20:
1989:, who would seem required to prevent it; as such, the name comes from Leibniz's conceiving of the project as the vindication of God's justice, namely against the charges of injustice brought against him by such evils. Proving that this is the best of all possible worlds would dispel such charges by showing that, no matter how it may intuitively appear to us from our limited point of view, any other world â such as, namely, one without the evils which trouble our lives â would, in fact, have been worse than the current one, all things considered.
2463:) defines sin as not necessary but contingent, the result of free will. Russell maintains that Leibniz failed to logically show that metaphysical necessity (divine will) and human free will are not incompatible or contradictory. He also claims that when Leibniz analyzes the propositions, he is "ambiguous or doubtful..." (O'Briant). That is, Leibniz does not sound sure, and is unsure of himself when he writes his premises; and they do not work together without making Leibniz sound unsure of himself.
3575:
2212:, conceived of the perfection of the universe as its "metaphysical goodness", which is identical with "being", or "reality". The best world is the one with the greatest "degree of reality", the greatest "quantity of essence", the greatest "perfection" and "intelligibility". According to this tradition, "evil, though real, is not a 'thing', but rather a direction away from the goodness of the One"; evil is the
2267:
colours; and even a dissonance in the right place gives relief to harmony. We wish to be terrified by rope-dancers on the point of falling and we wish that tragedies shall well-nigh cause us to weep. Do men relish health enough, or thank God enough for it, without having ever been sick? And is it not most often necessary that a little evil render the good more discernible, that is to say, greater?
2138:, as emphasized in §55. He cannot be prevented from creating a world by not knowing about it, or by lacking the power to make it. Given these assumptions, it might seem that God could create just any one of the worlds. And since there are infinitely many possible worlds, it might seem that, just as there is no greatest among the infinitely many numbers, there is no best of the possible worlds.
2231:, all examples of evils are analysed as consisting in the absence of some good that ought to be there, or is natural to a thing â for instance, disease is the absence of health, blindness is the absence of sight, and vice is the absence of virtue. Evil may be said to exist in the same way the hole of a donut exists: the donut was created, but the hole itself was not
2242:
Leibniz did, nevertheless, concede that God has created a world with evil in it, and could have created a world without it. He claimed, however, that the existence of evil does not necessarily mean a worse world, so that this is still the best world that God could have made. In fact, Leibniz claimed
2188:
possible reason for the choice between these possible worlds is "the fitness or the degree of perfection" which they possess â i.e., the quality which makes worlds better than others, so that the world with the greatness "fitness" or "perfection" is the best one. As the philosophers
Michael Murray
2573:
We must also know what perfection is. One thing which can surely be affirmed about it is that those forms or natures which are not susceptible of it to the highest degree, say the nature of numbers or of figures, do not permit of perfection. This is because the number which is the greatest of all
2266:
Use has ever been made of comparisons taken from the pleasures of the senses when these are mingled with that which borders on pain, to prove that there is something of like nature in intellectual pleasures. A little acid, sharpness or bitterness is often more pleasing than sugar; shadows enhance
2017:
Since this is a very compact exposition, the remainder of this section will explain the argument in more words. While the text refers to "possible universes", this article will often adopt the more common usage "possible worlds", which refers to the same thing, which is explained next. As
Leibniz
2574:(that is, the sum of all the numbers), and likewise the greatest of all figures, imply contradictions. The greatest knowledge, however, and omnipotence contain no impossibility. Consequently power and knowledge do admit of perfection, and in so far as they pertain to God they have no limits.
2596:
I think that one acts imperfectly if he acts with less perfection than he is capable of. To show that an architect could have done better is to find fault with his work. Furthermore this opinion is contrary to the Holy
Scriptures when they assure us of the goodness of God's
2455:. Russell argues that moral and physical evil must result from metaphysical evil (imperfection). But imperfection is merely limitation; if existence is good, as Leibniz maintains, then the mere existence of evil requires that evil also be good. In addition,
2200:, a traditional claim about God which Leibniz accepted. As Leibniz says in §55, God's goodness causes him to produce the best world. Hence, the best possible world, or "greatest good" as Leibniz called it in this work, must be the one that exists.
2173:, in virtue of which we believe that no fact can be real or existing and no statement true unless it has a sufficient reason why it should be thus and not otherwise. Most frequently, however, these reasons cannot be known by us.
2002:
53. Now as there are an infinity of possible universes in the ideas of God, and but one of them can exist, there must be a sufficient reason for the choice of God which determines him to select one rather than another.
2500:
view, nothing of God would remain separate and apart from what God would become. Any separate divine existence would be inconsistent with God's unreserved participation in the lives and fortunes of the actualized
2145:(PSR), a central principle of his philosophical system. This principle, which he was the first to name, was once described by him as the principle "that nothing happens without a reason"; in the
2013:
55. This is the cause for the existence of the greatest good; namely, that the wisdom of God permits him to know it, his goodness causes him to choose it, and his power enables him to produce it.
3088:
3087:
Arthur
Schopenhauer, "Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung," supplement to the 4th book "Von der Nichtigkeit und dem Leiden des Lebens" p. 2222, see also R.B. Haldane and J. Kemp's translation
1664:
2026:
I call 'World' the whole succession and the whole agglomeration of all existent things, lest it be said that several worlds could have existed in different times and different places.
3329:
2247:
world, insofar as "it may happen that the evil is accompanied by a greater good" â as he said, "an imperfection in the part may be required for a perfection in the whole".
2235:, it was just never filled in â it is an absence. And just as the hole could not exist without the donut, evil is parasitic upon good, since it is the corruption of a
581:
2010:
or in the degree of perfection which these worlds possess, each possible thing having the right to claim existence in proportion to the perfection which it involves.
2417:. Well, he conceives God in the creation of the world like a mathematician who is solving a minimum problem, or rather, in our modern phraseology, a problem in the
2177:
Since
Leibniz adopted his principle, he could not admit that God chose to create this world rather than another â that God's choice was "thus and not otherwise" â
2712:
2250:
In light of the conceptual tools that have already been explained, this claim may be phrased as stating that there are goods in the universe which would not be
2429:
supported a version of
Leibniz's perfect world, since every organism can be understood as relatively adapted to its environment at any point in its evolution.
1657:
2271:
In other works, Leibniz also used his broader theory that there are no "purely extrinsic denominations" â everything that may be said about something is
547:
1619:
2421: – the question being to determine among an infinite number of possible worlds, that for which the sum of necessary evil is a minimum.
1640:
3366:
2254:
with the prevention of certain evils. This claim, which may seem counterintuitive, was elucidated by
Leibniz in various ways. For instance, in the
3322:
1650:
652:
2589:
only mentions God's goodness in passing, Leibniz mentions God's goodness, and its foundation on tradition, more at length in chapter 3 of his
2022:, this term should not be misunderstood as referring only to a single planet or reality, since it refers to the sum of everything that exists:
3191:
3072:
2866:
2688:
2644:
2509:, who argues that goods and evils in creation are interconnected with mathematical necessity and hence cannot be separated by divine power.
2275:
to it. So, according to
Leibniz, it is technically wrong to say that "I would be better off" in another possible world: each individual is
2726:
3632:
3617:
3578:
3315:
1875:
428:
3559:
3612:
3530:
3471:
2114:
Leibniz claims in §53, then, that there are infinitely many of these possible worlds, or combinations of compossible beings, in the
1034:
3607:
3602:
647:
2360:. Critics of Leibniz argue that the world contains an amount of suffering too great to permit belief in philosophical optimism.
709:
19:
1307:
1232:
40:
2479:
of all possible worlds, since one can always conceive a better world, such as a world with one more morally righteous person.
2122:
possibly bring into existence, since not even God, according to
Leibniz, could create a world which contains a contradiction.
500:
3622:
3454:
2142:
3146:
2385:" describes a person who believes that the actual world is the best possible one, or is otherwise excessively optimistic.
1432:
1237:
1096:
607:
181:
3114:
2506:
2456:
2482:
The philosopher
William C. Lane defended Leibniz from Plantinga's criticism and also claimed that Leibniz's theory has
2381:
when great catastrophes keep happening to him and the titular protagonist. Derived from this character, the adjective "
2329:
make better what he has made, but only by making more things; "the present creation being supposed, cannot be better."
3379:
2239:
nature. "God is infinite, and the devil is limited; the good may and does go to infinity, while evil has its bounds."
400:
389:
191:
3400:
2189:
and Sean Greenberg interpreted it, this claim may be understood by the consideration that basing the choice on any
704:
667:
597:
3597:
3338:
3290:
2035:
Possible worlds, according to Leibniz's theory, are combinations of beings which are possible together, that is,
1817:
1542:
1477:
1179:
951:
679:
85:
2283:
would not exist at all. And even if, due to my great personal suffering, I should think that it would be better
2091:
logically possible that what happens in a given world (e.g. that Jimmy Wales founded Knowledge (XXG)) also does
3520:
2353:
1916:
1287:
1227:
1043:
855:
850:
761:
3286:
2758:
3627:
3493:
3444:
3390:
3356:
3181:
2374:
1868:
1487:
1341:
1218:
1209:
1149:
1140:
934:
924:
778:
662:
627:
372:
2352:(1710), Leibniz's philosophical optimism and theodicy incurred considerable criticism both from his fellow
3449:
3395:
2418:
2410:
2343:
1091:
1001:
520:
458:
453:
48:
2891:
3642:
3372:
2196:
Leibniz claims that God's choice is caused not only by its being the most reasonable, but also by God's
1604:
1589:
1512:
1502:
991:
929:
825:
622:
552:
537:
473:
411:
406:
394:
382:
3425:
3510:
3438:
2808:
2505:
Leibniz's theodicy has been defended by Justin Daeley, who argues that God must create the best, and
2394:
1956:
In Leibniz's works, the argument about the best of all possible worlds appears in the context of his
1712:
1624:
1257:
1056:
1011:
976:
939:
830:
542:
505:
495:
468:
423:
418:
367:
216:
2919:
2496: – God's self-emptying for the sake of love – would be total. In this
2523:
2432:
2047:
1827:
1609:
1292:
1174:
1047:
835:
741:
714:
684:
672:
642:
515:
448:
438:
377:
75:
3240:
2706:
2533:
2357:
2209:
1974:, that is, to reconcile the existence of evil and suffering in the world with the existence of a
1787:
1742:
1722:
1594:
1552:
1472:
1447:
1412:
1164:
1061:
892:
887:
617:
576:
562:
557:
443:
266:
235:
176:
90:
70:
3277:
2439:
of all possible worlds, because if it were only a little worse, it could not continue to exist.
2397:, in his "Leibnizian Thoughts in Modern Science" (1870), wrote that Leibniz thought of God as a
1332:
1297:
1199:
602:
3647:
3637:
3481:
3410:
3272:
3187:
3068:
2872:
2862:
2734:
2694:
2684:
2650:
2640:
2518:
2406:
1919:
1861:
1842:
1822:
1747:
1732:
1681:
1522:
1507:
1370:
1184:
1154:
1131:
1111:
1021:
862:
532:
478:
290:
221:
171:
23:
2058:
because a "bachelor" is, by definition, an unmarried man, which contradicts "married". But a
3431:
3420:
3230:
3220:
2636:
2528:
2452:
2321:
1614:
1557:
1405:
1355:
1350:
1267:
1252:
986:
897:
729:
567:
490:
485:
349:
325:
295:
144:
2833:
2629:
The Best of All Possible Worlds? Leibniz's Philosophical Optimism and Its Critics 1710â1755
2472:
2213:
2197:
1975:
1971:
1945:
1901:
1893:
1837:
1832:
1767:
1707:
1567:
1547:
1537:
1492:
1482:
1422:
1395:
1385:
1365:
1312:
1277:
1247:
996:
746:
637:
632:
612:
463:
275:
202:
186:
3540:
2348:
1924:
28:
2062:, if defined as a horse with a horn, contains no contradiction, so that such a being is
1992:
Leibniz's argument for this conclusion may be gathered from the paragraphs 53â55 of his
3460:
3385:
2994:
edited by Steven K. Strange, Jack Zupko, Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp. 140â141.
2460:
2426:
2363:
The claim that we live in the best of all possible worlds drew scorn most notably from
2071:
2036:
1937:
1792:
1562:
1517:
1452:
1400:
1327:
1242:
1169:
1126:
1106:
867:
845:
756:
751:
724:
525:
166:
127:
3591:
3415:
3405:
3244:
2543:
2413:
was indebted to him for the greatest progress through the discovery of the method of
2398:
2304:
1909:
1497:
1417:
1302:
1282:
1204:
1159:
433:
340:
335:
310:
117:
26:, the philosopher who coined the term "best of all possible worlds" in his 1710 work
2475:
criticized Leibniz's theodicy by arguing that there probably is not such a thing as
2313:
argued that divine providence ensures that this is the best of all possible worlds.
1930:
Essays of Theodicy on the Goodness of God, the Freedom of Man and the Origin of Evil
3065:
Emil du Bois-Reymond: Neuroscience, Self, and Society in Nineteenth-century Germany
2538:
2083:
possible that a meteor might have fallen from the sky onto Knowledge (XXG) founder
1925:
Essais de Théodicée sur la bonté de Dieu, la liberté de l'homme et l'origine du mal
1762:
1437:
1427:
1390:
1375:
1360:
1272:
1189:
1121:
800:
719:
330:
320:
240:
3266:
3225:
3208:
2382:
3235:
3476:
3183:
Why God Must Do What is Best: A Philosophical Investigation of Theistic Optimism
2788:
TheodicyEssays on the Goodness of God, the Freedom of Man and the Origin of Evil
2135:
2131:
2084:
1983:
1979:
1847:
1527:
1467:
1457:
1442:
1322:
1317:
966:
904:
840:
810:
790:
734:
300:
80:
3158:
2303:, this is the best of all possible worlds, and that this opinion was shared by
3550:
3302:
3120:
1994:
1807:
1757:
1752:
1462:
1380:
1194:
1116:
1101:
1086:
981:
914:
877:
872:
510:
305:
2876:
2698:
2654:
2291:
of the universe, since this world is the best possible world, as was proved.
3307:
2208:
Leibniz, following a long metaphysical tradition that goes back at least to
1802:
1737:
1727:
1532:
1262:
1081:
1006:
971:
956:
919:
105:
65:
3024:
2946:
The Story of Christianity. The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation
2099:
found Knowledge (XXG)). While both of these events are logically possible
3487:
3466:
3004:
2786:
2483:
2364:
2310:
2300:
2193:
quality about the worlds would have been arbitrary, contrary to the PSR.
1958:
1941:
1912:
1812:
1797:
1691:
1629:
1599:
1076:
1071:
1066:
961:
882:
785:
315:
285:
211:
139:
57:
3131:
2492:
2414:
2369:
2346:(1 November 1755), which occurred decades after the publication of the
2316:
946:
805:
795:
280:
100:
2050:, i.e., when its definition involves no contradiction. For example, a
2898:(Summer 2021 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
2815:(Spring 2013 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
2632:
2378:
2262:
provided by evil may increase the good, and make it more discernible:
1016:
909:
815:
110:
95:
2299:
The philosopher Calvin Normore has claimed that, according to the
2169:
which contradicts or is opposed to the false. 32. And second, the
820:
122:
18:
2115:
134:
3311:
3048:
du Bois-Reymond, Emil (1912). du Bois-Reymond, Estelle (ed.).
2373:
by having the character Dr. Pangloss (a parody of Leibniz and
1986:
257:
2130:
Although God cannot create a self-contradictory world, he is
3209:"The global/local distinction vindicates Leibniz's theodicy"
3005:"Avicenna (Ibn Sina) | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"
2216:, and accordingly, it is technically wrong to say that God
2631:. Brill's Studies in Intellectual History. Vol. 322.
2279:, so that, if God had not actualized this specific world,
2220:, properly speaking. Rather, he created a world which was
2075:, in turn, when they do not enter into contradiction with
3025:"Summa Theologiae: The power of God (Prima Pars, Q. 25)"
2435:
argued, contrary to Leibniz, that our world must be the
2149:, which is the work at hand, he described it as follows:
2141:
Leibniz rejects these possibilities by appealing to the
2111:â so, they cannot form part of the same possible world.
2319:, in article 6 of question 25 of the first part of his
2087:'s head soon after he was born, killing him. But it is
2287:
to not exist, it would nevertheless be worse for the
1962:, a word that he coined by combining the Greek words
1936:. The claim that the actual world is the best of all
2957:
2955:
2095:
happen in the same world (i.e. that Jimmy Wales did
3502:
3345:
3102:
A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz.
2785:Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm; Farrer, Austin (2005).
2918:Murray and Greenberg, Michael J. and Sean (1998).
2258:, he used certain analogies to emphasize how the
3052:. Vol. 1. Leipzig: Veit. pp. 373, 378.
2594:
2571:
2488:
2403:
2264:
2151:
2024:
2006:54. And this reason is to be found only in the
2000:
2585:While the presentation of the argument in the
3323:
2459:Christian theology (not related to political
1869:
1658:
8:
2165:which involves contradiction and that to be
2859:Discourse on Metaphysics and The Monadology
2622:
2620:
2618:
2616:
3330:
3316:
3308:
2727:"Leibniz: The Best of All Possible Worlds"
2711:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2683:(First ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom.
2066:, even if none exist in the actual world.
1970:, 'justice'. Its object was to solve the
1876:
1862:
1676:
1665:
1651:
1039:
356:
262:
160:
35:
3303:Leibniz's solution to the problem of evil
3234:
3224:
3147:"Leibniz's Best World Claim Restructured"
3067:. Cambridge: The MIT Press. p. 249.
2890:Melamed, Yitzhak Y.; Lin, Martin (2021),
2243:that the presence of evil may make for a
2161:, by means of which we decide that to be
3104:London: George Allen & Unwin (1900).
2992:Stoicism: Traditions and Transformations
2490:If divine becoming were complete, God's
2451:was deemed illogical by the philosopher
2367:, who lampooned it in his comic novella
2896:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2813:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2612:
2555:
2118:of God. These are the worlds which God
1690:
1340:
1217:
1139:
1042:
696:
589:
359:
348:
265:
201:
47:
2981:. Thomson/Wadsworth. pp. 172â173.
2704:
3089:"On the Vanity and Suffering of Life"
2913:
2911:
1940:is the central argument in Leibniz's
1932:), more commonly known simply as the
7:
2979:Philosophy of Religion: an Anthology
2964:Philosophy of Religion: an Anthology
2852:
2850:
2802:
2800:
2798:
2780:
2778:
2753:
2751:
2674:
2672:
2670:
2668:
2666:
2664:
2405:As is well known, the theory of the
1641:Philosophy of religion article index
538:Proper basis / Reformed epistemology
3297:Secondary literature about Leibniz:
3261:Freely accessible works by Leibniz:
2924:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2681:Leibniz: a very short introduction
2103:, they are not logically possible
14:
3531:New Essays on Human Understanding
3472:Transcendental law of homogeneity
3145:Lane, William C. (January 2010).
2966:. Thomson/Wadsworth. p. 173.
2562:Leibniz himself affirmed, in his
3574:
3573:
2920:"Leibniz on the Problem of Evil"
2892:"Principle of Sufficient Reason"
2153:31. Our reasoning is based upon
1906:Die beste aller möglichen Welten
1898:Le meilleur des mondes possibles
3186:. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
2679:Antognazza, Maria Rosa (2016).
1890:the best of all possible worlds
3151:American Philosophical Journal
2791:. Translated by Huggard, E. M.
2425:Du Bois-Reymond believed that
2171:principle of sufficient reason
2143:Principle of Sufficient Reason
1944:, or his attempt to solve the
1:
3560:LeibnizâClarke correspondence
3226:10.1080/14746700.2022.2124481
3063:Finkelstein, Gabriel (2013).
2894:, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),
2811:, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),
2809:"Leibniz's Modal Metaphysics"
2184:Leibniz then claims that the
2834:"On Freedom and Possibility"
2733:. 2012-03-01. Archived from
2325:, had affirmed that God can
3380:Characteristica universalis
3362:Best of all possible worlds
3116:Best of all possible worlds
2977:Leibniz, Gottfried (2008).
2962:Leibniz, Gottfried (2008).
2944:Gonzalez, Justo L. (2010).
2832:Leibniz, Gottfried (1680).
1718:Best of all possible worlds
230:Best of all possible worlds
3664:
3633:Quotations from literature
3401:Identity of indiscernibles
3180:Daeley, Justin J. (2021).
3157:(1): 57â84. Archived from
2354:Enlightenment philosophers
2342:Following the devastating
2046:, for Leibniz, when it is
129:Scripture (religious text)
3618:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
3571:
3339:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
3291:Marxists Internet Archive
2807:Look, Brandon C. (2013),
1917:Enlightenment philosopher
3613:German words and phrases
3521:Discourse on Metaphysics
3278:Discourse on Metaphysics
3207:Franklin, James (2022).
2627:Caro, HernĂĄn D. (2020).
2591:Discourse on Metaphysics
2570:was self-contradictory:
2564:Discourse on Metaphysics
2229:privation theory of evil
1228:Friedrich Schleiermacher
1035:Philosophers of religion
3608:Concepts in metaphysics
3603:18th-century quotations
3494:Well-founded phenomenon
3445:Pre-established harmony
3357:Alternating series test
2857:Leibniz, G. W. (2012).
1998:, which run as follows:
648:Incompatible properties
2861:. Dover Publications.
2599:
2576:
2503:
2423:
2419:calculus of variations
2269:
2204:Evil in the best world
2175:
2079:. For instance, it is
2028:
2015:
1905:
1897:
1092:Gaunilo of Marmoutiers
49:Philosophy of religion
33:
16:Concept in metaphysics
3623:Philosophical phrases
3373:Calculus ratiocinator
3236:1959.4/unsworks_80586
2759:"Leiniz's Monadology"
2566:, that the idea of a
2358:Christian theologians
2159:that of contradiction
1605:Faith and rationality
1590:Criticism of religion
1513:Robert Merrihew Adams
1503:Nicholas Wolterstorff
992:Secular Shrine Theory
826:Divine command theory
623:Fate of the unlearned
22:
3511:De Arte Combinatoria
3439:Mathesis universalis
3367:Calculus controversy
3213:Theology and Science
3161:on 26 September 2010
2395:Emil du Bois-Reymond
2155:two great principles
1908:) was coined by the
1713:Augustinian theodicy
1625:Religious philosophy
1620:Religion and science
1610:History of religions
1097:Pico della Mirandola
1057:Anselm of Canterbury
779:Theories of religion
3100:Russell, Bertrand.
2524:Fine-tuned universe
2433:Arthur Schopenhauer
2377:) repeat it like a
1293:Friedrich Nietzsche
1180:Gottfried W Leibniz
1175:Nicolas Malebranche
1107:King James VI and I
674:Omnipotence paradox
439:Fine-tuned universe
326:Process-theological
3426:Leibniz's notation
3282:Early Modern Texts
2841:Early Modern Texts
2534:Just-world fallacy
2181:or "arbitrarily".
2048:logically possible
1743:Inconsistent triad
1723:Divine retribution
1595:Ethics in religion
1553:William Lane Craig
1473:J. L. Schellenberg
1413:Charles Hartshorne
1165:Desiderius Erasmus
1062:Augustine of Hippo
558:Intelligent design
474:Necessary existent
434:Existential choice
236:Inconsistent triad
182:Religious language
177:Logical positivism
91:Intelligent design
34:
3585:
3584:
3563:(1715–1716)
3482:Universal science
3455:Sufficient reason
3411:Law of continuity
3273:Project Gutenberg
3193:978-1-350-10989-6
3074:978-0-262-01950-7
3029:www.newadvent.org
2868:978-1-306-36131-6
2690:978-0-19-871864-2
2646:978-90-04-21846-8
2550:Explanatory notes
2519:Divine simplicity
2407:maxima and minima
2393:The physiologist
2344:Lisbon Earthquake
2227:According to the
2126:Sufficient reason
2072:possible together
1922:in his 1710 work
1920:Gottfried Leibniz
1886:
1885:
1748:Irenaean theodicy
1733:Epicurean paradox
1675:
1674:
1575:
1574:
1523:Peter van Inwagen
1508:Richard Swinburne
1448:George I Mavrodes
1308:Vladimir Solovyov
1258:SĂžren Kierkegaard
1185:William Wollaston
1132:William of Ockham
1112:Marcion of Sinope
1022:Transcendentalism
769:
768:
692:
691:
659:No limits fallacy
590:Arguments against
548:Responses to evil
464:Mystical idealism
248:
247:
172:Euthyphro dilemma
24:Gottfried Leibniz
3655:
3598:1710s neologisms
3577:
3576:
3564:
3556:
3546:
3536:
3526:
3516:
3432:Lingua generalis
3332:
3325:
3318:
3309:
3249:
3248:
3238:
3228:
3204:
3198:
3197:
3177:
3171:
3170:
3168:
3166:
3142:
3136:
3135:
3129:
3128:
3119:. Archived from
3111:
3105:
3098:
3092:
3085:
3079:
3078:
3060:
3054:
3053:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3021:
3015:
3014:
3012:
3011:
3001:
2995:
2989:
2983:
2982:
2974:
2968:
2967:
2959:
2950:
2949:
2941:
2935:
2934:
2932:
2930:
2915:
2906:
2905:
2904:
2903:
2887:
2881:
2880:
2854:
2845:
2844:
2838:
2829:
2823:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2804:
2793:
2792:
2782:
2773:
2772:
2770:
2769:
2763:www.marxists.org
2755:
2746:
2745:
2743:
2742:
2723:
2717:
2716:
2710:
2702:
2676:
2659:
2658:
2637:Brill Publishers
2624:
2600:
2583:
2577:
2560:
2529:Is-ought problem
2471:The philosopher
2453:Bertrand Russell
2322:Summa Theologiae
2222:imperfectly good
2198:perfect goodness
2052:married bachelor
1878:
1871:
1864:
1677:
1667:
1660:
1653:
1615:Natural theology
1558:Ali Akbar Rashad
1406:Reinhold Niebuhr
1356:Bertrand Russell
1351:George Santayana
1268:Albrecht Ritschl
1253:Ludwig Feuerbach
1040:
685:Russell's teapot
675:
655:
643:Hitchens's razor
486:Nyayakusumanjali
357:
296:Form of the Good
263:
231:
161:
145:Theological veto
130:
113:
112:Religious belief
36:
3663:
3662:
3658:
3657:
3656:
3654:
3653:
3652:
3588:
3587:
3586:
3581:
3567:
3562:
3554:
3544:
3534:
3524:
3514:
3498:
3350:
3348:
3347:Mathematics and
3341:
3336:
3258:
3253:
3252:
3206:
3205:
3201:
3194:
3179:
3178:
3174:
3164:
3162:
3144:
3143:
3139:
3126:
3124:
3113:
3112:
3108:
3099:
3095:
3086:
3082:
3075:
3062:
3061:
3057:
3047:
3046:
3042:
3033:
3031:
3023:
3022:
3018:
3009:
3007:
3003:
3002:
2998:
2990:
2986:
2976:
2975:
2971:
2961:
2960:
2953:
2943:
2942:
2938:
2928:
2926:
2917:
2916:
2909:
2901:
2899:
2889:
2888:
2884:
2869:
2856:
2855:
2848:
2836:
2831:
2830:
2826:
2818:
2816:
2806:
2805:
2796:
2784:
2783:
2776:
2767:
2765:
2757:
2756:
2749:
2740:
2738:
2725:
2724:
2720:
2703:
2691:
2678:
2677:
2662:
2647:
2626:
2625:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2603:
2584:
2580:
2568:greatest number
2561:
2557:
2552:
2515:
2473:Alvin Plantinga
2469:
2445:
2391:
2340:
2335:
2297:
2214:absence of good
2206:
2128:
2033:
2031:Possible worlds
1972:problem of evil
1954:
1946:problem of evil
1938:possible worlds
1882:
1853:
1852:
1788:Saint Augustine
1783:
1782:
1781:Notable figures
1773:
1772:
1768:Problem of evil
1708:Absence of good
1703:
1702:
1671:
1635:
1634:
1585:
1577:
1576:
1568:Alexander Pruss
1548:Jean-Luc Marion
1538:Herman Philipse
1493:Alvin Plantinga
1488:Dewi Z Phillips
1433:Walter Kaufmann
1423:Frithjof Schuon
1396:Rudolf Bultmann
1386:Pavel Florensky
1366:Sergei Bulgakov
1333:Joseph Maréchal
1313:Ernst Troeltsch
1298:Harald HĂžffding
1278:Usman dan Fodio
1248:William Whewell
1238:Georg W F Hegel
1233:Karl C F Krause
1210:Johann G Herder
1200:Baron d'Holbach
1150:Augustin Calmet
1037:
1027:
1026:
997:Shendao shejiao
781:
771:
770:
673:
653:
633:God of the gaps
603:Atheist's wager
291:Divinely simple
276:Anthropopathism
260:
250:
249:
229:
203:Problem of evil
187:Verificationism
158:
150:
149:
128:
123:Religious faith
111:
61:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3661:
3659:
3651:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3628:Possible world
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3590:
3589:
3583:
3582:
3572:
3569:
3568:
3566:
3565:
3557:
3547:
3537:
3527:
3517:
3506:
3504:
3500:
3499:
3497:
3496:
3491:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3461:Salva veritate
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3435:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3386:Compossibility
3383:
3376:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3353:
3351:
3346:
3343:
3342:
3337:
3335:
3334:
3327:
3320:
3312:
3306:
3305:
3294:
3293:
3284:
3275:
3257:
3256:External links
3254:
3251:
3250:
3219:(4): 445â462.
3199:
3192:
3172:
3137:
3106:
3093:
3080:
3073:
3055:
3040:
3016:
2996:
2984:
2969:
2951:
2936:
2907:
2882:
2867:
2846:
2824:
2794:
2774:
2747:
2718:
2689:
2660:
2645:
2611:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2602:
2601:
2578:
2554:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2514:
2511:
2507:James Franklin
2468:
2465:
2461:libertarianism
2444:
2441:
2427:Charles Darwin
2390:
2387:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2317:Thomas Aquinas
2296:
2295:Before Leibniz
2293:
2205:
2202:
2179:for no reason,
2127:
2124:
2032:
2029:
1976:perfectly good
1953:
1950:
1884:
1883:
1881:
1880:
1873:
1866:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1813:Saint Irenaeus
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1784:
1780:
1779:
1778:
1775:
1774:
1771:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1745:
1740:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1704:
1700:
1699:
1698:
1695:
1694:
1688:
1687:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1662:
1655:
1647:
1644:
1643:
1637:
1636:
1633:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1586:
1584:Related topics
1583:
1582:
1579:
1578:
1573:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1565:
1563:Yujin Nagasawa
1560:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1518:Ravi Zacharias
1515:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1483:William L Rowe
1480:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1453:William Alston
1450:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1409:
1408:
1403:
1401:Gabriel Marcel
1398:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1345:
1344:
1338:
1337:
1336:
1335:
1330:
1328:Ernst Cassirer
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1243:Thomas Carlyle
1240:
1235:
1230:
1222:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1213:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1170:Baruch Spinoza
1167:
1162:
1157:
1155:René Descartes
1152:
1144:
1143:
1137:
1136:
1135:
1134:
1129:
1127:Thomas Aquinas
1124:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1104:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1051:
1050:
1038:
1033:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1025:
1024:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1004:
999:
994:
989:
984:
979:
974:
969:
964:
959:
954:
949:
944:
943:
942:
937:
932:
922:
917:
912:
907:
902:
901:
900:
895:
890:
880:
875:
870:
868:Fundamentalism
865:
860:
859:
858:
853:
846:Existentialism
843:
838:
833:
828:
823:
818:
813:
808:
803:
798:
793:
788:
782:
777:
776:
773:
772:
767:
766:
765:
764:
759:
754:
749:
744:
739:
738:
737:
732:
727:
722:
717:
712:
699:
698:
694:
693:
690:
689:
688:
687:
682:
677:
670:
668:Noncognitivism
665:
660:
657:
650:
645:
640:
635:
630:
625:
620:
615:
610:
608:Creator of God
605:
600:
592:
591:
587:
586:
585:
584:
582:Transcendental
579:
574:
573:
572:
571:
570:
560:
550:
545:
540:
535:
533:Pascal's wager
530:
529:
528:
523:
518:
513:
508:
503:
493:
488:
483:
482:
481:
471:
466:
461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
436:
431:
426:
421:
416:
415:
414:
409:
404:
392:
387:
386:
385:
380:
373:Christological
370:
362:
361:
353:
352:
346:
345:
344:
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
278:
270:
269:
261:
256:
255:
252:
251:
246:
245:
244:
243:
238:
233:
226:
225:
224:
219:
206:
205:
199:
198:
197:
196:
195:
194:
192:eschatological
184:
179:
174:
169:
167:Ethical egoism
159:
156:
155:
152:
151:
148:
147:
142:
137:
132:
125:
120:
115:
108:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
62:
56:
55:
52:
51:
45:
44:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3660:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3595:
3593:
3580:
3570:
3561:
3558:
3553:
3552:
3548:
3543:
3542:
3538:
3533:
3532:
3528:
3523:
3522:
3518:
3513:
3512:
3508:
3507:
3505:
3501:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3489:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3462:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3440:
3436:
3434:
3433:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3421:Leibniz's gap
3419:
3417:
3416:Leibniz wheel
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3406:Individuation
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3381:
3377:
3375:
3374:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3354:
3352:
3344:
3340:
3333:
3328:
3326:
3321:
3319:
3314:
3313:
3310:
3304:
3301:
3300:
3299:
3298:
3292:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3270:
3269:
3265:
3264:
3263:
3262:
3255:
3246:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3203:
3200:
3195:
3189:
3185:
3184:
3176:
3173:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3141:
3138:
3133:
3123:on 2013-07-30
3122:
3118:
3117:
3110:
3107:
3103:
3097:
3094:
3090:
3084:
3081:
3076:
3070:
3066:
3059:
3056:
3051:
3044:
3041:
3030:
3026:
3020:
3017:
3006:
3000:
2997:
2993:
2988:
2985:
2980:
2973:
2970:
2965:
2958:
2956:
2952:
2947:
2940:
2937:
2925:
2921:
2914:
2912:
2908:
2897:
2893:
2886:
2883:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2864:
2860:
2853:
2851:
2847:
2842:
2835:
2828:
2825:
2814:
2810:
2803:
2801:
2799:
2795:
2790:
2789:
2781:
2779:
2775:
2764:
2760:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2737:on 2016-05-21
2736:
2732:
2728:
2722:
2719:
2714:
2708:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2686:
2682:
2675:
2673:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2665:
2661:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2617:
2613:
2606:
2598:
2592:
2588:
2582:
2579:
2575:
2569:
2565:
2559:
2556:
2549:
2545:
2544:World to Come
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2516:
2512:
2510:
2508:
2502:
2499:
2495:
2494:
2487:
2486:consequences:
2485:
2480:
2478:
2474:
2466:
2464:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2442:
2440:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2428:
2422:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2402:
2400:
2399:mathematician
2396:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2350:
2345:
2337:
2333:After Leibniz
2332:
2330:
2328:
2324:
2323:
2318:
2314:
2312:
2308:
2306:
2305:Peter Abelard
2302:
2294:
2292:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2268:
2263:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2248:
2246:
2240:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2203:
2201:
2199:
2194:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2180:
2174:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2150:
2148:
2144:
2139:
2137:
2133:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2117:
2112:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2101:in themselves
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2073:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2038:
2030:
2027:
2023:
2021:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1997:
1996:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1966:, 'God', and
1965:
1961:
1960:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1926:
1921:
1918:
1914:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1879:
1874:
1872:
1867:
1865:
1860:
1859:
1857:
1856:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1785:
1777:
1776:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1744:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1705:
1697:
1696:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1684:
1679:
1678:
1668:
1663:
1661:
1656:
1654:
1649:
1648:
1646:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1498:Anthony Kenny
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1418:Mircea Eliade
1416:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1348:
1347:
1346:
1343:
1339:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1303:William James
1301:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1283:Ernst Haeckel
1281:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1223:
1220:
1216:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1205:Immanuel Kant
1203:
1201:
1198:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1186:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1163:
1161:
1160:Blaise Pascal
1158:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1147:
1146:
1145:
1142:
1138:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1052:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1030:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
993:
990:
988:
985:
983:
980:
978:
975:
973:
970:
968:
965:
963:
960:
958:
955:
953:
950:
948:
945:
941:
938:
936:
933:
931:
928:
927:
926:
923:
921:
918:
916:
913:
911:
908:
906:
903:
899:
896:
894:
891:
889:
886:
885:
884:
881:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
861:
857:
854:
852:
849:
848:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
832:
829:
827:
824:
822:
819:
817:
814:
812:
809:
807:
804:
802:
799:
797:
794:
792:
789:
787:
784:
783:
780:
775:
774:
763:
760:
758:
755:
753:
750:
748:
745:
743:
740:
736:
733:
731:
728:
726:
723:
721:
718:
716:
713:
711:
708:
707:
706:
703:
702:
701:
700:
695:
686:
683:
681:
678:
676:
671:
669:
666:
664:
661:
658:
656:
654:Inconsistency
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
626:
624:
621:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
604:
601:
599:
596:
595:
594:
593:
588:
583:
580:
578:
575:
569:
566:
565:
564:
561:
559:
556:
555:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
527:
524:
522:
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
502:
499:
498:
497:
494:
492:
491:Occam's Razor
489:
487:
484:
480:
477:
476:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
435:
432:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
413:
410:
408:
405:
403:
402:
398:
397:
396:
393:
391:
390:Consciousness
388:
384:
381:
379:
376:
375:
374:
371:
369:
366:
365:
364:
363:
360:Arguments for
358:
355:
354:
351:
347:
342:
341:Unmoved mover
339:
337:
336:Supreme Being
334:
332:
329:
327:
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
311:Occasionalism
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
273:
272:
271:
268:
264:
259:
254:
253:
242:
239:
237:
234:
232:
227:
223:
220:
218:
215:
214:
213:
210:
209:
208:
207:
204:
200:
193:
190:
189:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
164:
163:
162:
154:
153:
146:
143:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
126:
124:
121:
119:
118:Reincarnation
116:
114:
109:
107:
104:
102:
99:
97:
94:
92:
89:
87:
86:Enlightenment
84:
82:
79:
77:
74:
72:
69:
67:
64:
63:
59:
54:
53:
50:
46:
42:
38:
37:
31:
30:
25:
21:
3643:Superlatives
3549:
3539:
3529:
3519:
3509:
3486:
3459:
3437:
3430:
3378:
3371:
3361:
3296:
3295:
3281:
3267:
3260:
3259:
3216:
3212:
3202:
3182:
3175:
3163:. Retrieved
3159:the original
3154:
3150:
3140:
3130:– via
3125:. Retrieved
3121:the original
3115:
3109:
3101:
3096:
3083:
3064:
3058:
3049:
3043:
3032:. Retrieved
3028:
3019:
3008:. Retrieved
2999:
2991:
2987:
2978:
2972:
2963:
2948:. HarperOne.
2945:
2939:
2927:. Retrieved
2923:
2900:, retrieved
2895:
2885:
2858:
2840:
2827:
2817:, retrieved
2812:
2787:
2766:. Retrieved
2762:
2739:. Retrieved
2735:the original
2731:Colin Temple
2730:
2721:
2680:
2628:
2595:
2590:
2586:
2581:
2572:
2567:
2563:
2558:
2539:Summum bonum
2504:
2497:
2491:
2489:
2481:
2476:
2470:
2467:21st century
2448:
2446:
2443:20th century
2436:
2431:
2424:
2404:
2392:
2389:19th century
2368:
2362:
2347:
2341:
2338:18th century
2326:
2320:
2315:
2309:
2298:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2270:
2265:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2249:
2244:
2241:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2226:
2221:
2218:created evil
2217:
2207:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2183:
2178:
2176:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2152:
2146:
2140:
2132:all-powerful
2129:
2119:
2113:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2080:
2076:
2070:
2068:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2043:
2041:
2034:
2025:
2019:
2018:said in the
2016:
2012:
2007:
2005:
2001:
1993:
1991:
1980:all-powerful
1967:
1963:
1957:
1955:
1933:
1929:
1923:
1889:
1888:The phrase "
1887:
1763:Natural evil
1717:
1701:Key concepts
1682:
1438:Martin Lings
1428:J. L. Mackie
1391:Emil Brunner
1376:Paul Tillich
1361:Martin Buber
1342:Contemporary
1288:W K Clifford
1273:Afrikan Spir
1219:19th-century
1190:Thomas Chubb
1141:Early modern
1122:Adi Shankara
1002:Spiritualism
977:Perennialism
935:metaphysical
801:Antireligion
715:Christianity
553:Teleological
412:metaphysical
399:
395:Cosmological
383:Resurrection
331:Summum bonum
241:Natural evil
228:
27:
3477:Rationalism
3091:pp. 395â396
2929:December 9,
2501:phenomena."
2457:libertarian
2383:Panglossian
2277:world-bound
2252:compossible
2136:all-knowing
2109:compossible
2085:Jimmy Wales
2069:Beings are
2042:A being is
2037:compossible
1984:all-knowing
1543:Kai Nielsen
1528:Cornel West
1478:Paul Draper
1468:Graham Oppy
1458:Antony Flew
1443:Peter Geach
1371:René Guénon
1323:Lev Shestov
1318:Rudolf Otto
967:Panentheism
905:Inclusivism
841:Exclusivism
836:Esotericism
811:Creationism
791:Agnosticism
697:By religion
680:Poor design
521:Mulla Sadra
496:Ontological
469:Natural law
449:Mathematics
407:contingency
301:Holy Spirit
267:Conceptions
217:Augustinian
81:Eschatology
76:Cataphatism
3592:Categories
3551:Monadology
3391:Difference
3349:philosophy
3287:Monadology
3127:2011-03-20
3034:2022-06-03
3010:2023-01-12
2902:2022-06-03
2819:2022-06-03
2768:2022-06-03
2741:2016-05-17
2607:References
2587:Monadology
2498:pandeistic
2484:pandeistic
2375:Maupertuis
2147:Monadology
2077:each other
2056:impossible
1995:Monadology
1758:Moral evil
1753:Misotheism
1463:Kurt Godel
1381:Karl Barth
1195:David Hume
1117:Maimonides
1102:Heraclitus
1087:Al-Ghazali
982:Polytheism
952:Nondualism
930:humanistic
925:Naturalism
915:Monotheism
878:Henotheism
873:Gnosticism
598:747 gambit
563:Watchmaker
516:Meinongian
429:Experience
157:Challenges
96:Liberation
71:Apophatism
3541:Théodicée
3450:Plenitude
3245:252979403
2877:868966645
2707:cite book
2699:960695264
2655:0920-8607
2411:functions
2356:and from
2273:essential
2210:Augustine
2157:: first,
2081:logically
1843:Swinburne
1833:Plantinga
1828:Nietzsche
1738:Free will
1728:Dystheism
1533:Loyal Rue
1263:Karl Marx
1082:Gaudapada
1007:Shamanism
972:Pantheism
957:Nontheism
940:religious
920:Mysticism
893:religious
888:Christian
856:Christian
735:Mandaeism
730:Mormonism
705:Abrahamic
663:Nonbelief
628:Free will
577:Trademark
350:Existence
306:Maltheist
106:Mysticism
66:Afterlife
58:Religious
29:Théodicée
3648:Theodicy
3638:Stoicism
3579:Category
3488:Vis viva
3467:Theodicy
3396:Dynamism
3268:Theodicy
2513:See also
2477:the best
2449:Theodicy
2415:tangents
2365:Voltaire
2349:Theodicy
2311:Avicenna
2260:contrast
2256:Theodicy
2105:together
2064:possible
2044:possible
2020:Theodicy
1959:theodicy
1942:theodicy
1934:Theodicy
1913:polymath
1798:Epicurus
1692:Theodicy
1683:a series
1680:Part of
1630:Theology
1600:Exegesis
1077:Boethius
1072:Averroes
1067:Avicenna
1048:medieval
962:Pandeism
883:Humanism
863:Feminist
816:Dharmism
786:Acosmism
747:Hinduism
742:Buddhism
618:Evil God
568:Junkyard
479:Seddiqin
459:Morality
454:Miracles
378:Trilemma
321:Personal
316:Pandeist
286:Demiurge
222:Irenaean
212:Theodicy
60:concepts
41:a series
39:Part of
3165:9 March
3132:YouTube
2493:kenosis
2370:Candide
2060:unicorn
2008:fitness
1952:Leibniz
1823:Maistre
1818:Leibniz
1044:Ancient
987:Process
947:New Age
898:secular
851:atheist
831:Dualism
806:Atheism
796:Animism
757:Sikhism
752:Jainism
725:Judaism
526:Spinoza
281:Brahman
101:Miracle
3555:(1714)
3545:(1710)
3535:(1704)
3525:(1686)
3515:(1666)
3243:
3190:
3071:
2875:
2865:
2697:
2687:
2653:
2643:
2633:Leiden
2379:mantra
2327:always
2301:Stoics
2285:for me
2245:better
1910:German
1902:German
1894:French
1848:Wiesel
1793:Ehrman
1017:Theism
910:Monism
710:BahĂĄÊŒĂ
543:Reason
511:Anselm
424:Desire
419:Degree
368:Beauty
140:Spirit
43:on the
3503:Works
3241:S2CID
3050:Reden
2837:(PDF)
2597:work.
2437:worst
2191:other
2163:false
2120:could
2116:ideas
2107:, or
1964:Theos
1012:Taoic
821:Deism
762:Wicca
720:Islam
506:Modal
501:Gödel
401:kalÄm
3188:ISBN
3167:2014
3069:ISBN
2931:2019
2873:OCLC
2863:ISBN
2713:link
2695:OCLC
2685:ISBN
2651:ISSN
2641:ISBN
2447:The
2289:rest
2237:good
2233:made
2186:only
2167:true
2134:and
1982:and
1968:dikÄ
1915:and
1838:Rowe
1808:Hume
1803:Hick
1046:and
638:Hell
613:Evil
444:Love
135:Soul
3289:at
3280:at
3271:at
3231:hdl
3221:doi
2409:of
2097:not
2093:not
2089:not
2054:is
1987:God
1892:" (
258:God
3594::
3239:.
3229:.
3217:20
3215:.
3211:.
3155:47
3153:.
3149:.
3027:.
2954:^
2922:.
2910:^
2871:.
2849:^
2839:.
2797:^
2777:^
2761:.
2750:^
2729:.
2709:}}
2705:{{
2693:.
2663:^
2649:.
2639:.
2635::
2615:^
2593::
2401::
2307:.
2224:.
2039:.
1978:,
1948:.
1904::
1900:;
1896::
1686:on
3331:e
3324:t
3317:v
3247:.
3233::
3223::
3196:.
3169:.
3134:.
3077:.
3037:.
3013:.
2933:.
2879:.
2843:.
2771:.
2744:.
2715:)
2701:.
2657:.
2281:I
1928:(
1877:e
1870:t
1863:v
1666:e
1659:t
1652:v
32:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
