavalry, with their line surpassed by over a mile, it seemed inevitable that the Greeks would be flanked by the Persians. The second line was given

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By contrast, Diodorus mentions that Mazaeus was only supposed to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. He would not have bothered to defend it because he considered it impassable due to the strong current and depth of the river. Furthermore, Diodorus and Curtius Rufus mention that Mazaeus

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King Darius started to prepare for another battle with Alexander after the failure of the second negotiation attempt. Nevertheless, Darius made a third and final effort to negotiate with Alexander the Great after Alexander had departed from Egypt. Darius' third offer was much more generous. He

3405:, 3.2.7: The Hyrcani had mustered 6,000 as excellent horsemen as those nations could furnish, as well as 1,000 Tapurian cavalry. The Derbices had armed 40,000 foot-soldiers ; most of these carried spears tipped with bronze or iron, but some had hardened the wooden shaft by fire. 2123:

and Menidas were all injured. Alexander prevailed, however, and Mazaeus also began to pull his forces back as Bessus had. However, unlike on the left with Bessus, the Persians soon fell into disorder as the Thessalians and other cavalry units charged forward at their fleeing enemy.

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and other javelin-throwers posted in front of the Companion cavalry. Those chariots who made it through the barrage of javelins charged the Macedonian lines, which responded by opening up their ranks, creating alleys through which the chariots passed harmlessly. The

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The descriptions given by other historians of the third negotiation attempt are similar to the account of Diodorus, but differ in details. Diodorus, Curtius and Arrian write that an embassy was sent instead of a letter, which is also claimed by Justin and

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and Greek light cavalry. The mercenary cavalry was divided into two groups, veterans on the flank of the right and the rest in front of the Agrianes and Greek archers, who were stationed next to the phalanx. Parmenion was stationed on the left with the

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During the battle, Alexander employed an unusual strategy which has been duplicated only a few times. While the infantry battled the Persian troops in the centre, Alexander began to ride all the way to the edge of the right flank, accompanied by his

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war in one stroke but at the risk of losing his army, or going back to the left flank to aid Parmenion and preserve his forces, thus letting Darius escape to the surrounding mountains. He decided to help Parmenion, and followed Darius later.

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The Persians also who were riding round the wing were seized with alarm when Aretes made a vigorous attack upon them. In this quarter indeed the Persians took to speedy flight; and the Macedonians followed up the fugitives and slaughtered

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Darius managed to escape by horseback with a small corps of his forces remaining intact. The Bactrian cavalry and Bessus caught up with him, as did some of the survivors of the Royal Guard and 2,000 Greek mercenaries. At this point, the

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The precise location of the battlefield is not known with certainty, as the ancient sources are sometimes inconsistent and do not provide precise topographical or geographical information. Various sites have been proposed: Tel Gomel,

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was divided into two halves—East and West. On his escape, Darius gave a speech to what remained of his army. He planned to head further east and raise another army to face Alexander, assuming that the Greeks would head towards

1654:. The main Persian infantry was poorly trained and equipped in comparison to Alexander's pezhetairoi and hoplites. The only respectable infantry Darius had were his 2,000 Greek hoplites and his personal bodyguard, the 10,000 1406:

given in the ancient sources are of no use." Similarly, Worthington writes that the figures given by Diodorus, Plutarch, and Curtius "are absurdly high numbers to show how hopelessly outnumbered Alexander's army was"

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cavalry. The Cappadocians and Armenians were stationed in front of the other cavalry units and led the attack. The Albanian cavalry were sent around to flank the Greek left. According to Curtius, the archers were all

1623:, Indian troops were also deployed. He explains that Darius III "obtained the help of those Indians who bordered on the Bactrians, together with the Bactrians and Sogdianians themselves, all under the command of 1243:

to guard the crossing of the Euphrates near Thapsacus with a force of 3,000 cavalry, and that he fled when Alexander's army approached to cross the river. Alexander arrived at the Tigris in late September.

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Marciak, Michał; Wójcikowski, Robert S.; Morandi Bonacossi, Daniele; Sobiech, Marcin (2021). "The Battle of Gaugamela in the Navkur Plain in the Context of the Madedonian and Persian Art of Warfare".

1072:). Despite being heavily outnumbered, the Army of Macedon emerged victorious due to the employment of superior tactics and the clever usage of light infantry forces. It was a decisive victory for the 1662:, armed not with a heavy shield but with spears no longer than three metres, while the spears of the Immortals were two metres long. Among the other Persian troops, the most heavily armed were the 469: 2000:

by careful use of reserves and disciplined charges, the Greek troops were able to contain their Persian counterparts, which would be vital for the success of Alexander's decisive attack.

1802:. However, the absence of any mention of those elephants during the battle and their later capture in the Persian camp indicate they were withdrawn. The reason might have been fatigue. 2111:

What happened next was described by Arrian as the fiercest engagement of the battle, as Alexander and his companions encountered the cavalry of the Persian right, composed of Indians,

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pikes had also made an attack upon them, all things together appeared full of terror to Darius, who had already long been in a state of fear, so that he was the first to turn and flee.

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Several researchers have criticized the Persians for their failure to harass Alexander's army and disrupt its long supply lines when it advanced through Mesopotamia. Classical scholar

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thinks that Alexander's choice for the northern route caught the Persians off guard. Darius would have expected him to take the faster southern route directly to

462: 3631:. Universal- und kulturhistorische Studien. Studies in Universal and Cultural History. Translated by Pramhaas, Franz. Wiesbaden : Springer VS. pp. 157–189. 1256:

Account of Alexander's victory over the last Achaemenid king Darius III at the battle of Gaugamela on 1 October 331 BC and his triumphant entry into Babylon, in

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separated into three negotiation attempts. Darius reportedly initially requested peace and the safe return of his family, beginning with an offer to pay 10,000

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and "the bravest and most numerous division of the Persians", desperately trying to get through to escape. Sixty Companions were killed in the engagement, and

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estimates Persian cavalry at 12,000 because of management issues, Persian infantry less than that of the Greek heavy infantry, and Greek mercenaries at 8,000.

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Bichler, Reinhold (2020). "The Battle of Gaugamela: A Case Study and Some General Methodological Considerations". In Luggin, Johanna; Fink, Sebastian (eds.).

5165: 4393: 4415: 49: 455: 1135:. Persian troop counts in Egypt were diminished due to many soldiers being removed to support the Battle of Issus and dying there. As a result, the 5211: 4726: 2181: 2025:, likely their last reserve in this sector of the battlefield. By then, however, the battle had been decided in the center by Alexander himself. 2091:

Alexander could have pursued Darius at this point. However, he received desperate messages from Parmenion (an event that would later be used by

4455: 605: 1360:, Tell Aswad, and a mound south of Wardak. The most commonly accepted opinion about the location is Karamlesh – suggested by archeologist Sir 4229: 4210: 4189: 4170: 4151: 4129: 4009: 3987: 3964: 3918: 3896: 3875: 3853: 3831: 3810: 3791: 3769: 3734: 3644: 3582: 3558: 3534: 3387: 3105: 2720: 2632: 2600: 2379: 2355: 1600:

put it at 200,000 cavalry and 800,000 infantry, Plutarch put it at 1,000,000 troops (without a breakdown in composition), while according to

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Marciak, M.; Szypuła, B.; Sobiech, M.; Pirowski, T. (2021). "The Battle of Gaugamela and the Question of Visibility on the Battlefield".

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Marciak, M.; Szypuła, B.; Sobiech, M.; Pirowski, T. (2021). "The Battle of Gaugamela and the Question of Visibility on the Battlefield".

4882: 3045: 2108:, but she refused to go with them. These raiders were in turn attacked and dispersed by the rear reserve phalanx as they were looting. 5231: 5216: 5039: 5034: 4731: 4338: 4062: 4028: 3673: 4450: 4364: 4107: 4083: 3942: 3697: 982: 2039:

Darius now launched his chariots at those troops under Alexander's personal command; many of the chariots were intercepted by the

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While holding on the left, a gap had opened up between the left and center of the Macedonian phalanx, due to Simmias' brigade of

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The battle began with the Persians already present on the battlefield. Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his Eastern

4408: 4372: 386: 1791:, for which he had ordered bushes and vegetation removed from the battlefield to maximize their effectiveness. He also had 15 1646:

While Darius had a significant advantage in numbers, most of his troops were of a lower quality than Alexander's. Alexander's

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tells the story of Alexander and quotes original sources. Favors a reconstruction of the battle which heavily privileges the

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it consisted of 45,000 cavalry and 200,000 infantry. Furthermore, according to Arrian, Diodorus and Curtius, Darius had 200

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Darius' army in battle. Following the calculations, the date of the Battle of Gaugamela must have been 1 October in 331 BC.

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relief of the Battle of Gaugamela, with allegories of Europe and Asia standing on the side, 2nd century BC-2nd century AD.

4736: 1160:, and eventually offering to recognize Alexander as a co-equal status as monarch. Alexander rejected all of these offers. 1136: 1004: 4039: 3304: 2143:

After the battle, Parmenion rounded up the Persian baggage train while Alexander and his bodyguard pursued Darius. As at

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Alexander: A History of the Origin and Growth of the Art of War from the Earliest Times to the Battle of Ipsus, B.C. 301

1805: 690: 2971: 2584: 2083: 1343:, by contrast, argues that Darius intentionally led the Macedonians to Gaugamela, the Persians' preferred battlefield. 1178:

A second negotiation attempt took place after the capture of Tyre. Darius offered Alexander marriage with his daughter

5226: 4887: 4825: 1186:. Justin is less specific, and does not mention a specific daughter, and only speaks of a portion of Darius' kingdom. 479: 159: 41: 1962:

orders to deal with any flanking units should the situation arise. This second line consisted mostly of mercenaries.

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The Macedonians were divided into two, with the right side under the direct command of Alexander and the left of

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cavalry. There they were to conduct a holding action while Alexander launched the decisive blow from the right.

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The Battle of Gaugamela is illustrated in this tapestry, based on a painting by the 17th-century French artist,

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In the late spring or early summer of 331 BC, Alexander headed from Egypt, northeast through Syria, toward the

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occurred on 20–21 September 331 BC. Four days later, Alexander's army spotted members of Mazaeus' cavalry and

4928: 4836: 4754: 4523: 4354: 3952: 1958: 1675: 1324: 1288: 1132: 1038: 836: 555: 4146:. Achaemenid History. Vol. 13. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten. pp. 289–342. 1211:

Darius to surrender to him or to meet him in battle in order to decide who would be the sole king of Asia.

5149: 4921: 4907: 4893: 4445: 4142:(2003). "Darius III, Alexander the Great and Babylonian Scholarship". In Henkelman, W.; Kuhrt, A. (eds.). 3982:. Hellenistic Culture and Society. Vol. 1. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 3779: 3707: 2922: 1316: 1124: 1053:. It was the second and final battle between the two kings, and is considered to be the final blow to the 995: 904: 853: 724: 624: 549: 537: 525: 3479: 2640: 2616: 5113: 4782: 4633: 3608: 3525: 2696: 2229: 2213: 1758:

from other allied Greek states in reserve, with an additional 9,000 light infantry consisting mainly of

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troops would not suffer the extreme heat of the direct route. Captured Persian scouts reported to the

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of silver. In the account of Diodorus, Alexander explicitly deliberated this offer with his friends.

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Nawotka, Krzysztof (2021). "The Conquest by Alexander". In Jacobs, Bruno; Rollinger, Robert (eds.).

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Binder, Carsten (2021). "From Darius II to Darius III". In Jacobs, Bruno; Rollinger, Robert (eds.).

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On the right-center were Cretan mercenaries. Behind them were Thessalian cavalry under Phillip, and

1821:(1619–90). Le Brun undertook a series of paintings in the 1660s and 1670s depicting the triumphs of 5093: 4971: 4544: 3997: 3928: 1822: 1269: 1093: 1042: 1016: 645: 262: 191: 5141: 5107: 5083: 5026: 4775: 4741: 4490: 4386:

of the Babylonian Astronomical Diary concerning the battle and Alexander's entry into Babylon by

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river. Alexander found the Tigris undefended and succeeded in crossing it with great difficulty.

1164: 758: 585: 579: 267: 257: 247: 242: 237: 5099: 5088: 4850: 4844: 4810: 4803: 4706: 4431: 4426: 4387: 4225: 4206: 4185: 4166: 4147: 4125: 4103: 4079: 4058: 4024: 4005: 3983: 3960: 3938: 3914: 3892: 3871: 3849: 3827: 3806: 3787: 3765: 3730: 3693: 3669: 3640: 3596: 3578: 3554: 3530: 3383: 3101: 3023: 3007: 2375: 2351: 2160: 1980: 1971: 1938: 1910: 1735: 1731: 1659: 1455: 1332: 1073: 1054: 227: 174: 165: 3931:(2004). "Gaugamela, 1. Oktober 31 v. Chr.". In Förster, S.; Pöhlmann, M.; Walter, D. (eds.). 3711: 3418: 3365: 2999: 2168:. At the same time he dispatched letters to his eastern satraps asking them to remain loyal. 5170: 5121: 4966: 4900: 4869: 4858: 4817: 4768: 4699: 4628: 4589: 4320: 4291: 4260: 4202:

By the spear: Philip II, Alexander the Great, and the rise and fall of the Macedonian empire

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where he regrouped with his remaining army that was there, on-site from a previous battle.

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Limes Report: His Aerial & Ground Reconnaissances in Iraq & Transjordan in 1938–39

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4097: 3166:, p. 212. "... certainly not more than that of the Macedonians, and probably fewer 1746:, his forces numbered 7,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry. Most historians agree that the 4863: 4761: 4721: 4674: 4658: 4609: 4574: 4569: 3976: 3863: 3573: 2155:. It was a disastrous defeat for the Persians and one of Alexander's finest victories. 1705: 1695: 1365: 1340: 1281: 1261: 5190: 5050: 4747: 4564: 4496: 4485: 4303: 4274: 3841: 3723: 3683: 3654: 3577:. Vol. 7. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 707–741. 3553:. Vol. 4. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 379‑487. 2284: 1609: 1601: 1589: 1292: 1202:, co-rulership of the Achaemenid Empire, the hand of one of his daughters and 30,000 1127:, which lasted from January to July, and the victory resulted in his control of the 3547:(1936). "On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander". In Babbitt, Frank Cole (ed.). 2152: 2148: 2092: 1795: 1596:

According to Arrian, Darius' force numbered 40,000 cavalry and 1,000,000 infantry,

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and the armed grooms of the cavalry then attacked and eliminated these survivors.

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Darius flees (18th-century ivory relief) (National Archaeological Museum, Madrid)

1627:, the Satrap of Bactria". The Indians in question were probably from the area of 4638: 4465: 2116: 2100: 1890: 1751: 1647: 1636: 1381: 1361: 1179: 1157: 1105: 197: 90: 17: 4038:

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1112:. Alexander's victory at Issus had also given him complete control of southern 5044: 4991: 4595: 4531: 3636: 2105: 1918: 1628: 1195: 1113: 1101: 1097: 1085: 1050: 819: 591: 295: 279: 4122:

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The Fifteen Decisive Battles of The World : From Marathon to Waterloo

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Dynasty and Empire in the Age of Augustus: The Case of the Boscoreale Cups

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The fighting took place in Gaugamela, a village on the banks of the river

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Alexander gains Babylon, half of Persia and all other parts of Mesopotamia

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tactics in the countryside through which Alexander's army had to pass.

1240: 1140: 1117: 290: 3692:. Translated by Jane Marie Todd. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1401:

Indian war elephants in the Achaemenid army at the Battle of Gaugamela

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Alexander the Great, victorious over Darius at the Battle of Gaugamela

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A Persian Perspective: Essays in Memory of Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg

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Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power

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Dictionary of Battles From the Earliest Date to the Present Time

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under Satrap Barsentes, and are thought to have been either the

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as ransom, then offering to cede land in Asia Minor west of the

1116:(modern-day Turkey). After the battle, King Darius retreated to 4397: 3094:

Stein, Auriel; Gregory, Shelagh; Kennedy, David Leslie (1985).

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The tide finally turned in the Greek favor after the attack of

1631:. Indian "hill-men" are also said by Arrian to have joined the 451: 4222:

Alexander the Great: Lessons From History's Undefeated General

3174: 3172: 968: 3629:

Battle descriptions as literary texts: a comparative approach

3123: 3121: 3119: 3117: 953: 3959:. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 3805:. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 3744:

De Santis, Marc G. (2001). "At The Crossroads of Conquest".

2816: 2814: 2812: 2810: 2350:. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 4340:

Video : Animated reconstruction of Battle of Gaugamela

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Marciak, Michal; Sobiech, Marcin; Pirowski, Tomasz (2020).

1995:

Battle of Gaugamela, engraving, first half of 18th century.

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Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A Historical Biography

3571:(1919). "Life of Alexander". In Perrin, Bernadotte (ed.). 2348:

Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A Historical Biography

4163:

Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces

3201: 3199: 3077: 3075: 2536: 2534: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2501: 2499: 2462: 2460: 2435: 2433: 2431: 2429: 2342: 2340: 956: 950: 1143:, peacefully surrendered to Alexander upon his arrival. 29:

Major battle of the Wars of Alexander the Great (331 BC)

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Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Greek Army

3220: 3218: 3216: 3214: 2935: 2933: 2931: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2852: 2850: 1037:), took place in 331 BC between the forces of the 3480:"How Alexander the Great Conquered the Persian Empire" 3255:. Berkeley: University of California Press. Figure 59. 2151:

captured, the King's personal chariot and bow and the

1766:. The size of the Greek-mounted army was about 7,000. 4249:"Alexander the Great's Route to Gaugamela and Arbela" 3445: 3443: 3402: 3349: 3316: 3264: 3262: 2918: 2793: 2791: 2789: 2692: 2636: 2612: 1970:

Alexander began by ordering his infantry to march in

1726:

Alexander commanded Greek forces from his kingdom of

983: 947: 3934:

Schlachten der Weltgeschichte: von Salamis bis Sinai

2404: 2402: 2400: 2398: 2258: 2256: 2254: 2252: 971: 5158: 5076: 4980: 4954: 4667: 4621: 4522: 4473: 4438: 4102:(in German). Vienna: Austrian Academy of Sciences. 3601:

Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus

2314:"Alexander the Great – Biography, Empire and Facts" 1734:, along with Greek mercenaries and levies from the 1057:, resulting in its complete conquest by Alexander. 1026: 965: 962: 3975: 3722: 1194:praised Alexander for the treatment of his mother 4165:. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. 3100:. Oxford BAR, International series. p. 127. 3284: 2967: 2910: 2684: 2668: 2652: 2580: 3716:. Vol. 1. London: Richard Bentley and Son. 1364:in 1938. All of these sites are located in the 34: 1750:consisted of 31,000 heavy infantry, including 1384:(also known as Mount Maqlub and Mount Alfaf). 1239:river. Arrian relates that Darius had ordered 1096:, which resulted in the subsequent capture of 1021:'the Camel's House'), also called the 4409: 463: 8: 5166:2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire 4054:A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire 3846:Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war 3665:A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire 3337: 3178: 2886: 1335:had done in 401 BC before his defeat in the 1231:river. In July or August, Alexander reached 327: 4057:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 473–485. 3668:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 458–471. 3151: 1182:, as well as all the territory west of the 434:Battle of Gaugamela (West and Central Asia) 426: 393: 4416: 4402: 4394: 3823:The Field Campaigns of Alexander the Great 2147:, substantial loot was gained, with 4,000 1809:Initial dispositions and opening movements 470: 456: 448: 31: 4264: 2368:Clark, Jessica H.; Turner, Brian (2017). 1987:Cavalry battle in the Hellenic right wing 1592:. 19th-century reproduction by engraving. 1557: 1247: 1147:Negotiations between Darius and Alexander 346: 3300: 3224: 3163: 3003: 2724: 1825:, as homage to his wealthy patron, King 1679: 1408: 1198:, offered him all territory west of the 5207:Battles involving the Achaemenid Empire 3236: 3205: 3139: 3127: 3081: 2841: 2780: 2540: 2513: 2466: 2451: 2439: 2248: 2193: 2182:Military tactics of Alexander the Great 4075:Great Battles of the Hellenistic World 3465: 3449: 3430: 3414: 3361: 3268: 3190: 2983: 2951: 2898: 2874: 2797: 2740: 2716: 2700: 2628: 2604: 2596: 2552: 2420: 2408: 2035:Attack of the Persian scythed chariots 1650:were armed with a six-metre pike, the 1561: 3066: 3019: 2939: 2862: 2768: 2756: 2568: 2525: 2490: 2478: 1565: 1553: 1291:had crossed the Tigris, a near-total 1248:Alexander's march through Mesopotamia 1131:. Alexander then again fought at the 7: 2995: 1658:. The Greek mercenaries fought in a 81:Probably Tel Gomel (Gaugamela) near 4205:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3523:(1963). Welles, C. Bradford (ed.). 2820: 1881:commanded the right flank with the 342:250,000–1,000,000 (ancient sources) 5040:Persepolis Administrative Archives 4377:Livius.org has a scholarly edition 1849:commanded the left flank with the 1556:estimates a total size of 91,000; 1272:that Darius had encamped past the 25: 4046:, vol. 109, pp. 711–741 3689:Darius in the shadow of Alexander 2065:He formed his units into a giant 1845:On both flanks were the cavalry. 437:Show map of West and Central Asia 339:50,000–250,000 (modern estimates) 4464: 4425: 4224:. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. 3613:Histories of Alexander the Great 3382:. University of Nebraska Press. 3048:from the original on 28 May 2023 2216:, and 500 infantry according to 1742:tributary peoples. According to 943: 903: 886: 869: 852: 835: 818: 791: 774: 757: 740: 723: 706: 689: 665: 658: 651: 425: 418: 392: 385: 371:300,000+ captured (according to 48: 4373:Babylonian astronomical diaries 4044:American Journal of Archaeology 3509:(1893). Chinnock, E. J. (ed.). 2051: 5212:Battles of Alexander the Great 4481:Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton 4182:Warfare in the Classical World 3974:——— (1993). 3913:. Vol. 1. Da Capo Press. 3721:Cummings, Lewis Vance (2004). 3611:(1880). Vogel, Theodor (ed.). 3478:Dave Roos (9 September 2019). 1064:, north of Arbela (modern-day 1: 4737:Scythian campaign of Darius I 4649:Xerxes I's inscription at Van 4072:Pietrykowski, Joseph (2012). 4019:Harbottle, Thomas B. (2018). 3848:. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. 4727:Conquest of the Indus Valley 4688:Battle of the Persian Border 2212:, 300 infantry according to 1937:. Alexander fought with his 1033: 1010: 4888:Wars of Alexander the Great 4355:"Major Battles – Gaugamela" 2302:Oxford Classical Dictionary 2060:Alexander's decisive attack 2052:Alexander's decisive attack 42:Wars of Alexander the Great 5253: 4943:Battle of the Persian Gate 4585:Mausoleum at Halicarnassus 3801:Engels, Donald W. (1980). 3403:Quintus Curtius Rufus 1880 3350:Quintus Curtius Rufus 1880 3317:Quintus Curtius Rufus 1880 2919:Quintus Curtius Rufus 1880 2693:Quintus Curtius Rufus 1880 2637:Quintus Curtius Rufus 1880 2613:Quintus Curtius Rufus 1880 1673: 1027: 999: 5232:Antigonus I Monophthalmus 5217:Military history of Erbil 4831:Wars of the Delian League 4462: 4199:Worthington, Ian (2014). 3820:English, Stephen (2010). 3762:History of the Art of War 3729:. New York: Grove Press. 3637:10.1007/978-3-658-27859-5 1608:while Arrian mentions 15 489: 379: 356: 314: 181: 149: 64: 47: 39: 4883:Second conquest of Egypt 4714:Siege of Sardis (547 BC) 4560:Palace of Darius in Susa 4367:9 September 2016 at the 4161:Ward, Steven R. (2014). 4124:. Simon & Schuster. 3891:. Simon & Schuster. 3885:Freeman, Philip (2011). 3603:. London: Henry G. Bohn. 3378:John M. Kistler (2007). 3249:Kuttner, Ann L. (1995). 3036:Lendering, Jona (2004). 2319:Encyclopaedia Britannica 2232:and 90,000 according to 1950:, Greek mercenaries and 1568:no larger than 100,000. 1123:Alexander fought at the 5035:Districts of the Empire 4837:Battle of the Eurymedon 4755:Siege of Naxos (499 BC) 4732:First conquest of Egypt 4382:24 January 2019 at the 4325:10.2143/SI.50.1.3291169 3708:Creasy, Edward Shepherd 1966:Beginning of the battle 1676:Ancient Macedonian army 1670:Size of Macedonian army 1313:The Battle of Gaugamela 1137:Persian satrap of Egypt 1104:and his two daughters, 328:Size of Macedonian army 5150:Seven Achaemenid clans 4922:Siege of Tyre (332 BC) 4908:Siege of Halicarnassus 4894:Battle of the Granicus 4266:10.1515/klio-2020-1005 4184:. Barnes & Noble. 3780:Doge, Theodore Ayrault 2140: 2088: 2076: 2061: 2032: 2015: 1996: 1830: 1810: 1593: 1402: 1320: 1317:Jan Brueghel the Elder 1264: 1125:Siege of Tyre (332 BC) 182:Commanders and leaders 4878:Great Satraps' Revolt 4797:Destruction of Athens 4783:Battle of Thermopylae 4634:Old Persian cuneiform 4023:. Franklin Classics. 3998:Hanson, Victor Davies 3609:Quintus Curtius Rufus 3285:Diodorus Siculus 1963 3038:"Gaugamela (331 BCE)" 2968:Diodorus Siculus 1963 2911:Diodorus Siculus 1963 2685:Diodorus Siculus 1963 2669:Diodorus Siculus 1963 2653:Diodorus Siculus 1963 2581:Diodorus Siculus 1963 2374:. Brill. p. 78. 2346:Green, Peter (2013). 2332:"Gaugamela (331 BCE)" 2135: 2086: 2071: 2059: 2027: 2005: 1994: 1816: 1808: 1579: 1400: 1380:, north and south of 1311: 1255: 357:Casualties and losses 5176:Cappadocian calendar 4790:Battle of Artemisium 4695:Lydian-Persian Wars 4644:Behistun Inscription 4456:History of democracy 4220:Yenne, Bill (2010). 4180:Warry, John (1998). 3929:Gehrke, Hans-Joachim 2228:40,000 according to 1798:supported by Indian 1787:tribes and deployed 1775:Initial dispositions 1388:Size of Persian army 1084:In November 333 BC, 931: current battle 406:Location within Iraq 403:class=notpageimage| 347:Size of Persian army 4972:Peace of Antalcidas 4936:Battle of Gaugamela 4545:Gate of All Nations 4296:10.1017/irq.2021.11 4140:Van der Spek, R. J. 4094:Schachermeyr, Fritz 4078:. Pen & Sword. 3888:Alexander the Great 3868:Alexander the Great 3826:. Pen & Sword. 3786:. Tales End Press. 3725:Alexander the Great 3340:, pp. 713–714. 2277:10.1017/irq.2021.11 2136:Alexander entering 2003:As told by Arrian: 1823:Alexander the Great 1094:Alexander the Great 1043:Alexander the Great 939:Battle of Gaugamela 646:Alexander the Great 606:Indian subcontinent 482:Alexander the Great 192:Alexander the Great 108: / 35:Battle of Gaugamela 5227:Seleucus I Nicator 4826:Babylonian revolts 4776:Battle of Marathon 4742:Greco-Persian Wars 4491:Achaemenid coinage 3597:Watson, John Selby 3526:Library of History 3512:Anabasis Alexandri 3239:, p. 185-187. 3154:, p. 188-189. 3130:, p. 160-161. 2759:, p. 280-281. 2141: 2089: 2062: 1997: 1941:. With it was the 1911:Caucasian Albanian 1831: 1811: 1594: 1403: 1321: 1304:Strategic analysis 1265: 131:Macedonian victory 5222:Invasions of Iran 5197:330s BC conflicts 5184: 5183: 4851:Battle of Cyzicus 4845:Peloponnesian War 4811:Battle of Plataea 4804:Battle of Salamis 4707:Battle of Thymbra 4580:Ka'ba-ye Zartosht 4432:Achaemenid Empire 4388:R.J. van der Spek 4231:978-0-230-61915-9 4212:978-0-19-992986-3 4191:978-0-7607-1696-0 4172:978-1-62616-032-3 4153:978-90-6258-413-0 4131:978-1-4391-6448-8 4118:Strauss, Barry S. 4011:978-0-307-42518-8 3989:978-0-520-08349-3 3966:978-0-520-95469-4 3920:978-0-306-80304-8 3898:978-1-4391-9328-0 3877:978-0-14-192598-1 3855:978-1-84603-108-3 3833:978-1-84884-066-9 3812:978-0-520-04272-8 3793:978-1-105-60250-4 3771:978-0-8032-6584-4 3746:Military Heritage 3736:978-0-8021-4149-1 3646:978-3-658-27858-8 3584:978-0-674-99110-1 3560:978-0-674-99336-5 3536:978-0-674-99464-5 3389:978-0-8032-6004-7 3338:Magee et al. 2005 3179:Schachermeyr 1973 3107:978-0-86054-349-7 2887:Pietrykowski 2012 2381:978-90-04-35577-4 2356:978-0-520-95469-4 1981:Companion Cavalry 1972:phalanx formation 1939:Companion cavalry 1724: 1723: 1545: 1544: 1456:Persian Immortals 1333:Cyrus the Younger 1260:. Babylon, Iraq. 1074:League of Corinth 1055:Achaemenid Empire 1020: 1008: 640: 639: 446: 445: 175:Achaemenid Empire 145: 144: 16:(Redirected from 5244: 5171:Xanthian Obelisk 5144: 5130: 5116: 5102: 5067: 5060: 5053: 5029: 5015: 5008: 5001: 4994: 4967:Peace of Callias 4945: 4938: 4931: 4924: 4917: 4910: 4903: 4901:Siege of Miletus 4896: 4872: 4870:Battle of Cnidus 4859:Battle of Cunaxa 4853: 4839: 4820: 4818:Battle of Mycale 4813: 4806: 4799: 4792: 4785: 4778: 4771: 4769:Siege of Eretria 4764: 4757: 4750: 4716: 4709: 4702: 4700:Battle of Pteria 4690: 4683: 4629:Achaemenid music 4612: 4605: 4598: 4590:Tombs at Xanthos 4554: 4547: 4540: 4513: 4506: 4499: 4468: 4430: 4429: 4418: 4411: 4404: 4395: 4358: 4341: 4328: 4307: 4278: 4268: 4235: 4216: 4195: 4176: 4157: 4135: 4113: 4089: 4068: 4047: 4034: 4015: 4004:. Anchor Books. 3993: 3981: 3970: 3948: 3924: 3907:Fuller, J. F. C. 3902: 3881: 3859: 3837: 3816: 3797: 3775: 3753: 3740: 3728: 3717: 3703: 3679: 3658: 3616: 3604: 3588: 3564: 3540: 3521:Diodorus Siculus 3516: 3488: 3487: 3475: 3469: 3463: 3457: 3447: 3438: 3428: 3422: 3412: 3406: 3400: 3394: 3393: 3375: 3369: 3359: 3353: 3347: 3341: 3335: 3324: 3314: 3308: 3298: 3292: 3282: 3276: 3266: 3257: 3256: 3246: 3240: 3234: 3228: 3222: 3209: 3203: 3194: 3188: 3182: 3176: 3167: 3161: 3155: 3152:Worthington 2014 3149: 3143: 3137: 3131: 3125: 3112: 3111: 3091: 3085: 3079: 3070: 3064: 3058: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3033: 3027: 3017: 3011: 2993: 2987: 2981: 2975: 2965: 2959: 2949: 2943: 2937: 2926: 2908: 2902: 2896: 2890: 2884: 2878: 2872: 2866: 2860: 2845: 2839: 2824: 2818: 2805: 2795: 2784: 2778: 2772: 2771:, p. xlvii. 2766: 2760: 2754: 2748: 2738: 2732: 2714: 2708: 2682: 2676: 2666: 2660: 2650: 2644: 2626: 2620: 2594: 2588: 2578: 2572: 2566: 2560: 2550: 2544: 2538: 2529: 2523: 2517: 2511: 2494: 2488: 2482: 2476: 2470: 2464: 2455: 2449: 2443: 2437: 2424: 2418: 2412: 2406: 2393: 2392: 2390: 2388: 2365: 2359: 2344: 2335: 2329: 2323: 2311: 2305: 2295: 2289: 2288: 2260: 2237: 2234:Diodorus Siculus 2226: 2220: 2218:Diodorus Siculus 2198: 1838:cavalry and his 1789:scythed chariots 1783:and from allied 1680: 1598:Diodorus Siculus 1558:Harbottle (2018) 1510:Scythed chariots 1409: 1393:Modern estimates 1337:Battle of Cunaxa 1188:Diodorus Siculus 1036: 1030: 1029: 1023:Battle of Arbela 1015: 1013: 1003: 1001: 990: 986: 981: 980: 977: 976: 973: 970: 967: 964: 961: 958: 955: 952: 949: 930: 923: 917: 912: 907: 900: 895: 890: 883: 878: 873: 866: 861: 856: 849: 844: 839: 832: 827: 822: 815: 810: 805: 800: 795: 788: 783: 778: 771: 766: 761: 754: 749: 744: 737: 732: 727: 720: 715: 710: 703: 698: 693: 686: 681: 676: 669: 668: 662: 655: 631:Mallian campaign 484: 472: 465: 458: 449: 438: 429: 428: 422: 410: 409:Show map of Iraq 396: 395: 389: 366:100–500 infantry 123: 122: 120: 119: 118: 113: 109: 106: 105: 104: 101: 72:1 October 331 BC 66: 65: 59:Jacques Courtois 52: 32: 21: 18:Battle of Arbela 5252: 5251: 5247: 5246: 5245: 5243: 5242: 5241: 5237:Ptolemy I Soter 5187: 5186: 5185: 5180: 5154: 5140: 5126: 5112: 5098: 5072: 5063: 5056: 5049: 5025: 5011: 5004: 4997: 4990: 4976: 4962:Earth and water 4950: 4941: 4934: 4927: 4920: 4915:Battle of Issus 4913: 4906: 4899: 4892: 4868: 4849: 4835: 4816: 4809: 4802: 4795: 4788: 4781: 4774: 4767: 4760: 4753: 4746: 4712: 4705: 4698: 4686: 4681:Battle of Hyrba 4679: 4663: 4617: 4608: 4603:Nereid Monument 4601: 4594: 4550: 4543: 4536: 4518: 4509: 4502: 4495: 4469: 4460: 4434: 4424: 4422: 4384:Wayback Machine 4369:Wayback Machine 4352: 4348:History Channel 4339: 4335: 4310: 4281: 4246: 4243: 4241:Further reading 4238: 4232: 4219: 4213: 4198: 4192: 4179: 4173: 4160: 4154: 4138: 4132: 4116: 4110: 4092: 4086: 4071: 4065: 4050: 4037: 4031: 4018: 4012: 3996: 3990: 3973: 3967: 3951: 3945: 3927: 3921: 3905: 3899: 3884: 3878: 3864:Fox, Robin Lane 3862: 3856: 3840: 3834: 3819: 3813: 3800: 3794: 3778: 3772: 3756: 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441: 440: 439: 436: 435: 432: 431: 430: 413: 412: 411: 408: 407: 405: 399: 398: 397: 370: 365: 363: 352: 333: 310: 272: 170: 166:Hellenic League 137: 116: 114: 112:36.56°N 43.44°E 110: 107: 102: 99: 97: 95: 94: 93: 87:Iraqi Kurdistan 53: 30: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5250: 5248: 5240: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5189: 5188: 5182: 5181: 5179: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5162: 5160: 5156: 5155: 5153: 5152: 5147: 5146: 5145: 5133: 5132: 5131: 5119: 5118: 5117: 5105: 5104: 5103: 5091: 5086: 5080: 5078: 5074: 5073: 5071: 5070: 5069: 5068: 5061: 5054: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5031: 5030: 5018: 5017: 5016: 5009: 5002: 4995: 4984: 4982: 4981:Administration 4978: 4977: 4975: 4974: 4969: 4964: 4958: 4956: 4952: 4951: 4949: 4948: 4947: 4946: 4939: 4932: 4925: 4918: 4911: 4904: 4897: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4874: 4873: 4864:Corinthian War 4861: 4856: 4855: 4854: 4842: 4841: 4840: 4828: 4823: 4822: 4821: 4814: 4807: 4800: 4793: 4786: 4779: 4772: 4765: 4762:Battle of Lade 4758: 4751: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4722:Battle of Opis 4719: 4718: 4717: 4710: 4703: 4693: 4692: 4691: 4684: 4675:Persian Revolt 4671: 4669: 4665: 4664: 4662: 4661: 4659:Cyrus Cylinder 4656: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4631: 4625: 4623: 4619: 4618: 4616: 4615: 4614: 4613: 4610:Tomb of Payava 4606: 4599: 4587: 4582: 4577: 4575:Naqsh-e Rostam 4572: 4570:Persian column 4567: 4562: 4557: 4556: 4555: 4548: 4541: 4528: 4526: 4520: 4519: 4517: 4516: 4515: 4514: 4507: 4500: 4488: 4483: 4477: 4475: 4471: 4470: 4463: 4461: 4459: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4442: 4440: 4436: 4435: 4423: 4421: 4420: 4413: 4406: 4398: 4392: 4391: 4359: 4353:Welman, Nick. 4350: 4334: 4333:External links 4331: 4330: 4329: 4313:Studia Iranica 4308: 4279: 4259:(2): 536–559. 4242: 4239: 4237: 4236: 4230: 4217: 4211: 4196: 4190: 4177: 4171: 4158: 4152: 4136: 4130: 4114: 4108: 4090: 4084: 4069: 4064:978-1119174288 4063: 4048: 4035: 4030:978-0341839699 4029: 4016: 4010: 3994: 3988: 3971: 3965: 3949: 3943: 3925: 3919: 3903: 3897: 3882: 3876: 3870:. Penguin UK. 3860: 3854: 3842:Farrokh, Kaveh 3838: 3832: 3817: 3811: 3798: 3792: 3776: 3770: 3758:Delbrück, Hans 3754: 3741: 3735: 3718: 3704: 3698: 3684:Briant, Pierre 3680: 3675:978-1119174288 3674: 3659: 3645: 3622: 3621:Modern sources 3619: 3618: 3617: 3605: 3589: 3583: 3565: 3559: 3541: 3535: 3517: 3501: 3498: 3497: 3495: 3492: 3490: 3489: 3470: 3458: 3439: 3423: 3407: 3395: 3388: 3370: 3354: 3342: 3325: 3309: 3293: 3277: 3258: 3241: 3229: 3210: 3208:, p. 185. 3195: 3183: 3181:, p. 269. 3168: 3156: 3144: 3142:, p. 160. 3132: 3113: 3106: 3086: 3084:, p. 113. 3071: 3059: 3028: 3012: 2988: 2976: 2960: 2944: 2942:, p. 286. 2927: 2903: 2901:, p. 127. 2891: 2879: 2877:, p. 468. 2867: 2865:, p. 285. 2846: 2825: 2806: 2785: 2783:, p. 168. 2773: 2761: 2749: 2733: 2709: 2677: 2661: 2645: 2621: 2589: 2573: 2561: 2545: 2543:, p. 145. 2530: 2518: 2516:, p. 478. 2495: 2483: 2481:, p. 236. 2471: 2469:, p. 477. 2456: 2454:, p. 473. 2444: 2442:, p. 102. 2425: 2423:, p. 262. 2413: 2394: 2380: 2360: 2336: 2324: 2306: 2290: 2247: 2245: 2242: 2239: 2238: 2221: 2192: 2191: 2189: 2186: 2185: 2184: 2177: 2174: 2161:Persian Empire 2129: 2126: 2104:Queen Mother, 2080: 2077: 2053: 2050: 2036: 2033: 1988: 1985: 1967: 1964: 1776: 1773: 1771: 1768: 1722: 1721: 1718: 1712: 1711: 1708: 1706:Light infantry 1702: 1701: 1698: 1696:Heavy infantry 1692: 1691: 1686: 1671: 1668: 1573: 1570: 1548:the Persians. 1543: 1542: 1539: 1536: 1532: 1531: 1528: 1525: 1519: 1518: 1515: 1512: 1506: 1505: 1502: 1499: 1493: 1492: 1489: 1486: 1479: 1478: 1475: 1472: 1465: 1464: 1461: 1458: 1452: 1451: 1448: 1445: 1439: 1438: 1435: 1432: 1426: 1425: 1420: 1415: 1394: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1368:of modern-day 1366:Nineveh Plains 1348: 1345: 1341:Jona Lendering 1305: 1302: 1282:scorched-earth 1262:British Museum 1249: 1246: 1224: 1221: 1148: 1145: 1081: 1078: 927: 926: 919: 914: 909: 902: 897: 892: 885: 880: 875: 868: 863: 858: 851: 846: 841: 834: 829: 824: 817: 812: 807: 802: 797: 790: 785: 780: 773: 768: 763: 756: 751: 746: 739: 734: 729: 722: 717: 712: 705: 700: 695: 688: 683: 678: 671: 664: 657: 650: 649: 644: 643: 642: 638: 637: 635: 634: 628: 622: 616: 609: 608: 602: 601: 595: 589: 583: 577: 571: 565: 559: 553: 547: 541: 535: 529: 522: 521: 517: 516: 510: 504: 497: 496: 490: 487: 486: 477: 475: 474: 467: 460: 452: 444: 443: 433: 424: 423: 417: 416: 415: 414: 401: 400: 391: 390: 384: 383: 382: 381: 380: 377: 376: 367: 359: 358: 354: 353: 351: 350: 343: 340: 336: 334: 332: 331: 324: 320: 317: 316: 312: 311: 309: 308: 303: 298: 293: 288: 283: 275: 273: 271: 270: 265: 260: 255: 250: 245: 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 210: 205: 200: 195: 187: 184: 183: 179: 178: 171: 169: 168: 163: 155: 152: 151: 147: 146: 143: 142: 139: 133: 132: 129: 125: 124: 80: 78: 74: 73: 70: 62: 61: 45: 44: 37: 36: 28: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5249: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5194: 5192: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5163: 5161: 5157: 5151: 5148: 5143: 5139: 5138: 5137: 5134: 5129: 5125: 5124: 5123: 5120: 5115: 5111: 5110: 5109: 5106: 5101: 5097: 5096: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5081: 5079: 5075: 5066: 5062: 5059: 5055: 5052: 5051:Chapar Khaneh 5048: 5047: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5028: 5024: 5023: 5022: 5019: 5014: 5010: 5007: 5003: 5000: 4996: 4993: 4989: 4988: 4986: 4985: 4983: 4979: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4960: 4959: 4957: 4953: 4944: 4940: 4937: 4933: 4930: 4929:Siege of Gaza 4926: 4923: 4919: 4916: 4912: 4909: 4905: 4902: 4898: 4895: 4891: 4890: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4871: 4867: 4866: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4852: 4848: 4847: 4846: 4843: 4838: 4834: 4833: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4819: 4815: 4812: 4808: 4805: 4801: 4798: 4794: 4791: 4787: 4784: 4780: 4777: 4773: 4770: 4766: 4763: 4759: 4756: 4752: 4749: 4748:Ionian Revolt 4745: 4744: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4715: 4711: 4708: 4704: 4701: 4697: 4696: 4694: 4689: 4685: 4682: 4678: 4677: 4676: 4673: 4672: 4670: 4666: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4626: 4624: 4620: 4611: 4607: 4604: 4600: 4597: 4593: 4592: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4565:Tomb of Cyrus 4563: 4561: 4558: 4553: 4549: 4546: 4542: 4539: 4535: 4534: 4533: 4530: 4529: 4527: 4525: 4521: 4512: 4508: 4505: 4501: 4498: 4497:Apadana hoard 4494: 4493: 4492: 4489: 4487: 4486:Oxus Treasure 4484: 4482: 4479: 4478: 4476: 4472: 4467: 4457: 4454: 4452: 4449: 4447: 4444: 4443: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4428: 4419: 4414: 4412: 4407: 4405: 4400: 4399: 4396: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4363: 4360: 4356: 4351: 4349: 4346: 4342: 4337: 4336: 4332: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4245: 4244: 4240: 4233: 4227: 4223: 4218: 4214: 4208: 4204: 4203: 4197: 4193: 4187: 4183: 4178: 4174: 4168: 4164: 4159: 4155: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4109:9783700100003 4105: 4101: 4100: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4085:9781848846883 4081: 4077: 4076: 4070: 4066: 4060: 4056: 4055: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4036: 4032: 4026: 4022: 4017: 4013: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3985: 3980: 3979: 3972: 3968: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3944:9783406480973 3940: 3936: 3935: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3894: 3890: 3889: 3883: 3879: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3829: 3825: 3824: 3818: 3814: 3808: 3804: 3799: 3795: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3742: 3738: 3732: 3727: 3726: 3719: 3715: 3714: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3699:9780674493094 3695: 3691: 3690: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3671: 3667: 3666: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3625: 3624: 3620: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3580: 3576: 3575: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3556: 3552: 3551: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3532: 3528: 3527: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3503: 3499: 3493: 3485: 3481: 3474: 3471: 3467: 3462: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3446: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3427: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3411: 3408: 3404: 3399: 3396: 3391: 3385: 3381: 3380:War Elephants 3374: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3358: 3355: 3351: 3346: 3343: 3339: 3334: 3332: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3313: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3301:Plutarch 1936 3297: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3281: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3265: 3263: 3259: 3254: 3253: 3245: 3242: 3238: 3233: 3230: 3226: 3225:Delbrück 1990 3221: 3219: 3217: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3202: 3200: 3196: 3193:, p. 38. 3192: 3187: 3184: 3180: 3175: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3164:Delbrück 1990 3160: 3157: 3153: 3148: 3145: 3141: 3136: 3133: 3129: 3124: 3122: 3120: 3118: 3114: 3109: 3103: 3099: 3098: 3090: 3087: 3083: 3078: 3076: 3072: 3069:, p. 71. 3068: 3063: 3060: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3032: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3016: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3004:Cummings 2004 3001: 2997: 2992: 2989: 2986:, p. 61. 2985: 2980: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2964: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2948: 2945: 2941: 2936: 2934: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2907: 2904: 2900: 2895: 2892: 2888: 2883: 2880: 2876: 2871: 2868: 2864: 2859: 2857: 2855: 2853: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2830: 2826: 2823:, Chapter 15. 2822: 2817: 2815: 2813: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2794: 2792: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2777: 2774: 2770: 2765: 2762: 2758: 2753: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2737: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2725:Plutarch 1919 2722: 2718: 2713: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2681: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2665: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2649: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2625: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2593: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2577: 2574: 2571:, p. 63. 2570: 2565: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2549: 2546: 2542: 2537: 2535: 2531: 2528:, p. 62. 2527: 2522: 2519: 2515: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2504: 2502: 2500: 2496: 2493:, p. 53. 2492: 2487: 2484: 2480: 2475: 2472: 2468: 2463: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2448: 2445: 2441: 2436: 2434: 2432: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2417: 2414: 2410: 2405: 2403: 2401: 2399: 2395: 2383: 2377: 2373: 2372: 2364: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2343: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2328: 2325: 2321: 2320: 2315: 2310: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2294: 2291: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2259: 2257: 2255: 2253: 2249: 2243: 2235: 2231: 2230:Curtius Rufus 2225: 2222: 2219: 2215: 2214:Curtius Rufus 2211: 2208:according to 2207: 2203: 2197: 2194: 2187: 2183: 2180: 2179: 2175: 2173: 2169: 2167: 2162: 2156: 2154: 2153:war elephants 2150: 2146: 2139: 2134: 2127: 2125: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2109: 2107: 2102: 2097: 2094: 2085: 2078: 2075: 2070: 2068: 2058: 2049: 2047: 2042: 2034: 2031: 2026: 2024: 2020: 2014: 2011: 2004: 2001: 1993: 1986: 1984: 1982: 1976: 1973: 1965: 1963: 1960: 1955: 1953: 1949: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1931: 1929: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1843: 1841: 1837: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1815: 1807: 1803: 1801: 1797: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1774: 1769: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1719: 1717: 1714: 1713: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1703: 1699: 1697: 1694: 1693: 1690: 1687: 1685: 1682: 1681: 1677: 1669: 1667: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1644: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1619:According to 1617: 1615: 1611: 1610:war elephants 1607: 1603: 1602:Curtius Rufus 1599: 1591: 1590:Palazzo Chigi 1587: 1583: 1580:A decorative 1578: 1571: 1569: 1567: 1563: 1562:Engels (1980) 1559: 1555: 1551: 1550:Hans Delbrück 1540: 1537: 1534: 1533: 1529: 1526: 1524: 1523:War elephants 1521: 1520: 1516: 1513: 1511: 1508: 1507: 1503: 1500: 1498: 1495: 1494: 1490: 1487: 1484: 1481: 1480: 1476: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1466: 1462: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1453: 1449: 1446: 1444: 1441: 1440: 1436: 1434:< 40,000 1433: 1431: 1428: 1427: 1424: 1423:High estimate 1421: 1419: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1410: 1407: 1399: 1392: 1387: 1385: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1346: 1344: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1303: 1301: 1298: 1294: 1293:lunar eclipse 1290: 1285: 1283: 1277: 1275: 1271: 1263: 1259: 1254: 1245: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1222: 1220: 1218: 1212: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1191: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1176: 1174: 1173:Curtius Rufus 1170: 1166: 1161: 1159: 1155: 1146: 1144: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1133:Siege of Gaza 1130: 1126: 1121: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1088:had lost the 1087: 1079: 1077: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1058: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1035: 1024: 1018: 1012: 1006: 997: 996:Ancient Greek 993: 992: 979: 940: 922: 906: 889: 872: 855: 838: 821: 794: 777: 760: 743: 726: 709: 692: 661: 654: 647: 632: 629: 626: 623: 620: 617: 614: 611: 610: 607: 604: 603: 599: 596: 593: 590: 587: 584: 581: 578: 575: 572: 569: 566: 563: 560: 557: 554: 551: 548: 545: 542: 539: 538:Halicarnassus 536: 533: 530: 527: 524: 523: 519: 518: 514: 511: 508: 505: 502: 499: 498: 495: 492: 491: 488: 483: 473: 468: 466: 461: 459: 454: 453: 450: 421: 404: 388: 378: 374: 369:40,000–90,000 368: 364:1,000 cavalry 361: 360: 355: 348: 344: 341: 338: 337: 335: 329: 325: 322: 321: 319: 318: 313: 307: 304: 302: 299: 297: 294: 292: 289: 287: 284: 282: 281: 277: 276: 274: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 224: 221: 219: 216: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 193: 189: 188: 186: 185: 180: 177: 176: 172: 167: 164: 162: 161: 157: 156: 154: 153: 148: 140: 135: 134: 130: 127: 126: 121: 92: 88: 84: 79: 76: 75: 71: 68: 67: 63: 60: 56: 51: 46: 43: 38: 33: 27: 19: 4935: 4524:Architecture 4316: 4312: 4287: 4283: 4256: 4252: 4221: 4201: 4181: 4162: 4143: 4121: 4098: 4074: 4053: 4043: 4020: 4001: 3977: 3956: 3953:Green, Peter 3933: 3910: 3887: 3867: 3845: 3822: 3802: 3783: 3761: 3749: 3745: 3724: 3712: 3688: 3664: 3628: 3612: 3600: 3572: 3548: 3524: 3510: 3483: 3473: 3461: 3426: 3410: 3398: 3379: 3373: 3357: 3345: 3312: 3296: 3280: 3251: 3244: 3237:Bichler 2020 3232: 3206:Bichler 2020 3186: 3159: 3147: 3140:Bichler 2020 3135: 3128:Bichler 2020 3096: 3089: 3082:Strauss 2012 3062: 3050:. Retrieved 3041: 3031: 3015: 2991: 2979: 2963: 2947: 2906: 2894: 2889:, Chapter 4. 2882: 2870: 2844:, Chapter 6. 2842:English 2010 2781:Freeman 2011 2776: 2764: 2752: 2736: 2712: 2680: 2664: 2648: 2624: 2592: 2576: 2564: 2548: 2541:Freeman 2011 2521: 2514:Nawotka 2021 2486: 2474: 2467:Nawotka 2021 2452:Nawotka 2021 2447: 2440:Farrokh 2007 2416: 2385:. Retrieved 2370: 2363: 2347: 2334:, livius.org 2327: 2317: 2309: 2301: 2293: 2268: 2264: 2224: 2196: 2170: 2157: 2142: 2110: 2098: 2093:Callisthenes 2090: 2072: 2063: 2038: 2028: 2016: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1977: 1969: 1956: 1932: 1891:Mesopotamian 1873:cavalry and 1844: 1832: 1778: 1725: 1688: 1683: 1645: 1637:Sattagydians 1618: 1595: 1566:Green (1993) 1554:Warry (1998) 1546: 1471:mercenaries 1422: 1418:Low estimate 1417: 1412: 1404: 1382:Jebel Maqlub 1376:and west of 1350: 1322: 1312: 1286: 1278: 1266: 1226: 1213: 1192: 1177: 1162: 1150: 1122: 1083: 1059: 1047:Persian Army 1022: 938: 936: 765:Persian Gate 598:Sogdian Rock 574:Persian Gate 568:Uxian Defile 561: 501:Mount Haemus 480:Campaigns of 306:Ariarathes I 278: 190: 173: 158: 150:Belligerents 117:36.56; 43.44 54: 40:Part of the 26: 5094:Mithridatic 4639:Old Persian 4446:Family tree 4319:(1): 7–68. 3466:Arrian 1893 3450:Arrian 1893 3431:Arrian 1893 3415:Hanson 2007 3362:Hanson 2007 3269:Arrian 1893 3191:Gehrke 2004 2984:Briant 2015 2972:footnote 77 2952:Arrian 1893 2899:Creasy 1851 2875:Binder 2021 2798:Arrian 1893 2741:Arrian 1893 2717:Justin 1853 2701:Arrian 1893 2629:Justin 1853 2605:Arrian 1893 2597:Justin 1853 2585:footnote 79 2553:Arrian 1893 2421:Briant 2015 2409:Arrian 1893 2298:"Gaugamela" 2117:Hephaestion 2101:pezhetairoi 1948:Thessalians 1919:Cappadocian 1752:mercenaries 1648:pezhetairoi 1633:Arachotians 1362:Aurel Stein 1325:Peter Green 1270:Macedonians 1184:Halys river 1180:Stateira II 1163:Historians 1158:Halys river 1106:Stateira II 362:1,100–1,500 198:Hephaestion 136:Territorial 115: / 91:Mount Alfaf 89:, north of 5191:Categories 5114:Cappadocia 5108:Ariarathid 5084:Achaemenid 5045:Royal Road 4992:Pasargadae 4596:Harpy Tomb 4532:Persepolis 4362:Livius.org 4290:: 87–103. 3417:, p. 3364:, p. 3067:Yenne 2010 3042:Livius.org 3022:, p. 3020:Green 2013 3006:, p. 2998:, p. 2940:Green 2013 2863:Green 2013 2769:Green 2013 2757:Green 2013 2569:Yenne 2010 2526:Yenne 2010 2491:Yenne 2010 2479:Green 2013 2271:: 87–103. 2244:References 2204:and 1,000 2106:Sisygambis 2079:Left flank 2046:Hypaspists 2041:Agrianians 1975:the left. 1915:Sacesinian 1859:Arachosian 1762:with some 1674:See also: 1372:, east of 1331:, just as 1287:After the 1196:Sisygambis 1114:Asia Minor 1102:his mother 1080:Background 809:Alexandria 296:Orontes II 280:Darius III 5089:Pharnacid 5077:Dynasties 5021:Satrapies 4987:Capitals 4955:Diplomacy 4654:Ganjnameh 4304:240824299 4275:226279004 3655:218943609 3052:7 October 2996:Ward 2014 2689:17.54.1–6 2673:17.54.1–6 2657:17.39.1–2 2633:11.12.1–2 2601:11.12.1–2 2387:30 August 2358:., p. 288 2285:240824299 2128:Aftermath 2113:Parthians 2023:Prodromoi 1935:Parmenion 1907:Hyrcanian 1875:Scythians 1869:cavalry, 1865:cavalry, 1861:cavalry, 1857:cavalry, 1851:Bactrians 1842:archers. 1827:Louis XIV 1796:elephants 1781:satrapies 1664:Armenians 1656:Immortals 1582:Neo-Attic 1560:120,000; 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