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Morton's collection, published a study that concluded that "Morton did not manipulate his data to support his preconceptions, contra Gould." They identified and remeasured half of the skulls used in Morton's reports, finding that in only 2% of cases did Morton's measurements differ significantly from their own and that these errors either were random or gave a larger than accurate volume to
African skulls, the reverse of the bias that Dr. Gould imputed to Morton. Difference in brain size, however, does not necessarily imply differences in intelligence: women tend to have smaller brains than men yet have more neural complexity and loading in certain areas of the brain. This claim has been criticized by, among others, John S. Michael, who reported in 1988 that Morton's analysis was "conducted with integrity" while Gould's criticism was "mistaken".
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equatorial
Africans, who generally have smaller craniums as people from hot climates often have slightly smaller crania. He also compared equatorial Africans from the poorest and least educated areas of Africa with Asians from the wealthiest, most educated areas and colder climates. According to Z. Z. Cernovsky Rushton's own study shows that the average cranial capacity of North American blacks is similar to that of Caucasians from comparable climatic zones, though a previous work by Rushton showed appreciable differences in cranial capacity between North Americans of different race. This is consistent with the findings of Z. Z. Cernovsky that people from different climates tend to have minor differences in brain size.
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geographic region. About one-third of "white" Americans have detectable
African DNA markers, and about five percent of "black" Americans have no detectable "negroid" traits at all, craniofacial or genetic. Given three Americans who self-identify and are socially accepted as white, black and Hispanic, and given that they have precisely the same Afro-European mix of ancestries (one African great-grandparent), there is no objective test that will identify their group membership without an interview.
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703:, especially in prehistoric times. Linguistics can follow the movement of languages and archaeology can follow the movement of artefact styles but neither can tell whether a culture's spread was due to a source population's physically migrating or to a destination population's simply copying the technology and learning the language. Anthropometry was used extensively by anthropologists studying human and racial origins: some attempted racial differentiation and
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2245:"The assignment of skeletal racial origin is based principally upon stereotypical features found most frequently in the most geographically distant populations. While this is useful in some contexts (for example, sorting skeletal material of largely West African ancestry from skeletal material of largely Western European ancestry), it fails to identify populations that originate elsewhere and misrepresents fundamental patterns of human biological diversity",
1075:(1939) Coon classified Caucasoids into racial sub-groups named after regions or archaeological sites such as BrĂĽnn, Borreby, Alpine, Ladogan, East Baltic, Neo-Danubian, Lappish, Mediterranean, Atlanto-Mediterranean, Irano-Afghan, Nordic, Hallstatt, Keltic, Tronder, Dinaric, Noric and Armenoid. This typological view of race, however, was starting to be seen as out-of-date at the time of publication. Coon eventually resigned from the
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937:, a collaborator of Virchow, stated in the same congress that the people of Europe, be them German, Italian, English or French, belonged to a "mixture of various races," furthermore declaring that the "results of craniology" led to "struggle against any theory concerning the superiority of this or that European race". Virchow later rejected measure of skulls as legitimate means of
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494:("repeat offenders"). Previously police could only record general descriptions. Photography of criminals had become commonplace, but there was no easy way to sort the many thousands of photographs except by name. Bertillon's hope was that, through the use of measurements, a set of identifying numbers could be entered into a filing system installed in a single cabinet.
653:, Lombroso tried to recognize criminals by measurements of their bodies. He concluded that skull and facial features were clues to genetic criminality and that these features could be measured with craniometers and calipers with the results developed into quantitative research. A few of the 14 identified traits of a criminal included large
717:(1853–1855), a founding work of racial segregationism that made three main divisions between races, based not on colour but on climatic conditions and geographic location, and privileged the "Aryan" race. Science has tested many theories aligning race and personality, which have been current since
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Other complications were: it was difficult to tell whether or not individuals arrested were first-time offenders; instruments employed were costly and liable to break down; skilled measurers were needed; errors were frequent and all but irremediable; and it was necessary to repeat measurements three
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as "Capoid". Finally, he split "Australoid" from "Mongoloid" along a line roughly similar to the modern distinction between sinodonts in the north and sundadonts in the south. He argued that these races had developed independently of each other over the past half-million years, developing into Homo
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Stephen Jay Gould (1941–2002) claimed Samuel Morton had fudged data and "overpacked" the skulls. A subsequent study by John
Michael concluded that "ontrary to Gould's interpretation... Morton's research was conducted with integrity." In 2011 physical anthropologists at the university of, which owns
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Several studies have demonstrated correlations between race and brain size, with varying results. In some studies, Caucasians were reported to have larger brains than other racial groups, whereas in recent studies and reanalysis of previous studies, East Asians were reported as having larger brains
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Observable craniofacial differences included: head shape (mesocephalic, brachycephalic, dolichocephalic) breadth of nasal aperture, nasal root height, sagittal crest appearance, jaw thickness, brow ridge size and forehead slope. Using this skull-based categorization, German philosopher
Christoph
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and
Blumenbach had examined multiple observable human characteristics in search of a typology. Bernier based his racial classification on physical type which included hair shape, nose shape and skin color. Linnaeus based a similar racial classification scheme. As anthropologists gained access to
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and high intellectual capacity, a small skull indicated a small brain and decreased intellectual capacity. Modern science has since confirmed that there is a correlation between cranium size (measured in various ways) and intelligence as measured by IQ tests, although it is a weak correlation at
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The concept of biologically distinct races has been rendered obsolete by modern genetics. Different methods of categorizing humans yield different groups, making them non-concordant. Neither will the craniofacial method pin-point geographic origins reliably, due to variation in skulls within a
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pattern but warning against using the findings as indicative of racial traits, "If one merely lists such means by geographical region or race, causes of similarity by genogroup and ecotype are hopelessly confounded". Rushton's findings have been criticized for confusing
African-Americans with
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that was named after him. The "Bertillonage" system was based on the finding that several measures of physical features, such as the dimensions of bony structures in the body, remain fairly constant throughout adult life. Bertillon concluded that when these measurements were made and recorded
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Bertillonage was before long represented in Paris by a collection of some 100,000 cards and became popular in several other countries' justice systems. England followed suit when in 1894, a committee sent to Paris to investigate the methods and its results reported favorably on the use of
1025:(New York: Knopf, 1962). Because of the inconsistencies in the old three-part system (Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid), Coon adopted a five-part scheme. He defined "Caucasoid" as a pattern of skull measurements and other phenotypical characteristics typical of populations in
875:
began to use anthropometric approaches to discredit the concept of fixed biological race. Boas used the cephalic index to show the influence of environmental factors. Researches on skulls and skeletons eventually helped liberate 19th century
European science from its
615:. Bertillon originally measured variables he thought were independent – such as forearm length and leg length – but Galton had realized that both were the result of a single causal variable (in this case, stature) and developed the statistical concept of
604:, where measurements were abandoned in 1897 after the fingerprint system was adopted throughout British India. Three years later England followed suit, and, as the result of a fresh inquiry ordered by the Home Office, relied upon fingerprints alone.
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573:(elbow to tip of middle finger). It was possible, by exhaustion, to sort the cards on which these details were recorded (together with a photograph) until a small number produced the measurements of the individual sought, independently of name.
139:. Camper's measurements of facial angle were first made to compare the skulls of men with those of other animals. Camper claimed that antique statues presented an angle of 90°, Europeans of 80°, Central Africans of 70° and the orangutan of 58°.
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Morton claimed that
Caucasians had the biggest brains, averaging 87 cubic inches, Indians were in the middle with an average of 82 cubic inches and Negroes had the smallest brains with an average of 78 cubic inches. In 1873
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and skulls. More common among the studies was the report that
Africans had smaller skulls than either Caucasians or East Asians. Criticisms have been raised against a number of these studies regarding questionable methods.
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and in various attempts to correlate physical with racial and psychological traits. At various points in history, certain anthropometrics have been cited by advocates of discrimination and eugenics often as part of novel
366:(1799–1851) collected hundreds of human skulls from all over the world and started trying to find a way to classify them according to some logical criterion. Morton claimed that he could judge intellectual capacity by
173:(1824–1880), founder of the Anthropological Society in France in 1859. Paleoanthropologists still rely upon craniofacial anthropometry to identify species in the study of fossilized hominid bones. Specimens of
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1939:, see esp. p. 360: "he answer to the question whether races exist in humans is clear and unambiguous: no." That this view reflects the consensus among American anthropologists is stated in:
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1053:). He discarded the term "Negroid" as misleading since it implies skin tone, which is found at low latitudes around the globe and is a product of adaptation, and defined skulls typical of
397:"vision"), a method to determine the personality and development of mental and moral faculties on the basis of the external shape of the skull. Cranioscopy was later renamed phrenology (
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645:, who claimed to be able to scientifically identify links between the nature of a crime and the personality or physical appearance of the offender. The originator of the concept of a "
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Similar claims were previously made by Ho et al. (1980), who measured 1,261 brains at autopsy, and Beals et al. (1984), who measured approximately 20,000 skulls, finding the same
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Forensic Misclassification of Ancient Nubian Crania: Implications for Assumptions about Human Variation, Frank L'Engle Williams, Robert L. Belcher, and George J. Armelagos
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The Online Companion to California Newsreel's 3-part documentary about race and society, science and history, "Race — The Power of an Illusion", Ask the Experts section
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1983:
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823:, etc.). "Homo africanus" (Congo, Florida) was excluded from discussion. His racial classification ("Teutonic", "Alpine" and "Mediterranean") was also used by
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921:. Other historical studies alleging a Black–White difference in brain size include Bean (1906), Mall, (1909), Pearl, (1934) and Vint (1934). But in Germany
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System." These all claimed the ability to predict traits or intelligence and were intensively practised in the 19th and the first part of the 20th century.
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Cernovsky, Z. Z. (1997) A critical look at intelligence research, In Fox, D. & Prilleltensky, I. (Eds.) Critical Psychology, London: Sage, ps 121-133.
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Illustration from "The Speaking Portrait" (Pearson's Magazine, Vol XI, January to June 1901) demonstrating the principles of Bertillon's anthropometry
385:, which purported to determine character, personality traits, and criminality on the basis of the shape of the head. At the turn of the 19th century,
115:(1722–1789), distinguished both as an artist and as an anatomist, published some lectures that laid the foundation of much work. Camper invented the "
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Parra E.J.; et al. (2001). "Ancestral Proportions and Admixture Dynamics in Geographically Defined African Americans Living in South Carolina".
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Rushton J. Philippe (1992). "Cranial capacity related to sex, rank, and race in a stratified random sample of 6,325 U.S. military personnel".
165:"long and thin"), "brachycephalic" (short and broad) and "mesocephalic" (intermediate length and width). Scientific research was continued by
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Collins-Schramm Heather E (2002). "Markers that Discriminate Between European and African Ancestry Show Limited Variation Within Africa".
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about 0.2. Today, brain volume as measured with MRI scanners also find a correlation between brain size and intelligence at about 0.4.
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Wagner, Jennifer K.; Yu, Joon-Ho; Ifekwunigwe, Jayne O.; Harrell, Tanya M.; Bamshad, Michael J.; Royal, Charmaine D. (February 2017).
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Sapiens at different periods of time, resulting in different levels of civilization. This raised considerable controversy and led the
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Physiognomy claimed a correlation between physical features (especially facial features) and character traits. It was made famous by
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white race, dolichocephalic" to the "brachycephalic" (short and broad-headed) race. Between these Vacher de Lapouge identified the "
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ISO 15537: Principles for selecting and using test persons for testing anthropometric aspects of industrial products and designs,
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among various species. According to this technique, a "facial angle" was formed by drawing two lines: one horizontally from the
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to classify ancient human remains found in Europe. He classed skulls in three main categories; "dolichocephalic" (from the
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only a thousand years before this Noah's sons could not account for every race on earth. According to Morton's theory of
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characterized by a tall dolichocephalic skull, receded zygomas, large brow ridge and projecting-narrow nasal apertures.
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were not Negroid but Caucasoid and that Caucasians and Negroes were already distinct three thousand years ago. Since
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characterized by a medium brachycephalic skull, projecting zygomas, small brow ridge and small nasal apertures.
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1448:"Cultural Biases Reflected in the Hominid Fossil Record" (history), by Joshua Barbach and Craig Byron, 2005,
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Stewart A. "Kinanthropometry and body composition: A natural home for three dimensional photonic scanning".
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The system was soon adapted to police methods: it prevented impersonation and could demonstrate wrongdoing.
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2014:, The Human Species: An introduction to Biological Anthropology, 5th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003).
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systematically, every individual would be distinguishable. Bertillon's goal was a way of identifying
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181:, for example, are virtually identical from the neck down but their skulls can easily be told apart.
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Beals Kenneth L.; et al. (1984). "Brain Size, Cranial Morphology, Climate, and Time Machines".
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hominid male, thinking it to be the remains of a bear. They gave the material to amateur naturalist
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Mémoire sur les différences de la situation du grand trou occipital dans l'homme et dans les animaux
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measurements for primary classification and recommended also the partial adoption of the system of
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Rushton J. P. (1990). "Race, Brain Size, and Intelligence: A Rejoinder to Cain and Vanderwolf".
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ISO 20685: 3-D scanning methodologies for internationally compatible anthropometric databases,
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Templeton, A. (2016). EVOLUTION AND NOTIONS OF HUMAN RACE. In Losos J. & Lenski R. (Eds.),
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Ariani, indogermani, stirpi mediterranee: aspetti del dibattito sulle razze europee (1870-1914)
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Shriver Mark D (2003). "Skin Pigmentation, Biogeographical Ancestry, and Admixture Mapping".
1557:"The Mismeasure of Science: Stephen Jay Gould versus Samuel George Morton on Skulls and Bias"
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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
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characterized by a short dolichocephalic skull, receded zygomas and wide nasal apertures.
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bias. This school of physical anthropology generally went into decline during the 1940s.
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Meiners in his The Outline of History of Mankind (1785) identified three racial groups:
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could be predicted according to the body type. A basically anthropometric division of
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Bertillonage exhibited certain defects and was gradually supplanted by the system of
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methods of skull measure they developed racial classification based on skull shape.
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1619:"Evolving knowledge of sex differences in brain structure, function, and chemistry"
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Lewis Jason E.; DeGusta D.; Meyer M.R.; Monge J.M.; Mann A.E.; et al. (2011).
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Report of Home Office Committee on the Best Means of Identifying Habitual Criminals
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Skull Wars: Kennewick Man, Archaeology, and the Battle for Native American Identity
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Folia Anthropologica: tudományos és módszertani folyóirat. 9: 5–17. ISSN 1786-5654
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Life on the Color Line: The True Story of a White Boy who Discovered he was Black
2026:"Galileo wept: A critical assessment of the use of race of forensic anthropolopy"
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An Inquiry into the Distinctive Characteristics of the Aboriginal Race of America
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Michael, John S. (April 1988). "A New Look at Morton's Craniological Research".
1021:. Coon, a 20th-century craniofacial anthropometrist, used the technique for his
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A head-measuring tool designed for anthropological research in the early 1910s.
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ISO 8559: Garment construction and anthropometric surveys — Body dimensions,
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Anthropometric Survey of Army Personnel: Methods and Summary Statistics 1988
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Insider – The Female Brain, By Ivory E. Welcome, MBA Candidate December 2009
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1311:. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 119–120.
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quoted an 1892 discussion with him concerning these criticisms, also citing
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584:(1893), demonstrating how to take measurements for his identification system
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ISO 15535: General requirements for establishing anthropometric databases,
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Cosgrove, Kelly P.; Mazure, Carolyn M.; Staley, Julie K. (October 2007).
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307:," which stated that man and ape were descended from a common ancestor.
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Michael J. S. (1988). "A New Look at Morton's Craniological Research".
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to be discovered, demonstrated mankind's deep ancestry outside Europe.
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2334:"Anthropometric History: an Overview of a Quarter Century of Research"
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10.1002/1096-8644(200101)114:1<18::aid-ajpa1002>3.0.co;2-2
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ISO 7250: Basic human body measurements for technological design,
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An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus
2221:(New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002); Gregory Howard Williams,
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Instructions signalétiques pour l'identification anthropométrique
409:(1776–1832), who wrote extensively on "Drs. Gall and Spurzheim's
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SchĂĽltke, Elisabeth (May 2009). "Theodor Kocher's craniometer".
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913:(1824–1880) found the same pattern described by Samuel Morton's
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Phylogeography is the science of identifying and tracking major
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carried Morton's ideas further. Charles Darwin, who thought the
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867:. During the 1920s and 1930s, though, members of the school of
1931:(pp. 346-361). Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press.
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and many forms of anthropometry were used for the advocacy of
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How Evolution Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biology and Society
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Vacher de Lapouge became one of the leading inspirations of
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In 1856, workers found in a limestone quarry the skull of a
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An Essay upon the Causes of the Different Colours of People
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Rushton, J. Philippe; Ankney, C. Davison (1 January 2009).
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La Force du préjugé – Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles
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La couleur et le sang – Doctrines racistes à la française
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was rewritten in 1939 by Harvard physical anthropologist
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islanders collected by J. P. Kleiweg de Zwaan, circa 1910
1943:"Anthropologists' views on race, ancestry, and genetics"
657:, forward projection of jaw, low sloping forehead; high
1233:"Whole Brain Size and General Mental Ability: A Review"
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to reject his approach without mentioning him by name.
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of "a Negro head …, a Caucasian skull …, a Mongol head"
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The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy
1909:
How Caucasoids Got Such Big Crania and How They Shrank
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relied on anthropometric measurements to distinguish
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Anthropometry demonstrated in an exhibit from a 1921
313:' (1858–1940) discovery in 1891 in Indonesia of the "
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according to the cephalic index of its inhabitants.
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1108:The Bertillon system was used by the detectives in
727:(French people), alleged descendants of the Nordic
389:(1758–1822) developed "cranioscopy" (Ancient Greek
2386:
208:(1799–1851), whose two major monographs were the
2389:Bodyspace: anthropometry, ergonomics, and design
2317:National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
1992:American Association of Physical Anthropologists
1984:American Association of Physical Anthropologists
1406:"The Mismeasure of Man" Stephen Jay Gould (1981)
1077:American Association of Physical Anthropologists
505:, from a visit to Bertillon's laboratory in 1893
1816:
1814:
1812:
1397:"From Savage to Negro" (1998) Lee D. Baker p.14
2393:. London; Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis.
2311:International Organization for Standardization
2304:International Organization for Standardization
2297:International Organization for Standardization
2290:International Organization for Standardization
2283:International Organization for Standardization
3217:An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races
2431:
1366:Indextabellen zum anthropometrischen Gebrauch
714:An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races
456:theories is today popular among people doing
8:
973:Race, identity and cranio-facial description
661:, flattened or upturned nose; handle-shaped
240:the races had been separate from the start.
765:became popular, one prominent figure being
416:During the 1940s anthropometry was used by
3209:Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question
2438:
2424:
2416:
1471:
1469:
3233:The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century
2170:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1966:
1947:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1642:
1582:
1572:
1256:
285:. By comparing skeletons of apes to man,
277:who turned the fossils over to anatomist
101:Memoir on the Different Positions of the
1385:
1280:
1278:
1276:
2405:(A classic review of human body sizes.)
1154:
929:" in the 1885 Anthropology Congress in
781:into various, hierarchized, different "
256:, opposed Nott and Gliddon in his 1871
2824:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
2196:
1889:University of California Press, 2002,
1834:Personality and Individual Differences
677:Phylogeography, race and human origins
2219:Just Lucky I Guess: A Memoir of Sorts
2024:Diana Smay, George Armelagos (2000).
1237:International Journal of Neuroscience
509:The system involved 10 measurements;
201:compared skeletons of apes to humans.
44:includes its use as an early tool of
7:
1064:American Anthropological Association
777:and his social role", 1899) divided
194:Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature
191:: In the frontispiece from his 1863
3376:Pre-modern conceptions of whiteness
1988:"AAPA Statement on Race and Racism"
1345:Rughe anomale speciali ai criminali
1180:Josiah C. Nott and George Gliddon,
795:(Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "
362:was compared with anthropometrics.
325:(1834–1919) became famous for his "
1887:What it means to be 98% Chimpanzee
1210:10.1227/01.NEU.0000344003.72056.7F
623:times to arrive at a mean result.
135:to the most prominent part of the
25:
3417:Race and intelligence controversy
3281:The Myth of the Twentieth Century
3201:The Outline of History of Mankind
1761:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
1439:, La DĂ©couverte, 1987, 644 pages.
469:Bertillon, Galton and criminology
61:Craniometry and paleoanthropology
3249:Heredity in Relation to Eugenics
1338:Studi comparati di antropometria
1321:Antropometria di 400 delinquenti
1285:
1204:(5): 1001–4, discussion 1004–5.
533:from head to seat when seated),
355:was inventor of the craniometer.
119:," a measure meant to determine
27:Historical uses of anthropometry
2322:Anthropometry Procedures Manual
582:Identification anthropométrique
303:(1859). He also developed the "
3241:Race Life of the Aryan Peoples
2447:Historical definitions of race
1635:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.03.001
1423:("Colour and Blood: Doctrines
925:'s study led him to denounce "
739:, considered to be indigenous
370:. A large skull meant a large
167:Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
1:
3265:The Passing of the Great Race
2412:, March 2010; 28(5): 455–457.
142:Swedish professor of anatomy
57:or based upon pseudoscience.
3164:Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer
1873:10.1016/0160-2896(92)90017-l
1846:10.1016/0191-8869(90)90186-u
1574:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001071
721:(1658–1722) contrasted the
641:(1835–1909), the founder of
2879:Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt
2844:Houston Stewart Chamberlain
2794:Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
2353:10.1127/0003-5548/2009/0027
1313:This cites as authorities:
643:anthropological criminology
146:(1796–1860) first used the
91:, who wrote many essays on
3458:
2410:Journal of Sports Sciences
2385:Pheasant, Stephen (1986).
2341:Anthropologischer Anzeiger
2325:. CDC: Atlanta, USA; 2007.
2203:: CS1 maint: postscript (
1057:as "Congoid" and those of
771:L'Aryen et son rĂ´le social
680:
649:" and arguing in favor of
630:
336:
220:(1844) concluded that the
177:and athletic specimens of
89:Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton
64:
29:
2974:Georges Vacher de Lapouge
2453:
2138:10.1007/s00439-002-0896-y
2095:10.1007/s00439-002-0818-z
2033:Transforming Anthropology
1249:10.1080/00207450802325843
767:Georges Vacher de Lapouge
580:A chart from Bertillon's
317:", the first specimen of
3346:History of anthropometry
3114:Charles Gabriel Seligman
2939:Frederick Ludwig Hoffman
2627:Sinodonty and Sundadonty
2225:(New York: Dutton, 1995)
2045:10.1525/tran.2000.9.2.19
1752:Rushton, Ankney (1996).
1138:Historical race concepts
1045:, and Northeast Africa (
537:(crown to forehead) and
432:, he also believed that
405:: study) by his student
333:Typology and personality
300:On the Origin of Species
250:single-origin hypothesis
30:Not to be confused with
3422:Biological anthropology
3402:History of neuroscience
2804:Daniel Garrison Brinton
1431:, 2002, 203 pages, and
1328:Manual of Anthropometry
1308:Encyclopædia Britannica
743:people subordinated by
549:, and "lengths" of the
501:A Bertillon record for
485:introduced a system of
452:derived from Sheldon's
71:biological anthropology
3442:History of measurement
3149:Thomas Griffith Taylor
2904:Reginald Ruggles Gates
1937:10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26
1918:, by Leonard Lieberman
1133:Anthropometric history
986:
981:Plaster face casts of
917:by weighing brains at
901:
833:(1899), made a map of
785:", spanning from the "
696:
651:biological determinism
585:
525:of raised right arm),
506:
478:
464:Forensic anthropometry
356:
305:Pithecometra principle
289:(1825–1895) backed up
202:
84:
32:Anthropometric history
3289:Annihilation of Caste
3193:in Different Climates
3144:William Graham Sumner
3124:Samuel Stanhope Smith
3069:James Cowles Prichard
2701:Racial discrimination
1507:The Mismeasure of Man
1417:Pierre-André Taguieff
980:
895:
869:cultural anthropology
731:, and members of the
690:
579:
500:
476:
430:criminal anthropology
350:
337:Further information:
327:recapitulation theory
297:, first expressed in
279:Hermann Schaaffhausen
187:
152:physical anthropology
78:
65:Further information:
3341:Great chain of being
3059:Ludwig Hermann Plate
3024:Samuel George Morton
2839:Samuel A. Cartwright
2689:in the United States
1711:Current Anthropology
1668:Current Anthropology
1522:Current Anthropology
1340:(2 vols., 1881–1882)
898:Samuel George Morton
827:(1867–1941) who, in
769:(1854–1936), who in
517:(distance from left
440:into the categories
420:when evaluating his
364:Samuel George Morton
360:Intelligence testing
275:Johann Karl Fuhlrott
206:Samuel George Morton
3297:The Races of Europe
3225:The Races of Europe
3004:Dominick McCausland
2954:Thomas Henry Huxley
2899:Stanley Marion Garn
2779:Robert Bennett Bean
2507:Historical concepts
1504:Stephen Jay Gould,
1454:ArchaeologyInfo-003
1450:ArchaeologyInfo.com
1072:The Races of Europe
1023:The Origin of Races
1015:The Races of Europe
896:An 1839 drawing by
884:Race and brain size
830:The Races of Europe
481:In 1883, Frenchman
295:theory of evolution
254:evolutionary theory
111:). Six years later
93:comparative anatomy
3407:History of science
3169:Alexander Winchell
3099:Henric Sanielevici
2959:Calvin Ira Kephart
2929:Hans F. K. GĂĽnther
2914:Arthur de Gobineau
2814:Alice Mossie Brues
2711:Racial stereotypes
2275:2022-06-21 at the
2252:2007-07-03 at the
1959:10.1002/ajpa.23120
1914:2009-09-02 at the
1773:10.3758/bf03210739
1459:2011-05-16 at the
1429:Mille et une nuits
1165:David Hurst Thomas
1103:In popular culture
1055:sub-Saharan Africa
987:
902:
812:Homo mediterraneus
709:Arthur de Gobineau
697:
586:
541:temple to temple)
507:
483:Alphonse Bertillon
479:
357:
259:The Descent of Man
203:
105:in Man and Animals
97:Académie française
85:
3437:Scientific racism
3432:Human body weight
3384:
3383:
3313:The Race Question
3159:John H. Van Evrie
3084:William Z. Ripley
3054:Charles Pickering
2999:Felix von Luschan
2969:Robert E. Kuttner
2869:Charles Davenport
2738:Whiteness studies
2464:Color terminology
2456:Scientific racism
2400:978-0-85066-352-5
2062:on 18 August 2018
1986:(27 March 2019).
1895:978-0-520-24064-3
1475:Andrea Orsucci, "
1171:, 2001, pp. 38–41
1143:Scientific racism
1093:Leonard Lieberman
1085:Stephen Jay Gould
825:William Z. Ripley
809:, etc.) and the "
763:scientific racism
745:right of conquest
600:, then in use in
387:Franz Joseph Gall
381:was also used in
283:paleoanthropology
232:had washed up on
222:ancient Egyptians
218:Crania Aegyptiaca
103:Occipital Foramen
67:Paleoanthropology
50:paleoanthropology
16:(Redirected from
3449:
3192:
3139:Lothrop Stoddard
3134:Morris Steggerda
3109:Ilse Schwidetzky
3104:Heinrich Schmidt
3089:Alfred Rosenberg
3049:Isaac La Peyrère
2854:Carleton S. Coon
2829:Charles Caldwell
2784:François Bernier
2667:in Latin America
2440:
2433:
2426:
2417:
2404:
2392:
2378:
2376:
2375:
2369:
2363:. Archived from
2338:
2257:
2243:
2237:
2232:
2226:
2217:Carol Channing,
2215:
2209:
2208:
2202:
2194:
2164:
2158:
2157:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2078:
2072:
2071:
2069:
2067:
2061:
2055:. Archived from
2030:
2021:
2015:
2009:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1980:
1970:
1925:
1919:
1906:
1900:
1885:Marks, Jonathan
1883:
1877:
1876:
1867:(3–4): 401–413.
1856:
1850:
1849:
1829:
1823:
1818:
1807:
1806:
1804:
1803:
1797:
1791:. Archived from
1758:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1663:
1657:
1656:
1646:
1623:Biol. Psychiatry
1614:
1608:
1603:
1597:
1596:
1586:
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1546:
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1464:
1446:
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1407:
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1395:
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1383:
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1312:
1291:
1289:
1288:
1282:
1271:
1270:
1260:
1228:
1222:
1221:
1191:
1185:
1182:Types of Mankind
1178:
1172:
1162:
1089:Richard Lewontin
1019:Carleton S. Coon
927:Nordic mysticism
915:Crania Americana
906:Crania Americana
751:François Bernier
701:human migrations
407:Johann Spurzheim
368:cranial capacity
210:Crania Americana
169:(1772–1844) and
99:, published his
55:social movements
21:
3457:
3456:
3452:
3451:
3450:
3448:
3447:
3446:
3387:
3386:
3385:
3380:
3319:
3257:Castes in India
3178:
3174:Ludwig Woltmann
3129:Herbert Spencer
3019:Lewis H. Morgan
2989:Cesare Lombroso
2864:Jan Czekanowski
2849:Sonia Mary Cole
2789:Renato Biasutti
2747:
2726:Nazism and race
2645:
2622:Proto-Mongoloid
2501:
2458:
2449:
2444:
2401:
2384:
2373:
2371:
2367:
2336:
2328:
2277:Wayback Machine
2266:
2264:Further reading
2261:
2260:
2254:Wayback Machine
2244:
2240:
2233:
2229:
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2195:
2166:
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2118:
2080:
2079:
2075:
2065:
2063:
2059:
2028:
2023:
2022:
2018:
2012:John Relethford
2010:
2006:
1996:
1994:
1982:
1940:
1926:
1922:
1916:Wayback Machine
1907:
1903:
1884:
1880:
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1600:
1567:(6): e1001071.
1554:
1553:
1549:
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1499:
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1467:
1461:Wayback Machine
1447:
1443:
1414:
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1405:
1401:
1396:
1392:
1384:
1380:
1301:, ed. (1911). "
1297:
1286:
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1193:
1192:
1188:
1179:
1175:
1163:
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1151:
1124:
1105:
1059:Southern Africa
975:
947:Aurel von Törok
943:Paul Kretschmer
886:
719:Boulainvilliers
685:
679:
639:Cesare Lombroso
635:
629:
611:and, latterly,
471:
466:
458:weight training
426:Cesare Lombroso
418:William Sheldon
345:
335:
228:indicated that
73:
63:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
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5:
3455:
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3309:
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3227:(Ripley, 1899)
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3166:
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3119:Giuseppe Sergi
3116:
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3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3079:Gustaf Retzius
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3029:Josiah C. Nott
3026:
3021:
3016:
3014:Ashley Montagu
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2994:Bertil Lundman
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2944:Earnest Hooton
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2909:George Gliddon
2906:
2901:
2896:
2894:Francis Galton
2891:
2886:
2884:Anténor Firmin
2881:
2876:
2874:Joseph Deniker
2871:
2866:
2861:
2859:Georges Cuvier
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
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2816:
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2771:
2766:
2761:
2755:
2753:
2749:
2748:
2746:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2734:
2733:
2731:Racial hygiene
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2698:
2693:
2692:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2680:
2679:
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2379:
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2300:
2293:
2286:
2279:
2265:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2238:
2227:
2210:
2159:
2126:Human Genetics
2116:
2083:Human Genetics
2073:
2016:
2004:
1953:(2): 318–327.
1920:
1901:
1878:
1851:
1840:(8): 785–794.
1824:
1808:
1744:
1723:10.1086/203138
1717:(3): 301–330.
1701:
1680:10.1086/203646
1674:(2): 349–354.
1658:
1609:
1598:
1547:
1534:10.1086/203646
1528:(2): 349–354.
1512:
1497:
1482:2012-12-18 at
1465:
1441:
1425:à la française
1408:
1399:
1390:
1378:
1376:
1375:
1369:
1362:
1359:Anthropometria
1355:
1348:
1341:
1331:
1324:
1299:Chisholm, Hugh
1272:
1243:(5): 692–732.
1223:
1186:
1173:
1153:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1123:
1120:
1119:
1118:
1104:
1101:
1011:
1010:
1004:
998:
974:
971:
935:Josef Kollmann
923:Rudolf Virchow
885:
882:
792:Homo europaeus
705:classification
683:Phylogeography
681:Main article:
678:
675:
631:Main article:
628:
625:
598:Francis Galton
503:Francis Galton
487:identification
470:
467:
465:
462:
411:physiognomical
353:Theodor Kocher
334:
331:
291:Charles Darwin
262:, arguing for
246:George Gliddon
242:Josiah C. Nott
148:cephalic index
144:Anders Retzius
62:
59:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3454:
3443:
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3423:
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3418:
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3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3397:Anthropometry
3395:
3394:
3392:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3351:Miscegenation
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3328:
3326:
3322:
3316:
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3206:
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3188:
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3185:
3181:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3154:Paul Topinard
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3094:Benjamin Rush
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3064:Alfred Ploetz
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3044:Oscar Peschel
3042:
3040:
3039:Roger Pearson
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3009:John Mitchell
3007:
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2997:
2995:
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2987:
2985:
2984:Carl Linnaeus
2982:
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2947:
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2934:Ernst Haeckel
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2917:
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2889:Eugen Fischer
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2834:Petrus Camper
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2590:Mediterranean
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2396:
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2390:
2383:
2380:
2370:on 2016-03-05
2366:
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2354:
2350:
2347:(4): 341–56.
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2132:(4): 387–99.
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2100:
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1798:on 2019-02-12
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1629:(8): 847–55.
1628:
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1484:archive.today
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1386:Chisholm 1911
1382:
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1361:(Milan, 1900)
1360:
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1303:Anthropometry
1300:
1295:
1294:public domain
1281:
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1128:Anthropometry
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858:
854:
850:
849:Nazi ideology
846:
843:
838:
836:
832:
831:
826:
822:
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808:
804:
800:
799:
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755:Carl Linnaeus
752:
748:
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710:
706:
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664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
647:born criminal
644:
640:
634:
626:
624:
620:
618:
614:
610:
605:
603:
599:
596:suggested by
595:
594:finger prints
589:
583:
578:
574:
572:
571:
566:
565:
564:middle finger
561:
555:
554:
548:
544:
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523:middle finger
520:
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330:
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323:Ernst Haeckel
320:
316:
312:
311:Eugène Dubois
308:
306:
302:
301:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
267:
265:
261:
260:
255:
252:essential to
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
200:
199:Thomas Huxley
196:
195:
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186:
182:
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176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
157:
156:Ancient Greek
153:
149:
145:
140:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
113:Pieter Camper
110:
106:
104:
98:
94:
90:
82:
79:Selection of
77:
72:
68:
60:
58:
56:
51:
47:
43:
42:
41:anthropometry
33:
19:
3427:Human height
3345:
3331:Ethnogenesis
3312:
3304:
3299:(Coon, 1939)
3296:
3288:
3280:
3272:
3264:
3256:
3248:
3240:
3232:
3224:
3216:
3208:
3200:
3190:
3183:Publications
3034:Karl Pearson
2924:John Grattan
2819:Halfdan Bryn
2684:in Singapore
2651:Sociological
2409:
2388:
2372:. Retrieved
2365:the original
2344:
2340:
2330:Komlos, John
2320:
2241:
2230:
2222:
2218:
2213:
2199:cite journal
2177:(1): 18–29.
2174:
2168:
2162:
2129:
2125:
2119:
2089:(6): 566–9.
2086:
2082:
2076:
2064:. Retrieved
2057:the original
2039:(2): 22–24.
2036:
2032:
2019:
2007:
1995:. Retrieved
1991:
1950:
1946:
1928:
1923:
1904:
1886:
1881:
1864:
1861:Intelligence
1860:
1854:
1837:
1833:
1827:
1800:. Retrieved
1793:the original
1767:(1): 21–36.
1764:
1760:
1747:
1714:
1710:
1704:
1671:
1667:
1661:
1626:
1622:
1612:
1601:
1564:
1560:
1550:
1525:
1521:
1515:
1505:
1500:
1494:(in Italian)
1487:
1449:
1444:
1432:
1424:
1420:
1411:
1402:
1393:
1381:
1371:
1368:(Jena, 1902)
1365:
1358:
1351:
1344:
1337:
1327:
1320:
1306:
1240:
1236:
1226:
1201:
1197:Neurosurgery
1195:
1189:
1181:
1176:
1168:
1115:The Alienist
1113:
1097:
1095:and others.
1070:
1068:
1043:North Africa
1031:Central Asia
1022:
1014:
1012:
988:
955:
951:
914:
905:
903:
887:
878:ethnocentric
853:Nazi Germany
845:antisemitism
839:
828:
810:
798:Homo alpinus
796:
790:
770:
761:Theories of
760:
749:
737:Third Estate
722:
712:
698:
665:; hawk-like
636:
621:
609:fingerprints
606:
590:
587:
581:
568:
557:
550:
542:
538:
534:
526:
514:
510:
508:
480:
415:
402:
398:
394:
390:
377:
358:
319:Homo erectus
309:
298:
287:T. H. Huxley
268:
257:
234:Mount Ararat
225:
217:
213:
209:
204:
192:
189:Pithecometra
188:
179:Homo sapiens
178:
175:Homo erectus
174:
162:
161:"head", and
158:
141:
121:intelligence
117:facial angle
108:
100:
86:
46:anthropology
38:
36:
18:Bertillonage
3412:Criminology
3371:Pre-Adamite
3361:Multiracial
2964:Robert Knox
2774:John Beddoe
2721:Master race
2677:in Colombia
2565:East Baltic
2066:12 November
1427:"), Paris,
1374:(1893–1894)
1350:Bertillon,
741:Gallo-Roman
733:aristocracy
633:Physiognomy
627:Physiognomy
617:correlation
535:head length
492:recidivists
450:mesomorphic
446:ectomorphic
442:endomorphic
434:criminality
422:somatotypes
379:Craniometry
343:physiognomy
271:Neanderthal
39:history of
3391:Categories
3366:Polygenism
3356:Monogenism
3074:Otto Reche
2979:Fritz Lenz
2809:Paul Broca
2799:Franz Boas
2769:Erwin Baur
2764:John Baker
2658:By region
2515:Australoid
2374:2015-09-29
1981:See also:
1897:pp. 76-77
1802:2013-05-25
1343:Lombroso,
1149:References
1112:'s novel
1110:Caleb Carr
1081:Franz Boas
1035:South Asia
958:East Asian
911:Paul Broca
873:Franz Boas
817:Napolitano
695:conference
669:or fleshy
659:cheekbones
539:head width
454:somatotype
438:body types
383:phrenology
339:Phrenology
264:monogenism
238:polygenism
230:Noah's Ark
171:Paul Broca
2743:NĂ©gritude
2672:in Brazil
2617:Mongoloid
2525:Caucasoid
2053:143942539
1696:144528631
1561:PLOS Biol
1542:144528631
1452:webpage:
1437:Gallimard
1326:Roberts,
1039:West Asia
1013:Ripley's
1007:Mongoloid
995:Caucasoid
931:Karlsruhe
803:Auvergnat
735:, to the
393:"skull",
226:The Bible
3336:Eugenics
2716:Colorism
2662:in India
2570:Ethiopid
2550:Atlantid
2540:Armenoid
2361:20440956
2332:(2010).
2273:Archived
2250:Archived
2193:Figure 1
2191:11150049
2146:12579416
2111:30319228
2103:12436248
1977:27874171
1912:Archived
1789:17269481
1781:24214801
1739:86147507
1653:17544382
1593:21666803
1510:, (1981)
1480:Archived
1457:Archived
1317:Lombroso
1267:19283594
1218:19404160
1122:See also
1047:Ethiopia
962:European
939:taxonomy
865:eugenics
779:humanity
724:Français
693:eugenics
613:genetics
519:shoulder
401:: mind,
315:Java Man
212:(1839),
163:dolikhos
137:forehead
95:for the
87:In 1716
3324:Related
2752:Writers
2696:Passing
2639:Negrito
2634:Negroid
2605:Turanid
2600:Semites
2575:Hamites
2560:Dinaric
2555:Caspian
2313:, 2005.
2306:, 2003.
2299:, 2000.
2292:, 1989.
2285:, 1998.
2154:7877572
1997:19 June
1968:5299519
1731:2742800
1688:2743412
1644:2711771
1584:3110184
1492:, 1998
1489:Cromohs
1364:FĂĽrst,
1296::
1258:2668913
1051:Somalia
1001:Negroid
966:African
919:autopsy
821:Andalus
807:Turkish
515:stretch
399:phrenos
391:kranion
159:kephalĂŞ
133:jawbone
127:to the
125:nostril
81:Primate
3315:(1950)
3307:(1943)
3291:(1936)
3283:(1930)
3275:(1920)
3267:(1916)
3259:(1916)
3251:(1911)
3243:(1907)
3235:(1899)
3219:(1855)
3211:(1849)
3203:(1785)
3195:(1744)
2706:Racism
2595:Nordic
2585:Iranid
2535:Arabid
2530:Alpine
2520:Capoid
2477:Bronze
2397:
2359:
2189:
2152:
2144:
2109:
2101:
2051:
1975:
1965:
1893:
1787:
1779:
1737:
1729:
1694:
1686:
1651:
1641:
1591:
1581:
1540:
1357:Livi,
1354:(1893)
1347:(1890)
1330:(1878)
1323:(1872)
1290:
1265:
1255:
1216:
1184:(1854)
1049:, and
1027:Europe
857:Aryans
835:Europe
773:("The
729:Franks
602:Bengal
567:, and
556:, the
551:right
547:cheeks
511:height
395:scopos
83:skulls
2612:Malay
2580:Indid
2545:Aryan
2497:White
2487:Olive
2482:Brown
2472:Black
2368:(PDF)
2337:(PDF)
2256:(pdf)
2150:S2CID
2107:S2CID
2060:(PDF)
2049:S2CID
2029:(PDF)
1796:(PDF)
1785:S2CID
1757:(PDF)
1735:S2CID
1727:JSTOR
1692:S2CID
1684:JSTOR
1538:S2CID
1334:Ferri
859:from
787:Aryan
783:races
775:Aryan
667:noses
570:cubit
558:left
543:width
531:torso
403:logos
372:brain
2395:ISBN
2357:PMID
2205:link
2187:PMID
2142:PMID
2099:PMID
2068:2016
1999:2020
1973:PMID
1891:ISBN
1777:PMID
1649:PMID
1589:PMID
1415:See
1263:PMID
1214:PMID
983:Nias
861:Jews
847:and
842:Nazi
671:lips
663:ears
655:jaws
560:foot
527:bust
448:and
341:and
244:and
216:and
69:and
37:The
2492:Red
2349:doi
2179:doi
2175:114
2134:doi
2130:112
2091:doi
2087:111
2041:doi
1963:PMC
1955:doi
1951:162
1933:doi
1869:doi
1842:doi
1769:doi
1719:doi
1676:doi
1639:PMC
1631:doi
1579:PMC
1569:doi
1530:doi
1305:".
1253:PMC
1245:doi
1241:119
1206:doi
1069:In
904:In
871:of
815:" (
801:" (
711:'s
553:ear
545:of
521:to
428:'s
293:'s
150:in
129:ear
3393::
2355:.
2345:67
2343:.
2339:.
2319:.
2201:}}
2197:{{
2185:.
2173:.
2148:.
2140:.
2128:.
2105:.
2097:.
2085:.
2047:.
2035:.
2031:.
1990:.
1971:.
1961:.
1949:.
1945:.
1865:16
1863:.
1838:11
1836:.
1811:^
1783:.
1775:.
1763:.
1759:.
1733:.
1725:.
1715:25
1713:.
1690:.
1682:.
1672:29
1670:.
1647:.
1637:.
1627:62
1625:.
1621:.
1587:.
1577:.
1563:.
1559:.
1536:.
1526:29
1524:.
1486:,
1468:^
1419:,
1336:,
1319:,
1275:^
1261:.
1251:.
1239:.
1235:.
1212:.
1202:64
1200:.
1167:,
1157:^
1091:,
1087:,
1083:,
1041:,
1037:,
1033:,
1029:,
964:→
960:→
941:.
933:.
851:.
819:,
805:,
753:,
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