866:
1695:, where he applied the principles of quantum mechanics to matter particles, supposing that they can be created and annihilated, just as the light quanta in atomic transitions. Thus, according to Fermi, neutrinos are created in the beta-decay process, rather than contained in the nucleus; the same happens to electrons. The neutrino interaction with matter was so weak that detecting it proved a severe experimental challenge. Further indirect evidence of the existence of the neutrino was obtained by observing the recoil of nuclei that emitted such a particle after absorbing an electron. Neutrinos were finally detected directly in 1956 by the American physicists
7546:, in which the square root of the number of beta particles whose momenta (or energy) lie within a certain narrow range, divided by the Fermi function, is plotted against beta-particle energy. It is a straight line for allowed transitions and some forbidden transitions, in accord with the Fermi beta-decay theory. The energy-axis (x-axis) intercept of a Kurie plot corresponds to the maximum energy imparted to the electron/positron (the decay's
3050:
2568:
2894:(and therefore a lower total energy) than the mother nucleus. The difference between these energies goes into the reaction of converting a proton into a neutron, a positron, and a neutrino and into the kinetic energy of these particles. This process is opposite to negative beta decay, in that the weak interaction converts a proton into a neutron by converting an up quark into a down quark resulting in the emission of a
1970:
879:
6781:
3345:
31:
94:
3907:(29 protons, 35 neutrons), which illustrates three types of beta decay in competition. Copper-64 has a half-life of about 12.7 hours. This isotope has one unpaired proton and one unpaired neutron, so either the proton or the neutron can decay. This particular nuclide (though not all nuclides in this situation) is almost equally likely to decay through proton decay by
4615:
7601:) of the emitted radiation. Since total angular momentum must be conserved, including orbital and spin angular momentum, beta decay occurs by a variety of quantum state transitions to various nuclear angular momentum or spin states, known as "Fermi" or "Gamow–Teller" transitions. When beta decay particles carry no angular momentum (
1624:. If beta decay were simply electron emission as assumed at the time, then the energy of the emitted electron should have a particular, well-defined value. For beta decay, however, the observed broad distribution of energies suggested that energy is lost in the beta decay process. This spectrum was puzzling for many years.
1434:
5558:
8415:
process is effectively impossible to observe. However, in nuclei where β decay is forbidden but ββ decay is allowed, the process can be seen and a half-life measured. Thus, ββ decay is usually studied only for beta stable nuclei. Like single beta decay, double beta decay does not change
1686:
attempted to resolve the beta-particle energy conundrum by suggesting that, in addition to electrons and protons, atomic nuclei also contained an extremely light neutral particle, which he called the neutron. He suggested that this "neutron" was also emitted during beta decay (thus accounting for the
1441:
The beta spectrum, or distribution of energy values for the beta particles, is continuous. The total energy of the decay process is divided between the electron, the antineutrino, and the recoiling nuclide. In the figure to the right, an example of an electron with 0.40 MeV energy from the beta decay
8304:
A very small minority of free neutron decays (about four per million) are so-called "two-body decays", in which the proton, electron and antineutrino are produced, but the electron fails to gain the 13.6 eV energy necessary to escape the proton, and therefore simply remains bound to it, as a neutral
8202:
corresponds to no parity change or parity change, respectively. The special case of a transition between isobaric analogue states, where the structure of the final state is very similar to the structure of the initial state, is referred to as "superallowed" for beta decay, and proceeds very quickly.
3885:
Usually unstable nuclides are clearly either "neutron rich" or "proton rich", with the former undergoing beta decay and the latter undergoing electron capture (or more rarely, due to the higher energy requirements, positron decay). However, in a few cases of odd-proton, odd-neutron radionuclides, it
8316:
For fully ionized atoms (bare nuclei), it is possible in likewise manner for electrons to fail to escape the atom, and to be emitted from the nucleus into low-lying atomic bound states (orbitals). This cannot occur for neutral atoms with low-lying bound states which are already filled by electrons.
6355:
The analogous calculation for electron capture must take into account the binding energy of the electrons. This is because the atom will be left in an excited state after capturing the electron, and the binding energy of the captured innermost electron is significant. Using the generic equation for
4705:
is therefore also the sum of the kinetic energies of the emitted beta particle, neutrino, and recoiling nucleus. (Because of the large mass of the nucleus compared to that of the beta particle and neutrino, the kinetic energy of the recoiling nucleus can generally be neglected.) Beta particles can
3348:
Graph of isotopes by type of nuclear decay. Orange and blue nuclides are unstable, with the black squares between these regions representing stable nuclides. The unbroken line passing below many of the nuclides represents the theoretical position on the graph of nuclides for which proton number is
1078:
particles). These particles have lepton number +1, while their antiparticles have lepton number −1. Since a proton or neutron has lepton number zero, β decay (a positron, or antielectron) must be accompanied with an electron neutrino, while β decay (an electron) must be accompanied by an electron
8414:
Some nuclei can undergo double beta decay (ββ decay) where the charge of the nucleus changes by two units. Double beta decay is difficult to study, as the process has an extremely long half-life. In nuclei for which both β decay and ββ decay are possible, the rarer ββ decay
1674:
might be violated in any given decay. However, the upper bound in beta energies determined by Ellis and Mott ruled out that notion. Now, the problem of how to account for the variability of energy in known beta decay products, as well as for conservation of momentum and angular momentum in the
7059:
The Fermi function that appears in the beta spectrum formula accounts for the
Coulomb attraction / repulsion between the emitted beta and the final state nucleus. Approximating the associated wavefunctions to be spherically symmetric, the Fermi function can be analytically calculated to be:
1491:
separated radioactive emissions into two types: alpha and beta (now beta minus), based on penetration of objects and ability to cause ionization. Alpha rays could be stopped by thin sheets of paper or aluminium, whereas beta rays could penetrate several millimetres of aluminium. In 1900,
4487:
4340:
7237:
5391:
1034:
is sometimes included as a type of beta decay, because the basic nuclear process, mediated by the weak force, is the same. In electron capture, an inner atomic electron is captured by a proton in the nucleus, transforming it into a neutron, and an
1956:
at cold temperatures that proved that parity is not conserved in beta decay. This surprising result overturned long-held assumptions about parity and the weak force. In recognition of their theoretical work, Lee and Yang were awarded the
8007:
7570:). Conversely, positrons have mostly positive helicity, i.e., they move like right-handed screws. Neutrinos (emitted in positron decay) have negative helicity, while antineutrinos (emitted in electron decay) have positive helicity.
1927:
was conserved in weak interactions, and so they postulated that this symmetry may not be preserved by the weak force. They sketched the design for an experiment for testing conservation of parity in the laboratory. Later that year,
5694:
5373:
is the mass of the electron antineutrino. In other words, the total energy released is the mass energy of the initial nucleus, minus the mass energy of the final nucleus, electron, and antineutrino. The mass of the nucleus
1651:. Beta decay leaves the mass number unchanged, so the change of nuclear spin must be an integer. However, the electron spin is 1/2, hence angular momentum would not be conserved if beta decay were simply electron emission.
4259:
7752:
5624:
5282:
7522:
4421:
9225:
Ivanov, A. N.; Höllwieser, R.; Troitskaya, N. I.; Wellenzohn, M.; Berdnikov, Ya. A. (2018-11-30). "Gauge properties of hadronic structure of nucleon in neutron radiative beta decay to order O(α/π) in standard
1027:
leading to creation of an electron/antineutrino or positron/neutrino pair. For example, a neutron, composed of two down quarks and an up quark, decays to a proton composed of a down quark and two up quarks.
8387:
Another possibility is that a fully ionized atom undergoes greatly accelerated β decay, as observed for Re by Bosch et al., also at
Darmstadt. Neutral Re does undergo β decay with a half-life of
3886:
may be energetically favorable for the radionuclide to decay to an even-proton, even-neutron isobar either by undergoing beta-positive or beta-negative decay. An often-cited example is the single isotope
977:. Neither the beta particle nor its associated (anti-)neutrino exist within the nucleus prior to beta decay, but are created in the decay process. By this process, unstable atoms obtain a more stable
8192:
7065:
4610:{\displaystyle {\begin{matrix}&{\text{n}}&\rightarrow &{\text{p}}&+&{\text{e}}^{-}&+&{\bar {\nu }}_{\text{e}}\\L:&0&=&0&+&1&-&1\end{matrix}}}
9692:; Richardson, J. R.; Paxton, H. C. (1936). "The Radiations Emitted from Artificially Produced Radioactive Substances. I. The Upper Limits and Shapes of the β-Ray Spectra from Several Elements".
4480:
4118:
1592:, since the particle carries the energy from the difference between the initial and final nuclear states. However, the kinetic energy distribution, or spectrum, of beta particles measured by
6772:
Because the binding energy of the electron is much less than the mass of the electron, nuclei that can undergo β decay can always also undergo electron capture, but the reverse is not true.
9164:
Ivanov, A. N.; Höllwieser, R.; Troitskaya, N. I.; Wellenzohn, M.; Berdnikov, Ya. A. (2017-06-26). "Precision theoretical analysis of neutron radiative beta decay to order O ( α 2 / π 2 )".
7315:
7034:
6915:
7377:
7678:
between the initial and final states of the nucleus (assuming an allowed transition). In the non-relativistic limit, the nuclear part of the operator for a Fermi transition is given by
5371:
8396: years, but for fully ionized Re this is shortened to only 32.9 years. For comparison, the variation of decay rates of other nuclear processes due to chemical environment is
8729:
7914:
6760:
7418:
4182:
7909:
6619:
6294:
6150:
4254:
7806:
5825:
5223:
7676:
5553:{\displaystyle m\left({\ce {^{\mathit {A}}_{\mathit {Z}}X}}\right)c^{2}=m_{N}\left({\ce {^{\mathit {A}}_{\mathit {Z}}X}}\right)c^{2}+Zm_{e}c^{2}-\sum _{i=1}^{Z}B_{i}.}
3329:, which has the highest probability to interact with the nucleus, the process is called K-capture. If it comes from the L-shell, the process is called L-capture, etc.
1551:
8054:
8034:
7779:
5330:
4148:
7871:
7647:
4681:
4655:
3332:
Electron capture is a competing (simultaneous) decay process for all nuclei that can undergo β decay. The converse, however, is not true: electron capture is the
2653: decay, or positron emission, the weak interaction converts an atomic nucleus into a nucleus with atomic number decreased by one, while emitting a positron (
1620:
to make more accurate measurements which showed that the spectrum was continuous. The distribution of beta particle energies was in apparent contradiction to the
9121:
7833:
1446:. An electron at the far right of the curve would have the maximum possible kinetic energy, leaving the energy of the neutrino to be only its small rest mass.
7681:
7444:
4357:
10219:
8329:
1604:
in 1913 showed multiple lines on a diffuse background. These measurements offered the first hint that beta particles have a continuous spectrum. In 1914,
824:
1059:; while in beta plus (β) decay, a proton is converted to a neutron and the process creates a positron and an electron neutrino. β decay is also known as
910:
8343:
is a stable isotope, the fully ionized Dy undergoes β decay into the K and L shells with a half-life of 47 days. The resulting nucleus –
3292:
All emitted neutrinos are of the same energy. In proton-rich nuclei where the energy difference between the initial and final states is less than 2
6800:
5700:-value equation, while neglecting the nearly-zero antineutrino mass and the difference in electron binding energies, which is very small for high-
7911:
between the initial and final states of the nucleus (assuming an allowed transition). In this case, the nuclear part of the operator is given by
5629:
3349:
the same as neutron number. The graph shows that elements with more than 20 protons must have more neutrons than protons, in order to be stable.
8110:
865:
9484:
9369:
9338:
9306:
8883:
8711:
8670:
8643:
8614:
8542:
8524:
55:(the accompanying antineutrino is omitted). The inset shows beta decay of a free neutron. Neither of these depictions shows the intermediate
5574:
5232:
1704:
9880:
9599:
Venkataramaiah, P.; Gopala, K.; Basavaraju, A.; Suryanarayana, S. S.; Sanjeeviah, H. (1985). "A simple relation for the Fermi function".
4432:
173:
4061:
9361:
8790:
Cowan, C. L. Jr.; Reines, F.; Harrison, F. B.; Kruse, H. W.; McGuire, A. D. (1956). "Detection of the Free
Neutrino: a Confirmation".
4921:
6823:
4335:{\displaystyle I_{\text{z}}={\begin{cases}{\frac {1}{2}}&{\text{up quark}}\\-{\frac {1}{2}}&{\text{down quark}}\end{cases}}}
10179:
1535:
for a beta particle is the same as for
Thomson's electron, and therefore suggested that the beta particle is in fact an electron.
1496:
identified a still more penetrating type of radiation, which
Rutherford identified as a fundamentally new type in 1903 and termed
9864:
3111:
allowed. This is a process during which a nucleus captures one of its atomic electrons, resulting in the emission of a neutrino:
1628:
477:
10212:
669:
10156:
8431:
1546:
of atoms into atoms of other chemical elements. In 1913, after the products of more radioactive decays were known, Soddy and
374:
1430:β decay also results in nuclear transmutation, with the resulting element having an atomic number that is decreased by one.
10016:
Bosch, F.; et al. (1996). "Observation of bound-state beta minus decay of fully ionized Re: Re–Os
Cosmochronometry".
9439:
9410:
8483:
3336:
type of decay that is allowed in proton-rich nuclides that do not have sufficient energy to emit a positron and neutrino.
1621:
903:
7847:
is a beta decay in which the spins of the emitted electron (positron) and anti-neutrino (neutrino) couple to total spin
7623:
is a beta decay in which the spins of the emitted electron (positron) and anti-neutrino (neutrino) couple to total spin
6624:
1884:
is a short-lived nuclide which does not exist in nature. In recognition of their discovery, the couple were awarded the
1658:(along with Chadwick and colleagues) further established that the beta decay spectrum is continuous. In 1933, Ellis and
4730:
10160:
10138:
8871:
687:
657:
158:
10066:
9646:
7566:, i.e., they move, naively speaking, like left-handed screws driven into a material (they have negative longitudinal
1733:
734:
7267:
6966:
10205:
8602:
1442:
of Bi is shown. In this example, the total decay energy is 1.16 MeV, so the antineutrino has the remaining energy:
1020:
284:
7320:
6449:
6155:
5980:
1691:
renamed Pauli's "neutron" the "neutrino" ('little neutral one' in
Italian). In 1933, Fermi published his landmark
9973:
Smoliar, M.I.; Walker, R.J.; Morgan, J.W. (1996). "Re-Os ages of group IIA, IIIA, IVA, and IVB iron meteorites".
9529:
7588:
7041:
5707:
4695:
3874:
994:
620:
5560:
That is, the total atomic mass is the mass of the nucleus, plus the mass of the electrons, minus the sum of all
978:
319:
10482:
7232:{\displaystyle F(Z,T)={\frac {2(1+S)}{\Gamma (1+2S)^{2}}}(2p\rho )^{2S-2}e^{\pi \eta }|\Gamma (S+i\eta )|^{2},}
5335:
1885:
1862:
1648:
896:
883:
615:
10336:
8426:"Ordinary" double beta decay results in the emission of two electrons and two antineutrinos. If neutrinos are
4624:
For allowed decays, the net orbital angular momentum is zero, hence only spin quantum numbers are considered.
8899:
10371:
10316:
10271:
10018:
9930:
9385:
7254:
4734:
1958:
1640:
610:
507:
472:
168:
3756:
there is one that is most stable. It is said to be beta stable, because it presents a local minimum of the
664:
10487:
10366:
10356:
8434:
will occur. Most neutrino physicists believe that neutrinoless double beta decay has never been observed.
8325:
6804:
2891:
1692:
1667:
1655:
1589:
1055:. In beta minus (β) decay, a neutron is converted to a proton, and the process creates an electron and an
982:
314:
279:
9644:
Schenter, G. K.; Vogel, P. (1983). "A simple approximation of the fermi function in nuclear beta decay".
1687:
known missing energy, momentum, and angular momentum), but it had simply not yet been observed. In 1931,
7582:
7382:
6930:
is a shape function that depends on the forbiddenness of the decay (it is constant for allowed decays),
3460:
3364:
2008:
1543:
1180:
1056:
789:
674:
566:
8727:
Chadwick, J. (1914). "Intensitätsverteilung im magnetischen
Spektren der β-Strahlen von Radium B + C".
4155:
1737:
729:
7876:
10361:
10351:
10085:
10027:
9982:
9939:
9833:
9788:
9743:
9703:
9655:
9610:
9601:
9538:
9298:
9249:
9183:
9143:
9092:
9049:
9008:
8971:
8934:
8903:
8801:
8764:
8703:
8697:
8635:
8561:
8472:
8468:
8443:
8076:
2384:
1707:. The properties of neutrinos were (with a few minor modifications) as predicted by Pauli and Fermi.
1508:
799:
774:
591:
8835:
4281:
10415:
10306:
10286:
10281:
8373:
8345:
7563:
3978:
3973:
Most naturally occurring nuclides on earth are beta stable. Nuclides that are not beta stable have
1904:
1836:
986:
694:
573:
467:
410:
403:
393:
334:
329:
163:
9859:
Konopinski, E. J.; Rose, M. E. (1966). "The Theory of nuclear Beta Decay". In
Siegbhan, K. (ed.).
9139:
7784:
4226:
981:. The probability of a nuclide decaying due to beta and other forms of decay is determined by its
10130:
10109:
10075:
9998:
9804:
9778:
9626:
9554:
9273:
9239:
9207:
9173:
8577:
8551:
8478:
8458:
5051:
4484:
so all leptons have assigned a value of +1, antileptons −1, and non-leptonic particles 0.
1179:
In this form of decay, the original element becomes a new chemical element in a process known as
637:
632:
447:
9877:
9501:
7652:
4741:. In the case of Re, the maximum speed of the beta particle is only 9.8% of the speed of light.
9899:"Sur la possibilité d'existence d'un type particulier de radioactivité phénomène de création e"
8875:
8863:
8606:
8596:
10296:
10266:
10236:
10043:
9955:
9729:
9689:
9671:
9581:
9480:
9365:
9355:
9334:
9302:
9292:
9265:
9199:
8879:
8817:
8792:
8707:
8666:
8639:
8610:
8520:
8427:
8409:
8397:
7567:
7543:
3908:
3684:
3577:
3354:
3078:
2953:
2672:
2608:
2562:
2409:
1858:
1679:
1488:
1060:
1036:
973:
932:
829:
809:
804:
764:
642:
381:
369:
352:
324:
294:
135:
8324:, Jean, and Lecoin in 1947, and the phenomenon in fully ionized atoms was first observed for
8039:
989:. For either electron or positron emission to be energetically possible, the energy release (
10326:
10291:
10276:
10228:
10193:
10101:
10093:
10035:
9990:
9947:
9910:
9841:
9796:
9751:
9711:
9663:
9618:
9546:
9257:
9191:
9100:
9057:
9016:
8979:
8942:
8809:
8772:
8660:
8569:
8357:
8096:
8002:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}_{GT}=G_{A}\sum _{a}{\hat {\sigma }}_{a}{\hat {\tau }}_{a\pm }}
7550: value). With a Kurie plot one can find the limit on the effective mass of a neutrino.
7051:
As an example, the beta decay spectrum of Bi (originally called RaE) is shown to the right.
4197:
3916:
3746:
3108:
3082:
3058:
3044:
2055:
1924:
1892:
1700:
1547:
1031:
1004:
952:
819:
749:
502:
420:
388:
208:
140:
56:
9822:
Frauenfelder, H.; et al. (1957). "Parity and the
Polarization of Electrons fromCo60".
8012:
7757:
4126:
1588:. In both alpha and gamma decay, the resulting alpha or gamma particle has a narrow energy
967:; or, conversely a proton is converted into a neutron by the emission of a positron with a
10436:
10331:
10301:
9884:
9824:
9734:
9694:
9577:
9083:
9040:
8999:
8962:
8925:
7812:
5308:
3730:
3054:
2572:
2388:
1974:
1929:
1896:
1671:
1539:
1460:
924:
814:
794:
769:
699:
586:
514:
460:
425:
85:
9898:
9800:
8573:
7850:
7626:
7611:
Other decay modes, which are rare, are known as bound state decay and double beta decay.
4660:
4634:
3816:, there are up to three different beta-stable isobars experimentally known; for example,
10089:
10031:
9986:
9943:
9914:
9837:
9792:
9747:
9707:
9659:
9614:
9542:
9253:
9187:
9096:
9053:
9012:
8975:
8938:
8805:
8768:
8565:
3322: decay is not energetically possible, and electron capture is the sole decay mode.
2237:
of the decaying nucleus, and X and X′ are the initial and final elements, respectively.
1907:, in the nuclide V. Alvarez went on to study electron capture in Ga and other nuclides.
1662:
obtained strong evidence that the beta spectrum has an effective upper bound in energy.
1572:) emission from one element produces another element one place to the right in the
985:. The binding energies of all existing nuclides form what is called the nuclear band or
10457:
10441:
8321:
8080:
8057:
7818:
7595:
7246:
4738:
4707:
3360:
3326:
3070:
2567:
2059:
1920:
1683:
1617:
1605:
1573:
1501:
1437:
A beta spectrum, showing a typical division of energy between electron and antineutrino
1197:
that is increased by one. As in all nuclear decays, the decaying element (in this case
1075:
936:
870:
724:
719:
598:
531:
339:
274:
251:
238:
225:
125:
103:
52:
4686:
For forbidden decays, orbital angular momentum must also be taken into consideration.
2868: decay cannot occur in an isolated proton because it requires energy, due to the
1584:
The study of beta decay provided the first physical evidence for the existence of the
10476:
10346:
10261:
9808:
9630:
9622:
9558:
9277:
9230:
effective theory with QED and linear sigma model of strong low-energy interactions".
9211:
8755:
8581:
8306:
2234:
2063:
1933:
1916:
1900:
1191:
1067:
940:
849:
844:
839:
834:
784:
442:
415:
259:
198:
151:
130:
10113:
10002:
6780:
10420:
9506:
8463:
8453:
8310:
8088:
7554:
Helicity (polarization) of neutrinos, electrons and positrons emitted in beta decay
7044:
of the decay. The kinetic energy of the emitted neutrino is given approximately by
6152:
However, in this equation, the electron masses do not cancel, and we are left with
4759:
3983:
3981:. One common example of a long-lived isotope is the odd-proton odd-neutron nuclide
2241:
1969:
1688:
1632:
1609:
1593:
1522:
1493:
1472:
1340:
1070:, or the number of electrons and their associated neutrinos (other leptons are the
964:
779:
754:
739:
484:
432:
289:
9994:
2890: decay can only happen inside nuclei when the daughter nucleus has a greater
1007:, which is characterized by relatively long decay times. Nucleons are composed of
9474:
8960:
Alvarez, L. W. (1938). "Electron Capture and Internal Conversion in Gallium 67".
8813:
4701:
is defined as the total energy released in a given nuclear decay. In beta decay,
3107: decay (positron emission) of a nucleus is allowed energetically, so too is
2804:
This may be considered as the decay of a proton inside the nucleus to a neutron:
1647:
and half-integral for nuclei of odd mass number. This was later explained by the
10246:
10039:
9951:
7562:), it was found that, in beta decay, electrons are emitted mostly with negative
5827:
This energy is carried away as kinetic energy by the electron and antineutrino.
5382:
4212:
doesn't change. It is only the baryon flavor that changes, here labelled as the
3757:
3376:
3344:
2230:
1696:
1659:
1644:
1636:
1613:
1601:
1468:
1184:
1087:
744:
437:
359:
212:
9447:
9418:
9195:
3049:
30:
10397:
10097:
9887:
J. Byrne in Quark-Mixing, CKM Unitarity (H. Abele and D. Mund, 2002), see p.XV
9769:
Rodejohann, W. (2012). "Neutrinoless double beta decay and neutrino physics".
9388:. National Nuclear Data Center, Brookhaven National Laboratory. Archived from
9261:
3977:
ranging from under a second to periods of time significantly greater than the
3408:
3206:
3202:
3074:
2129: decay generally occurs in neutron-rich nuclei. The generic equation is:
1663:
1012:
714:
704:
561:
541:
234:
93:
9269:
9203:
9105:
9078:
2714: decay generally occurs in proton-rich nuclei. The generic equation is:
17:
10392:
10384:
10376:
10341:
10256:
10147:
9845:
9755:
9330:
9077:
Wu, C.-S.; Ambler, E.; Hayward, R. W.; Hoppes, D. D.; Hudson, R. P. (1957).
9062:
9035:
8540:
Bijker, R.; Santopinto, E. (2015). "Valence and sea quarks in the nucleon".
6807:
can be applied. This leads to an expression for the kinetic energy spectrum
5689:{\displaystyle m_{N}\left({\ce {^{\mathit {A}}_{{\mathit {Z}}+1}X'}}\right)}
4840:
3974:
3888:
3606:
3491:
1937:
1597:
1497:
1344:
1091:
1083:
759:
709:
536:
524:
519:
398:
10047:
9959:
9715:
9020:
8983:
8946:
8821:
2391:
on the right), this is caused by the conversion of the negatively charged (
10178:
9928:
Jung, M.; et al. (1992). "First observation of bound-state β decay".
9667:
8516:
8448:
4628:
3632:
3550:
3434:
3325:
If the captured electron comes from the innermost shell of the atom, the
3066:
3062:
2949:
2604:
2472:
boson subsequently decays into an electron and an electron antineutrino:
2087:
2068:
2004:
1585:
1480:
1251:
1008:
968:
948:
944:
10105:
1835:
emits a positron identical to those found in cosmic rays (discovered by
1740:
bombarded aluminium with alpha particles to effect the nuclear reaction
9550:
7809:
7747:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}_{F}=G_{V}\sum _{a}{\hat {\tau }}_{a\pm }}
7608:), the decay is referred to as "allowed", otherwise it is "forbidden".
7573:
The higher the energy of the particles, the higher their polarization.
5619:{\displaystyle m_{N}\left({\ce {^{\mathit {A}}_{\mathit {Z}}X}}\right)}
5277:{\displaystyle m_{N}\left({\ce {^{\mathit {A}}_{\mathit {Z}}X}}\right)}
4775:
4733:
of the electron is 511 keV, the most energetic beta particles are
4213:
4205:
4189:
3738:
3726:
3657:
3523:
2612:
2600:
2434:
2012:
1996:
1476:
1464:
1247:
1024:
956:
221:
194:
186:
118:
108:
60:
9675:
9122:"Channeling Ada Lovelace: Chien-Shiung Wu, Courageous Hero of Physics"
8776:
7517:{\displaystyle F(Z,T)\approx {\frac {2\pi \eta }{1-e^{-2\pi \eta }}}.}
4416:{\displaystyle I_{\text{z}}={\frac {1}{2}}(n_{\text{u}}-n_{\text{d}})}
1961:
in 1957. However Wu, who was female, was not awarded the Nobel prize.
8997:
Alvarez, L. W. (1938). "The Capture of Orbital Electrons by Nuclei".
4810:
4220:
4209:
4201:
4193:
2596:
2000:
1484:
960:
113:
10197:
10183:
8632:
Fundamentals in Nuclear Physics: From Nuclear Structure to Cosmology
1525:
used to study cathode rays and identify the electron. He found that
9244:
9178:
8423:
has to be stable with regard to both single and double beta decay.
1576:, while alpha emission produces an element two places to the left.
10080:
9783:
9527:
Fermi, E. (1934). "Versuch einer Theorie der β-Strahlen. I".
8556:
6779:
3343:
2566:
1968:
1643:) and more generally that the spin is integral for nuclei of even
1432:
1016:
9389:
7587:
Beta decays can be classified according to the angular momentum (
6302: value is positive, β decay can occur when the mass of atom
5887:
The equations for β decay are similar, with the generic equation
5834: value is positive, β decay can occur when the mass of atom
9585:
8430:(i.e., they are their own antiparticles), then a decay known as
3081:. Two diagrams comprise the leading (second) order, though as a
2869:
1071:
10201:
8356:– is stable only in the fully ionized state and will decay via
6707:
6692:
6660:
6655:
6559:
6544:
6492:
6487:
6238:
6223:
6191:
6186:
6077:
6062:
6023:
6018:
5788:
5775:
5743:
5738:
5696:
is found similarly. Substituting these nuclear masses into the
5672:
5659:
5606:
5601:
5467:
5462:
5416:
5411:
5264:
5259:
5146:
5133:
5094:
5089:
1433:
4723:
4719:
1903:
and others. K-electron capture was first observed in 1937 by
8309:. In this type of beta decay, in essence all of the neutron
7921:
7688:
3812:, there is only one known beta-stable isobar. For even
3201:
An example of electron capture is one of the decay modes of
3085:, the type (and charge) of the W-boson is indistinguishable.
1500:. Alpha, beta, and gamma are the first three letters of the
4328:
1666:
had suggested that the beta spectrum could be explained if
2872:
of the neutron being greater than the mass of the proton.
1339:
An example of positron emission (β decay) is the decay of
1082:
An example of electron emission (β decay) is the decay of
10064:
Bilenky, S. M. (2010). "Neutrinoless double beta-decay".
8060:, which can produce a spin-flip in the decaying nucleon.
9079:"Experimental Test of Parity Conservation in Beta Decay"
8187:{\displaystyle \Delta J=L-1,L,L+1;\Delta \pi =(-1)^{L},}
9897:
Daudel, Raymond; Jean, Maurice; Lecoin, Marcel (1947).
9446:. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Archived from
9417:. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Archived from
8730:
Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft
8699:
Controversy and Consensus: Nuclear Beta Decay 1911-1934
4631:, spin-1/2 objects, therefore they may couple to total
3942:, as it is through neutron decay by electron emission (
9036:"Question of Parity Conservation in Weak Interactions"
8868:
Discovering Alvarez: Selected Works of Luis W. Alvarez
7835:
running over all protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
7542:) is a graph used in studying beta decay developed by
4492:
4229:
1542:
showed that alpha and beta radioactivity involves the
8923:
Alvarez, L. W. (1937). "Nuclear K Electron Capture".
8419:; thus, at least one of the nuclides with some given
8113:
8042:
8015:
7917:
7879:
7853:
7821:
7787:
7760:
7684:
7655:
7629:
7526:
Other approximations can be found in the literature.
7447:
7385:
7323:
7270:
7068:
6969:
6826:
6627:
6452:
6158:
5983:
5710:
5632:
5577:
5394:
5338:
5311:
5235:
5054:
4663:
4637:
4490:
4435:
4360:
4262:
4158:
4129:
4064:
3752:
may turn into each other via beta decay. For a given
7558:
After the discovery of parity non-conservation (see
10450:
10429:
10406:
10315:
10235:
1066:Beta decay conserves a quantum number known as the
9771:Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics
8186:
8048:
8028:
8001:
7903:
7865:
7827:
7800:
7773:
7746:
7670:
7641:
7516:
7412:
7371:
7309:
7231:
7028:
6909:
6754:
6613:
6288:
6144:
5819:
5688:
5618:
5571:for the atom. This equation is rearranged to find
5552:
5365:
5324:
5276:
5217:
4675:
4649:
4609:
4475:{\displaystyle L\equiv n_{\ell }-n_{\bar {\ell }}}
4474:
4415:
4334:
4248:
4176:
4142:
4112:
9440:"WWW Table of Radioactive Isotopes, Potassium 40"
8753:Brown, L. M. (1978). "The idea of the neutrino".
4113:{\displaystyle B={\frac {n_{q}-n_{\bar {q}}}{3}}}
4002:, which undergoes all three types of beta decay (
963:by the emission of an electron accompanied by an
8371:in the neutral state. The half life for neutral
6769:is the binding energy of the captured electron.
6298:Because the reaction will proceed only when the
5830:Because the reaction will proceed only when the
4922:Microcalorimeter Arrays for a Rhenium Experiment
4809:Second lowest known β energy, being used in the
3796:have higher mass excess and can beta decay into
3367:one chemical element into another. For example:
1670:was true only in a statistical sense, thus this
8900:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1968: Luis Alvarez"
7559:
3873:are all beta-stable. There are about 350 known
3808:, but not vice versa. For all odd mass numbers
9411:"WWW Table of Radioactive Isotopes, Copper 64"
8630:Basdevant, J.-L.; Rich, J.; Spiro, M. (2005).
7310:{\displaystyle S={\sqrt {1-\alpha ^{2}Z^{2}}}}
7029:{\displaystyle p={\sqrt {(E/c)^{2}-(mc)^{2}}}}
6910:{\displaystyle N(T)=C_{L}(T)F(Z,T)pE(Q-T)^{2}}
2066:increased by one, while emitting an electron (
955:of that nuclide. For example, beta decay of a
10213:
8087: values to be accompanied by changes in
8036:the weak axial-vector coupling constant, and
4948:Consider the generic equation for beta decay
904:
8:
9502:"Energy and Momentum Spectra for Beta Decay"
9468:
9466:
9464:
8595:Cottingham, W. N.; Greenwood, D. A. (1986).
7372:{\displaystyle \eta =\pm Ze^{2}E/(\hbar cp)}
6803:as described in quantum mechanics, and thus
6347:by at least twice the mass of the electron.
3721:Beta decay does not change the number (
1246:Another example is the decay of hydrogen-3 (
8665:(Third ed.). Elsevier Inc. p. 3.
7439:), this expression can be approximated by:
10426:
10220:
10206:
10198:
10059:
10057:
5366:{\displaystyle m_{{\overline {\nu }}_{e}}}
4746:
4038:and electron capture) with a half-life of
1220:while the resulting element (in this case
911:
897:
81:
10079:
9782:
9243:
9232:International Journal of Modern Physics A
9177:
9104:
9061:
8555:
8506:
8504:
8502:
8500:
8498:
8175:
8112:
8041:
8020:
8014:
7990:
7979:
7978:
7971:
7960:
7959:
7952:
7942:
7926:
7920:
7919:
7916:
7878:
7852:
7820:
7792:
7786:
7765:
7759:
7735:
7724:
7723:
7716:
7706:
7693:
7687:
7686:
7683:
7654:
7628:
7493:
7469:
7446:
7402:
7396:
7384:
7349:
7340:
7322:
7299:
7289:
7277:
7269:
7220:
7215:
7188:
7179:
7160:
7135:
7090:
7067:
7018:
6996:
6984:
6976:
6968:
6901:
6846:
6825:
6743:
6730:
6706:
6697:
6691:
6690:
6680:
6659:
6654:
6646:
6626:
6602:
6585:
6580:
6558:
6549:
6543:
6542:
6532:
6522:
6509:
6491:
6486:
6478:
6468:
6451:
6277:
6262:
6237:
6228:
6222:
6221:
6211:
6190:
6185:
6177:
6157:
6133:
6116:
6111:
6098:
6076:
6067:
6061:
6060:
6050:
6040:
6022:
6017:
6009:
5999:
5982:
5811:
5787:
5774:
5773:
5763:
5742:
5737:
5729:
5709:
5671:
5658:
5657:
5647:
5637:
5631:
5605:
5600:
5592:
5582:
5576:
5541:
5531:
5520:
5507:
5497:
5481:
5466:
5461:
5453:
5443:
5430:
5415:
5410:
5402:
5393:
5355:
5345:
5343:
5337:
5316:
5310:
5263:
5258:
5250:
5240:
5234:
5209:
5192:
5182:
5180:
5167:
5145:
5132:
5131:
5121:
5111:
5093:
5088:
5080:
5070:
5053:
4920:Lowest known β energy, being used in the
4744:The following table gives some examples:
4662:
4636:
4552:
4541:
4540:
4526:
4521:
4508:
4496:
4491:
4489:
4460:
4459:
4446:
4434:
4404:
4391:
4374:
4365:
4359:
4320:
4308:
4296:
4284:
4276:
4267:
4261:
4236:
4228:
4163:
4157:
4134:
4128:
4092:
4091:
4078:
4071:
4063:
3969:Stability of naturally occurring nuclides
3359:If the proton and neutron are part of an
1631:. Molecular band spectra showed that the
1047:The two types of beta decay are known as
9861:Alpha-, Beta- and Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy
9732:(1948). "On the Use of the Kurie Plot".
9320:
9318:
8691:
8689:
8217:
8211:values for the first few values of
7873:, leading to an angular momentum change
7649:, leading to an angular momentum change
7379:(+ for electrons, − for positrons), and
4196:or, in the case of positive beta decay (
4184:is the number of constituent antiquarks.
4150:is the number of constituent quarks, and
3048:
2413:) down quark to the positively charged (
1923:noticed that there was no evidence that
1839:in 1932). This was the first example of
1816:, and observed that the product isotope
1459:Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by
29:
8748:
8746:
8744:
8494:
8320:Bound-state β decays were predicted by
7407:
7357:
7264:the radius of the final state nucleus)
6949:the charge of the final-state nucleus,
6945:is the Fermi Function (see below) with
1899:in a 1934 paper, and then developed by
84:
9572:Mott, N. F.; Massey, H. S. W. (1933).
7048:minus the kinetic energy of the beta.
3363:, the above described decay processes
3039:Electron capture (K-capture/L-capture)
1936:showing an asymmetrical beta decay of
1521:) for beta particles by the method of
1455:Discovery and initial characterization
1254:with a half-life of about 12.3 years:
8543:Journal of Physics: Conference Series
3729:in the nucleus, but changes only its
7:
9473:Kenneth S. Krane (5 November 1987).
8857:
8855:
8313:is carried off by the antineutrino.
1183:. This new element has an unchanged
8836:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1935"
8330:Darmstadt Heavy-Ion Research Center
7781:the weak vector coupling constant,
6755:{\displaystyle Q=\leftc^{2}-B_{n},}
2948:boson is emitted, it decays into a
1649:proton-neutron model of the nucleus
1627:A second problem is related to the
1003:Beta decay is a consequence of the
990:
10184:The Live Chart of Nuclides - IAEA
8662:Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis
8598:An introduction to nuclear physics
8153:
8114:
7880:
7656:
7413:{\displaystyle \rho =r_{N}/\hbar }
7193:
7113:
6799:Beta decay can be considered as a
5284:is the mass of the nucleus of the
4627:The electron and antineutrino are
1347:with a half-life of about 11.3 s:
25:
9915:10.1051/jphysrad:0194700808023800
9362:Springer Science + Business Media
9357:Nuclear Principles in Engineering
9140:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1957"
5855:is greater than the mass of atom
5332:is the mass of the electron, and
4177:{\displaystyle n_{\overline {q}}}
4050:Conservation rules for beta decay
10177:
10166:from the original on 2022-10-09.
9865:North-Holland Publishing Company
9034:Lee, T. D.; Yang, C. N. (1956).
7904:{\displaystyle \Delta J=0,\pm 1}
6795:= 1.16 MeV is the maximum energy
4748:Examples of beta decay energies
4737:, with speeds very close to the
2032:. For higher-order diagrams see
1728: decay and electron capture
1705:Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment
1629:conservation of angular momentum
1554:, which states that beta (i.e.,
1507:In 1900, Becquerel measured the
878:
877:
864:
92:
10067:Physics of Particles and Nuclei
9647:Nuclear Science and Engineering
9574:The Theory of Atomic Collisions
9386:"Interactive Chart of Nuclides"
8511:Konya, J.; Nagy, N. M. (2012).
8203:The following table lists the Δ
8103:). The selection rules for the
8075:, the decay is referred to as "
7577:Types of beta decay transitions
3881:Competition of beta decay types
1467:, and subsequently observed by
10157:Brookhaven National Laboratory
9801:10.1088/0954-3899/39/12/124008
8864:"K-Electron Capture by Nuclei"
8659:L'Annunziata, Michael (2012).
8574:10.1088/1742-6596/578/1/012015
8432:neutrinoless double beta decay
8328:in 1992 by Jung et al. of the
8172:
8162:
8107:th forbidden transitions are:
7984:
7965:
7813:raising and lowering operators
7729:
7463:
7451:
7366:
7354:
7216:
7211:
7196:
7189:
7157:
7144:
7132:
7116:
7108:
7096:
7084:
7072:
7015:
7005:
6993:
6978:
6898:
6885:
6876:
6864:
6858:
6852:
6836:
6830:
4706:therefore be emitted with any
4546:
4503:
4465:
4410:
4384:
4097:
3772:numbers, the neighbour nuclei
1444:1.16 MeV − 0.40 MeV = 0.76 MeV
1015:, and the weak force allows a
1:
9995:10.1126/science.271.5252.1099
8484:Total absorption spectroscopy
7245:is the final momentum, Γ the
6818:of emitted betas as follows:
6614:{\displaystyle Q=\leftc^{2},}
6289:{\displaystyle Q=\leftc^{2}.}
6145:{\displaystyle Q=\leftc^{2}.}
4249:{\textstyle I={\frac {1}{2}}}
1622:law of conservation of energy
1550:independently proposed their
9878:An Overview Of Neutron Decay
9476:Introductory Nuclear Physics
8814:10.1126/science.124.3212.103
7801:{\displaystyle \tau _{\pm }}
7423:For non-relativistic betas (
5820:{\displaystyle Q=\leftc^{2}}
5350:
5218:{\displaystyle Q=\leftc^{2}}
5187:
4805:
4208:so the number of individual
4168:
2433:) up quark by emission of a
2240:Another example is when the
1932:and coworkers conducted the
1552:radioactive displacement law
979:ratio of protons to neutrons
10139:University of Chicago Press
10040:10.1103/PhysRevLett.77.5190
9952:10.1103/PhysRevLett.69.2164
8872:University of Chicago Press
8513:Nuclear and Radio-chemistry
5381:is related to the standard
4722:, but can range from a few
3371:
2281: decay into a proton (
658:High-energy nuclear physics
10504:
9623:10.1088/0305-4616/11/3/014
9196:10.1103/PhysRevD.95.113006
8866:. In Trower, P. W. (ed.).
8603:Cambridge University Press
8407:
7671:{\displaystyle \Delta J=0}
7580:
4426:Lepton number is conserved
4055:Baryon number is conserved
3875:beta-decay stable nuclides
3352:
3042:
2560:
2387:level (as depicted in the
1911:Non-conservation of parity
10187:with filter on decay type
10098:10.1134/S1063779610050035
9262:10.1142/S0217751X18501993
6711:
6664:
6563:
6496:
6242:
6195:
6081:
6027:
5792:
5747:
5676:
5610:
5471:
5420:
5268:
5150:
5098:
3745:can be introduced; these
1639:is 1 (i.e., equal to the
27:Type of radioactive decay
9294:Modern Nuclear Chemistry
9291:Loveland, W. D. (2005).
9106:10.1103/PhysRev.105.1413
7839:Gamow–Teller transitions
6688:
6682:
6653:
6647:
6540:
6534:
6485:
6479:
6219:
6213:
6184:
6178:
6058:
6052:
6016:
6010:
5771:
5765:
5736:
5730:
5655:
5649:
5599:
5593:
5460:
5454:
5409:
5403:
5257:
5251:
5129:
5123:
5087:
5081:
5045:value for this decay is
4256:and isospin projections
4188:Beta decay just changes
3760:: if such a nucleus has
1886:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1863:artificial radioactivity
1538:In 1901, Rutherford and
1479:and in the new elements
951:), transforming into an
10272:Double electron capture
10019:Physical Review Letters
9931:Physical Review Letters
9846:10.1103/physrev.106.386
9756:10.1103/PhysRev.73.1207
9354:Jevremovic, T. (2009).
9063:10.1103/PhysRev.104.254
8049:{\displaystyle \sigma }
7845:Gamow–Teller transition
7255:fine-structure constant
6923:is the kinetic energy,
2912:or the absorption of a
1959:Nobel Prize for Physics
1895:was first discussed by
1675:process, became acute.
1641:reduced Planck constant
931:(β-decay) is a type of
169:Interacting boson model
9716:10.1103/PhysRev.49.368
9530:Zeitschrift für Physik
9126:scientificamerican.com
9021:10.1103/PhysRev.54.486
8984:10.1103/PhysRev.53.606
8947:10.1103/PhysRev.52.134
8188:
8050:
8030:
8003:
7905:
7867:
7829:
7802:
7775:
7748:
7672:
7643:
7518:
7414:
7373:
7311:
7233:
7030:
6911:
6796:
6776:Beta emission spectrum
6756:
6615:
6290:
6146:
5821:
5690:
5620:
5554:
5536:
5367:
5326:
5278:
5219:
4726:to a few tens of MeV.
4677:
4651:
4611:
4476:
4417:
4344:All other quarks have
4336:
4250:
4178:
4144:
4114:
3737:. Thus the set of all
3350:
3086:
2632:
2033:
1668:conservation of energy
1656:Charles Drummond Ellis
1438:
1094:of about 5,730 years:
983:nuclear binding energy
79:
10191:Beta decay simulation
9668:10.13182/NSE83-A17574
9444:LBNL Isotopes Project
9415:LBNL Isotopes Project
8475:powered by beta decay
8189:
8064:Forbidden transitions
8051:
8031:
8029:{\displaystyle G_{A}}
8004:
7906:
7868:
7830:
7803:
7776:
7774:{\displaystyle G_{V}}
7749:
7673:
7644:
7583:Beta decay transition
7519:
7415:
7374:
7312:
7234:
7036:is the momentum, and
7031:
6963:is the total energy,
6912:
6784:Beta spectrum of Bi.
6783:
6757:
6616:
6291:
6147:
5822:
5691:
5621:
5555:
5516:
5368:
5327:
5325:{\displaystyle m_{e}}
5279:
5220:
4678:
4652:
4612:
4477:
4418:
4337:
4251:
4179:
4145:
4143:{\displaystyle n_{q}}
4115:
3347:
3340:Nuclear transmutation
3069:in the nucleus via a
3052:
2570:
2009:electron antineutrino
1972:
1861:), which they termed
1693:theory for beta decay
1436:
1181:nuclear transmutation
1057:electron antineutrino
959:transforms it into a
556:High-energy processes
254:– equal all the above
152:Models of the nucleus
33:
10149:Nuclear Wallet Cards
10146:Tuli, J. K. (2011).
9602:Journal of Physics G
9144:The Nobel Foundation
8904:The Nobel Foundation
8473:fluorescent lighting
8469:Tritium illumination
8444:Common beta emitters
8111:
8040:
8013:
7915:
7877:
7851:
7819:
7785:
7758:
7682:
7653:
7627:
7445:
7383:
7321:
7268:
7066:
6967:
6824:
6625:
6621:which simplifies to
6450:
6156:
5981:
5708:
5630:
5575:
5392:
5336:
5309:
5233:
5052:
4661:
4635:
4488:
4433:
4358:
4260:
4227:
4156:
4127:
4062:
2611:via an intermediate
2062:into a nucleus with
2011:via an intermediate
1509:mass-to-charge ratio
592:nuclear astrophysics
10416:Photodisintegration
10337:Proton–proton chain
10307:Spontaneous fission
10287:Isomeric transition
10282:Internal conversion
10090:2010PPN....41..690B
10032:1996PhRvL..77.5190B
9987:1996Sci...271.1099S
9981:(5252): 1099–1102.
9944:1992PhRvL..69.2164J
9838:1957PhRv..106..386F
9793:2012JPhG...39l4008R
9748:1948PhRv...73.1207K
9708:1936PhRv...49..368K
9660:1983NSE....83..393S
9615:1985JPhG...11..359V
9543:1934ZPhy...88..161F
9254:2018IJMPA..3350199I
9188:2017PhRvD..95k3006I
9097:1957PhRv..105.1413W
9054:1956PhRv..104..254L
9013:1938PhRv...54..486A
8976:1938PhRv...53..606A
8939:1937PhRv...52..134A
8806:1956Sci...124..103C
8769:1978PhT....31i..23B
8696:Jensen, C. (2000).
8566:2015JPhCS.578a2015B
8332:. Although neutral
8300:Bound-state β decay
8058:spin Pauli matrices
7866:{\displaystyle S=1}
7642:{\displaystyle S=0}
6805:Fermi's Golden Rule
4749:
4676:{\displaystyle S=0}
4650:{\displaystyle S=1}
4223:have total isospin
3979:age of the universe
3741:with the same
3713:(electron capture)
3485:(beta minus decay)
3089:In all cases where
1837:Carl David Anderson
1654:From 1920 to 1927,
987:valley of stability
574:Photodisintegration
497:Capturing processes
411:Spontaneous fission
404:Internal conversion
335:Valley of stability
330:Island of stability
164:Nuclear shell model
9883:2017-09-19 at the
9551:10.1007/BF01351864
9325:Zuber, K. (2011).
8862:Segré, E. (1987).
8840:www.nobelprize.org
8519:. pp. 74–75.
8479:Pandemonium effect
8459:Particle radiation
8428:Majorana particles
8184:
8046:
8026:
7999:
7957:
7901:
7863:
7825:
7798:
7771:
7744:
7721:
7668:
7639:
7594:) and total spin (
7514:
7410:
7369:
7307:
7229:
7026:
6907:
6797:
6752:
6611:
6286:
6142:
5817:
5686:
5616:
5550:
5363:
5322:
5274:
5215:
4747:
4710:ranging from 0 to
4673:
4647:
4607:
4605:
4472:
4413:
4332:
4327:
4246:
4174:
4140:
4110:
3600:(beta plus decay)
3351:
3087:
3065:interacts with an
3053:The leading-order
2633:
2571:The leading-order
2086:) and an electron
2034:
1973:The leading-order
1738:Irène Joliot-Curie
1439:
1239:) is known as the
1216:) is known as the
1000:must be positive.
871:Physics portal
665:Quark–gluon plasma
448:Radiogenic nuclide
80:
51: decay in an
10470:
10469:
10466:
10465:
10297:Positron emission
10267:Double beta decay
10229:Nuclear processes
10135:The Story of Spin
10026:(26): 5190–5193.
9938:(15): 2164–2167.
9486:978-0-471-80553-3
9371:978-0-387-85608-7
9340:978-1-4200-6471-1
9308:978-0-471-11532-8
9166:Physical Review D
9120:Weinstock, Maia.
8885:978-0-226-81304-2
8800:(3212): 103–104.
8777:10.1063/1.2995181
8713:978-3-7643-5313-1
8704:Birkhäuser Verlag
8672:978-0-12-384874-1
8645:978-0-387-01672-6
8616:978-0-521-31960-7
8526:978-0-12-391487-3
8410:Double beta decay
8404:Double beta decay
8292:
8291:
7987:
7968:
7948:
7828:{\displaystyle a}
7732:
7712:
7615:Fermi transitions
7544:Franz N. D. Kurie
7538:(also known as a
7509:
7305:
7142:
7024:
6709:
6694:
6687:
6686:
6685:
6662:
6657:
6652:
6651:
6650:
6561:
6546:
6539:
6538:
6537:
6494:
6489:
6484:
6483:
6482:
6356:electron capture
6240:
6225:
6218:
6217:
6216:
6193:
6188:
6183:
6182:
6181:
6079:
6064:
6057:
6056:
6055:
6025:
6020:
6015:
6014:
6013:
5790:
5777:
5770:
5769:
5768:
5745:
5740:
5735:
5734:
5733:
5674:
5661:
5654:
5653:
5652:
5608:
5603:
5598:
5597:
5596:
5564:binding energies
5469:
5464:
5459:
5458:
5457:
5418:
5413:
5408:
5407:
5406:
5353:
5266:
5261:
5256:
5255:
5254:
5190:
5148:
5135:
5128:
5127:
5126:
5096:
5091:
5086:
5085:
5084:
4941:
4940:
4797:
4735:ultrarelativistic
4718:is around 1
4683:(anti-parallel).
4555:
4549:
4524:
4511:
4499:
4468:
4407:
4394:
4382:
4368:
4323:
4316:
4299:
4292:
4270:
4244:
4171:
4108:
4100:
3909:positron emission
3717:
3716:
3355:Nuclear drip line
3079:electron neutrino
2954:electron neutrino
2673:electron neutrino
2609:electron neutrino
2595: decay of a
2563:Positron emission
2054: decay, the
1995: decay of a
1859:positron emission
1682:written in 1930,
1523:J.J. Thomson
1489:Ernest Rutherford
1061:positron emission
1037:electron neutrino
1023:by emission of a
974:positron emission
933:radioactive decay
921:
920:
607:
353:Radioactive decay
309:Nuclear stability
136:Nuclear structure
16:(Redirected from
10495:
10427:
10327:Deuterium fusion
10292:Neutron emission
10277:Electron capture
10222:
10215:
10208:
10199:
10181:
10167:
10165:
10155:(8th ed.).
10154:
10142:
10118:
10117:
10083:
10061:
10052:
10051:
10013:
10007:
10006:
9970:
9964:
9963:
9925:
9919:
9918:
9894:
9888:
9875:
9869:
9868:
9856:
9850:
9849:
9819:
9813:
9812:
9786:
9766:
9760:
9759:
9726:
9720:
9719:
9686:
9680:
9679:
9641:
9635:
9634:
9596:
9590:
9589:
9569:
9563:
9562:
9537:(3–4): 161–177.
9524:
9518:
9517:
9515:
9514:
9497:
9491:
9490:
9470:
9459:
9458:
9456:
9455:
9436:
9430:
9429:
9427:
9426:
9407:
9401:
9400:
9398:
9397:
9382:
9376:
9375:
9351:
9345:
9344:
9329:(2nd ed.).
9327:Neutrino Physics
9322:
9313:
9312:
9288:
9282:
9281:
9247:
9222:
9216:
9215:
9181:
9161:
9155:
9154:
9152:
9150:
9136:
9130:
9129:
9117:
9111:
9110:
9108:
9091:(4): 1413–1415.
9074:
9068:
9067:
9065:
9031:
9025:
9024:
8994:
8988:
8987:
8957:
8951:
8950:
8920:
8914:
8913:
8911:
8910:
8896:
8890:
8889:
8859:
8850:
8849:
8847:
8846:
8832:
8826:
8825:
8787:
8781:
8780:
8750:
8739:
8738:
8724:
8718:
8717:
8693:
8684:
8683:
8681:
8679:
8656:
8650:
8649:
8627:
8621:
8620:
8592:
8586:
8585:
8559:
8537:
8531:
8530:
8508:
8422:
8418:
8395:
8393:
8383:
8380:
8379:
8370:
8368:
8367:
8358:electron capture
8355:
8352:
8351:
8342:
8340:
8339:
8295:Rare decay modes
8271:Second forbidden
8218:
8214:
8201:
8193:
8191:
8190:
8185:
8180:
8179:
8106:
8102:
8094:
8086:
8074:
8055:
8053:
8052:
8047:
8035:
8033:
8032:
8027:
8025:
8024:
8008:
8006:
8005:
8000:
7998:
7997:
7989:
7988:
7980:
7976:
7975:
7970:
7969:
7961:
7956:
7947:
7946:
7934:
7933:
7925:
7924:
7910:
7908:
7907:
7902:
7872:
7870:
7869:
7864:
7834:
7832:
7831:
7826:
7807:
7805:
7804:
7799:
7797:
7796:
7780:
7778:
7777:
7772:
7770:
7769:
7753:
7751:
7750:
7745:
7743:
7742:
7734:
7733:
7725:
7720:
7711:
7710:
7698:
7697:
7692:
7691:
7677:
7675:
7674:
7669:
7648:
7646:
7645:
7640:
7621:Fermi transition
7607:
7598:
7591:
7549:
7540:Fermi–Kurie plot
7523:
7521:
7520:
7515:
7510:
7508:
7507:
7506:
7481:
7470:
7438:
7419:
7417:
7416:
7411:
7406:
7401:
7400:
7378:
7376:
7375:
7370:
7353:
7345:
7344:
7316:
7314:
7313:
7308:
7306:
7304:
7303:
7294:
7293:
7278:
7263:
7252:
7244:
7238:
7236:
7235:
7230:
7225:
7224:
7219:
7192:
7187:
7186:
7174:
7173:
7143:
7141:
7140:
7139:
7111:
7091:
7047:
7039:
7035:
7033:
7032:
7027:
7025:
7023:
7022:
7001:
7000:
6988:
6977:
6962:
6944:
6929:
6922:
6916:
6914:
6913:
6908:
6906:
6905:
6851:
6850:
6817:
6768:
6761:
6759:
6758:
6753:
6748:
6747:
6735:
6734:
6725:
6721:
6720:
6716:
6715:
6710:
6705:
6701:
6696:
6695:
6683:
6669:
6665:
6663:
6658:
6648:
6620:
6618:
6617:
6612:
6607:
6606:
6597:
6593:
6592:
6591:
6590:
6589:
6572:
6568:
6567:
6562:
6557:
6553:
6548:
6547:
6535:
6527:
6526:
6514:
6513:
6501:
6497:
6495:
6490:
6480:
6473:
6472:
6442:
6441:
6440:
6439:
6431:
6430:
6421:
6420:
6419:
6412:
6411:
6409:
6397:
6396:
6395:
6388:
6387:
6379:
6378:
6377:
6370:
6369:
6367:
6351:Electron capture
6346:
6345:
6344:
6337:
6336:
6334:
6323:exceeds that of
6322:
6321:
6320:
6313:
6312:
6310:
6301:
6295:
6293:
6292:
6287:
6282:
6281:
6272:
6268:
6267:
6266:
6251:
6247:
6246:
6241:
6236:
6232:
6227:
6226:
6214:
6200:
6196:
6194:
6189:
6179:
6151:
6149:
6148:
6143:
6138:
6137:
6128:
6124:
6123:
6122:
6121:
6120:
6103:
6102:
6090:
6086:
6085:
6080:
6075:
6071:
6066:
6065:
6053:
6045:
6044:
6032:
6028:
6026:
6021:
6011:
6004:
6003:
5973:
5972:
5971:
5970:
5962:
5961:
5952:
5951:
5950:
5943:
5942:
5934:
5933:
5932:
5925:
5924:
5922:
5910:
5909:
5908:
5901:
5900:
5898:
5878:
5877:
5876:
5869:
5868:
5866:
5854:
5853:
5852:
5845:
5844:
5842:
5833:
5826:
5824:
5823:
5818:
5816:
5815:
5806:
5802:
5801:
5797:
5796:
5791:
5786:
5779:
5778:
5766:
5752:
5748:
5746:
5741:
5731:
5703:
5699:
5695:
5693:
5692:
5687:
5685:
5681:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5663:
5662:
5650:
5642:
5641:
5625:
5623:
5622:
5617:
5615:
5611:
5609:
5604:
5594:
5587:
5586:
5570:
5559:
5557:
5556:
5551:
5546:
5545:
5535:
5530:
5512:
5511:
5502:
5501:
5486:
5485:
5476:
5472:
5470:
5465:
5455:
5448:
5447:
5435:
5434:
5425:
5421:
5419:
5414:
5404:
5387:
5380:
5372:
5370:
5369:
5364:
5362:
5361:
5360:
5359:
5354:
5346:
5331:
5329:
5328:
5323:
5321:
5320:
5304:
5303:
5302:
5295:
5294:
5292:
5283:
5281:
5280:
5275:
5273:
5269:
5267:
5262:
5252:
5245:
5244:
5224:
5222:
5221:
5216:
5214:
5213:
5204:
5200:
5199:
5198:
5197:
5196:
5191:
5183:
5172:
5171:
5159:
5155:
5154:
5149:
5144:
5137:
5136:
5124:
5116:
5115:
5103:
5099:
5097:
5092:
5082:
5075:
5074:
5044:
5036:
5035:
5034:
5033:
5026:
5023:
5022:
5013:
5012:
5011:
5004:
5003:
4995:
4994:
4993:
4986:
4985:
4983:
4971:
4970:
4969:
4962:
4961:
4959:
4913:
4901:
4895:
4883:
4847:
4833:
4823:
4802:
4795:
4782:
4750:
4717:
4713:
4704:
4698:
4682:
4680:
4679:
4674:
4656:
4654:
4653:
4648:
4620:Angular momentum
4616:
4614:
4613:
4608:
4606:
4557:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4550:
4542:
4531:
4530:
4525:
4522:
4512:
4509:
4500:
4497:
4494:
4481:
4479:
4478:
4473:
4471:
4470:
4469:
4461:
4451:
4450:
4422:
4420:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4408:
4405:
4396:
4395:
4392:
4383:
4375:
4370:
4369:
4366:
4350:
4341:
4339:
4338:
4333:
4331:
4330:
4324:
4321:
4317:
4309:
4300:
4297:
4293:
4285:
4272:
4271:
4268:
4255:
4253:
4252:
4247:
4245:
4237:
4198:electron capture
4183:
4181:
4180:
4175:
4173:
4172:
4164:
4149:
4147:
4146:
4141:
4139:
4138:
4119:
4117:
4116:
4111:
4109:
4104:
4103:
4102:
4101:
4093:
4083:
4082:
4072:
4045:
4043:
4037:
4036:
4035:
4028:
4027:
4019:
4018:
4017:
4010:
4009:
4001:
3999:
3998:
3991:
3990:
3964:
3963:
3962:
3955:
3954:
3945:
3941:
3940:
3939:
3932:
3931:
3922:
3917:electron capture
3914:
3906:
3904:
3903:
3896:
3895:
3872:
3871:
3870:
3863:
3862:
3853:
3852:
3851:
3844:
3843:
3834:
3833:
3832:
3825:
3824:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3795:
3783:
3771:
3755:
3744:
3736:
3724:
3703:
3702:
3700:
3699:
3691:
3690:
3675:
3673:
3672:
3665:
3664:
3649:
3647:
3646:
3639:
3638:
3624:
3622:
3621:
3614:
3613:
3596:
3595:
3593:
3592:
3584:
3583:
3568:
3567:
3565:
3564:
3557:
3556:
3541:
3539:
3538:
3531:
3530:
3509:
3507:
3506:
3499:
3498:
3481:
3480:
3478:
3477:
3470:
3467:
3466:
3451:
3449:
3448:
3441:
3440:
3426:
3424:
3423:
3416:
3415:
3394:
3392:
3391:
3384:
3383:
3372:
3321:
3320:
3319:
3312:
3311:
3303:
3288:
3287:
3286:
3285:
3277:
3276:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3258:
3257:
3248:
3247:
3246:
3239:
3238:
3230:
3229:
3228:
3221:
3220:
3197:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3186:
3185:
3176:
3175:
3174:
3167:
3166:
3164:
3152:
3151:
3150:
3143:
3142:
3134:
3133:
3132:
3125:
3124:
3122:
3109:electron capture
3106:
3105:
3104:
3097:
3096:
3083:virtual particle
3059:electron capture
3055:Feynman diagrams
3045:Electron capture
3033:
3032:
3031:
3030:
3022:
3021:
3012:
3011:
3010:
3003:
3002:
2994:
2993:
2992:
2985:
2984:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2967:
2966:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2938:
2937:
2929:
2928:
2927:
2920:
2919:
2911:
2910:
2909:
2902:
2901:
2889:
2888:
2887:
2880:
2879:
2867:
2866:
2865:
2858:
2857:
2846:
2845:
2844:
2843:
2835:
2834:
2825:
2824:
2823:
2816:
2815:
2800:
2799:
2798:
2797:
2789:
2788:
2779:
2778:
2777:
2770:
2769:
2761:
2760:
2759:
2752:
2751:
2749:
2737:
2736:
2735:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2712:
2711:
2710:
2703:
2702:
2693:
2692:
2691:
2683:
2682:
2670:
2669:
2668:
2661:
2660:
2652:
2651:
2650:
2643:
2642:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2620:
2619:
2593:
2592:
2591:
2584:
2583:
2551:
2550:
2549:
2548:
2541:
2538:
2537:
2528:
2527:
2526:
2519:
2518:
2510:
2509:
2508:
2501:
2500:
2492:
2491:
2490:
2483:
2482:
2471:
2470:
2469:
2462:
2461:
2451:
2450:
2449:
2442:
2441:
2432:
2430:
2428:
2427:
2424:
2421:
2412:
2408:
2406:
2405:
2402:
2399:
2378:
2377:
2376:
2375:
2368:
2365:
2364:
2355:
2354:
2353:
2346:
2345:
2337:
2336:
2335:
2328:
2327:
2319:
2318:
2317:
2310:
2309:
2298:
2297:
2296:
2289:
2288:
2280:
2279:
2278:
2271:
2270:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2253:
2252:
2228:
2224:
2217:
2216:
2215:
2214:
2207:
2204:
2203:
2194:
2193:
2192:
2185:
2184:
2176:
2175:
2174:
2167:
2166:
2164:
2152:
2151:
2150:
2143:
2142:
2140:
2128:
2127:
2126:
2119:
2118:
2110:
2109:
2108:
2101:
2098:
2097:
2085:
2083:
2082:
2075:
2074:
2056:weak interaction
2053:
2052:
2051:
2044:
2043:
2029:
2028:
2027:
2020:
2019:
1994:
1993:
1992:
1985:
1984:
1954:
1953:
1952:
1945:
1944:
1893:electron capture
1883:
1882:
1881:
1874:
1873:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1847:
1846:
1834:
1833:
1832:
1825:
1824:
1815:
1814:
1813:
1806:
1805:
1796:
1795:
1794:
1787:
1786:
1777:
1776:
1775:
1768:
1767:
1758:
1757:
1756:
1749:
1748:
1727:
1726:
1725:
1718:
1717:
1701:Frederick Reines
1608:used a magnetic
1571:
1570:
1569:
1562:
1561:
1548:Kazimierz Fajans
1534:
1520:
1445:
1426:
1425:
1424:
1423:
1415:
1414:
1405:
1404:
1403:
1396:
1395:
1387:
1386:
1385:
1378:
1377:
1368:
1367:
1366:
1359:
1358:
1335:
1334:
1333:
1332:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1312:
1311:
1310:
1303:
1302:
1294:
1293:
1292:
1285:
1284:
1275:
1274:
1273:
1266:
1265:
1241:daughter nuclide
1238:
1237:
1236:
1229:
1228:
1215:
1214:
1213:
1206:
1205:
1196:
1189:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1165:
1162:
1161:
1152:
1151:
1150:
1143:
1142:
1134:
1133:
1132:
1125:
1124:
1115:
1114:
1113:
1106:
1105:
1032:Electron capture
943:(fast energetic
913:
906:
899:
886:
881:
880:
873:
869:
868:
745:Skłodowska-Curie
605:
421:Neutron emission
189:' classification
141:Nuclear reaction
96:
82:
77:
75:
74:
67:
66:
50:
49:
48:
41:
40:
21:
10503:
10502:
10498:
10497:
10496:
10494:
10493:
10492:
10483:Nuclear physics
10473:
10472:
10471:
10462:
10446:
10437:Neutron capture
10425:
10408:
10402:
10319:nucleosynthesis
10318:
10311:
10302:Proton emission
10257:Gamma radiation
10238:
10231:
10226:
10174:
10163:
10152:
10145:
10131:Tomonaga, S.-I.
10129:
10126:
10121:
10063:
10062:
10055:
10015:
10014:
10010:
9972:
9971:
9967:
9927:
9926:
9922:
9903:J. Phys. Radium
9896:
9895:
9891:
9885:Wayback Machine
9876:
9872:
9863:. Vol. 2.
9858:
9857:
9853:
9825:Physical Review
9821:
9820:
9816:
9768:
9767:
9763:
9735:Physical Review
9730:Kurie, F. N. D.
9728:
9727:
9723:
9695:Physical Review
9690:Kurie, F. N. D.
9688:
9687:
9683:
9643:
9642:
9638:
9598:
9597:
9593:
9578:Clarendon Press
9571:
9570:
9566:
9526:
9525:
9521:
9512:
9510:
9499:
9498:
9494:
9487:
9472:
9471:
9462:
9453:
9451:
9438:
9437:
9433:
9424:
9422:
9409:
9408:
9404:
9395:
9393:
9384:
9383:
9379:
9372:
9364:. p. 201.
9353:
9352:
9348:
9341:
9333:. p. 466.
9324:
9323:
9316:
9309:
9301:. p. 232.
9290:
9289:
9285:
9238:(33): 1850199.
9224:
9223:
9219:
9163:
9162:
9158:
9148:
9146:
9138:
9137:
9133:
9119:
9118:
9114:
9084:Physical Review
9076:
9075:
9071:
9041:Physical Review
9033:
9032:
9028:
9000:Physical Review
8996:
8995:
8991:
8963:Physical Review
8959:
8958:
8954:
8926:Physical Review
8922:
8921:
8917:
8908:
8906:
8898:
8897:
8893:
8886:
8861:
8860:
8853:
8844:
8842:
8834:
8833:
8829:
8789:
8788:
8784:
8752:
8751:
8742:
8726:
8725:
8721:
8714:
8695:
8694:
8687:
8677:
8675:
8673:
8658:
8657:
8653:
8646:
8629:
8628:
8624:
8617:
8594:
8593:
8589:
8539:
8538:
8534:
8527:
8510:
8509:
8496:
8492:
8440:
8420:
8416:
8412:
8406:
8391:
8389:
8384:is 4750 years.
8378:
8376:
8375:
8374:
8372:
8366:
8364:
8363:
8362:
8361:
8350:
8348:
8347:
8346:
8344:
8338:
8336:
8335:
8334:
8333:
8302:
8297:
8282:Third forbidden
8260:First forbidden
8233:
8227:
8212:
8210:
8206:
8195:
8171:
8109:
8108:
8104:
8100:
8092:
8084:
8081:selection rules
8069:
8066:
8038:
8037:
8016:
8011:
8010:
7977:
7958:
7938:
7918:
7913:
7912:
7875:
7874:
7849:
7848:
7841:
7817:
7816:
7788:
7783:
7782:
7761:
7756:
7755:
7722:
7702:
7685:
7680:
7679:
7651:
7650:
7625:
7624:
7617:
7602:
7596:
7589:
7585:
7579:
7556:
7547:
7532:
7489:
7482:
7471:
7443:
7442:
7434:
7424:
7392:
7381:
7380:
7336:
7319:
7318:
7295:
7285:
7266:
7265:
7262:
7258:
7250:
7242:
7214:
7175:
7156:
7131:
7112:
7092:
7064:
7063:
7057:
7045:
7037:
7014:
6992:
6965:
6964:
6950:
6931:
6928:
6924:
6920:
6897:
6842:
6822:
6821:
6808:
6790:
6778:
6767:
6763:
6739:
6726:
6689:
6681:
6676:
6642:
6638:
6634:
6623:
6622:
6598:
6581:
6576:
6541:
6533:
6528:
6518:
6505:
6474:
6464:
6463:
6459:
6448:
6447:
6438:
6435:
6434:
6433:
6429:
6427:
6426:
6425:
6424:
6423:
6418:
6416:
6415:
6414:
6410:
6404:
6402:
6401:
6400:
6399:
6394:
6392:
6391:
6390:
6386:
6384:
6383:
6382:
6381:
6376:
6374:
6373:
6372:
6368:
6365:
6363:
6362:
6361:
6360:
6353:
6343:
6341:
6340:
6339:
6335:
6329:
6327:
6326:
6325:
6324:
6319:
6317:
6316:
6315:
6311:
6308:
6306:
6305:
6304:
6303:
6299:
6273:
6258:
6220:
6212:
6207:
6173:
6169:
6165:
6154:
6153:
6129:
6112:
6107:
6094:
6059:
6051:
6046:
6036:
6005:
5995:
5994:
5990:
5979:
5978:
5969:
5966:
5965:
5964:
5960:
5958:
5957:
5956:
5955:
5954:
5949:
5947:
5946:
5945:
5941:
5939:
5938:
5937:
5936:
5931:
5929:
5928:
5927:
5923:
5917:
5915:
5914:
5913:
5912:
5907:
5905:
5904:
5903:
5899:
5896:
5894:
5893:
5892:
5891:
5885:
5875:
5873:
5872:
5871:
5867:
5861:
5859:
5858:
5857:
5856:
5851:
5849:
5848:
5847:
5843:
5840:
5838:
5837:
5836:
5835:
5831:
5807:
5772:
5764:
5759:
5725:
5721:
5717:
5706:
5705:
5704:atoms, we have
5701:
5697:
5656:
5648:
5643:
5633:
5628:
5627:
5588:
5578:
5573:
5572:
5569:
5565:
5537:
5503:
5493:
5477:
5449:
5439:
5426:
5398:
5390:
5389:
5385:
5379:
5375:
5344:
5339:
5334:
5333:
5312:
5307:
5306:
5301:
5299:
5298:
5297:
5293:
5290:
5288:
5287:
5286:
5285:
5246:
5236:
5231:
5230:
5205:
5181:
5176:
5163:
5130:
5122:
5117:
5107:
5076:
5066:
5065:
5061:
5050:
5049:
5042:
5032:
5029:
5028:
5027:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5018:
5017:
5016:
5015:
5010:
5008:
5007:
5006:
5002:
5000:
4999:
4998:
4997:
4992:
4990:
4989:
4988:
4984:
4978:
4976:
4975:
4974:
4973:
4968:
4966:
4965:
4964:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4954:
4953:
4952:
4946:
4911:
4899:
4893:
4881:
4880:
4875:
4845:
4831:
4830:
4825:
4821:
4800:
4794:
4780:
4774:
4757:
4715:
4711:
4702:
4696:
4692:
4659:
4658:
4633:
4632:
4622:
4604:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4559:
4558:
4539:
4537:
4532:
4520:
4518:
4513:
4506:
4501:
4486:
4485:
4455:
4442:
4431:
4430:
4428:
4400:
4387:
4361:
4356:
4355:
4345:
4326:
4325:
4318:
4302:
4301:
4294:
4277:
4263:
4258:
4257:
4225:
4224:
4159:
4154:
4153:
4130:
4125:
4124:
4087:
4074:
4073:
4060:
4059:
4057:
4052:
4041:
4039:
4034:
4032:
4031:
4030:
4026:
4024:
4023:
4022:
4021:
4016:
4014:
4013:
4012:
4008:
4006:
4005:
4004:
4003:
3997:
3995:
3994:
3993:
3989:
3986:
3985:
3984:
3982:
3971:
3961:
3959:
3958:
3957:
3953:
3950:
3949:
3948:
3947:
3943:
3938:
3936:
3935:
3934:
3930:
3927:
3926:
3925:
3924:
3920:
3912:
3902:
3900:
3899:
3898:
3894:
3891:
3890:
3889:
3887:
3883:
3869:
3867:
3866:
3865:
3861:
3858:
3857:
3856:
3855:
3850:
3848:
3847:
3846:
3842:
3839:
3838:
3837:
3836:
3831:
3829:
3828:
3827:
3823:
3820:
3819:
3818:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3797:
3785:
3773:
3761:
3753:
3742:
3734:
3722:
3698:
3695:
3694:
3693:
3689:
3687:
3686:
3685:
3683:
3682:
3671:
3669:
3668:
3667:
3663:
3660:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3645:
3643:
3642:
3641:
3637:
3635:
3634:
3633:
3631:
3620:
3618:
3617:
3616:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3607:
3605:
3591:
3588:
3587:
3586:
3582:
3580:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3575:
3563:
3561:
3560:
3559:
3555:
3553:
3552:
3551:
3549:
3548:
3537:
3535:
3534:
3533:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3524:
3522:
3505:
3503:
3502:
3501:
3497:
3494:
3493:
3492:
3490:
3476:
3473:
3472:
3471:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3458:
3447:
3445:
3444:
3443:
3439:
3437:
3436:
3435:
3433:
3422:
3420:
3419:
3418:
3414:
3411:
3410:
3409:
3407:
3390:
3388:
3387:
3386:
3382:
3379:
3378:
3377:
3375:
3357:
3342:
3318:
3316:
3315:
3314:
3310:
3308:
3307:
3306:
3305:
3299:
3293:
3284:
3281:
3280:
3279:
3275:
3273:
3272:
3271:
3270:
3269:
3264:
3262:
3261:
3260:
3256:
3253:
3252:
3251:
3250:
3245:
3243:
3242:
3241:
3237:
3235:
3234:
3233:
3232:
3227:
3225:
3224:
3223:
3219:
3216:
3215:
3214:
3213:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3188:
3184:
3182:
3181:
3180:
3179:
3178:
3173:
3171:
3170:
3169:
3165:
3159:
3157:
3156:
3155:
3154:
3149:
3147:
3146:
3145:
3141:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3136:
3131:
3129:
3128:
3127:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3117:
3116:
3115:
3103:
3101:
3100:
3099:
3095:
3093:
3092:
3091:
3090:
3047:
3041:
3029:
3026:
3025:
3024:
3020:
3018:
3017:
3016:
3015:
3014:
3009:
3007:
3006:
3005:
3001:
2999:
2998:
2997:
2996:
2991:
2989:
2988:
2987:
2983:
2981:
2980:
2979:
2978:
2973:
2971:
2970:
2969:
2965:
2963:
2962:
2961:
2960:
2944:
2942:
2941:
2940:
2936:
2934:
2933:
2932:
2931:
2926:
2924:
2923:
2922:
2918:
2916:
2915:
2914:
2913:
2908:
2906:
2905:
2904:
2900:
2898:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2886:
2884:
2883:
2882:
2878:
2876:
2875:
2874:
2873:
2864:
2862:
2861:
2860:
2856:
2854:
2853:
2852:
2851:
2842:
2839:
2838:
2837:
2833:
2831:
2830:
2829:
2828:
2827:
2822:
2820:
2819:
2818:
2814:
2812:
2811:
2810:
2809:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2791:
2787:
2785:
2784:
2783:
2782:
2781:
2776:
2774:
2773:
2772:
2768:
2766:
2765:
2764:
2763:
2758:
2756:
2755:
2754:
2750:
2744:
2742:
2741:
2740:
2739:
2734:
2732:
2731:
2730:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2720:
2719:
2718:
2709:
2707:
2706:
2705:
2701:
2699:
2698:
2697:
2696:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2685:
2681:
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2590:
2588:
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2586:
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2580:
2579:
2578:
2577:
2573:Feynman diagram
2565:
2559:
2547:
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2542:
2539:
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2422:
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2397:
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2389:Feynman diagram
2374:
2371:
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2366:
2363:
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2050:
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2040:
2039:
2038:
2037:
2026:
2024:
2023:
2022:
2018:
2016:
2015:
2014:
2013:
1991:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1983:
1981:
1980:
1979:
1978:
1975:Feynman diagram
1967:
1951:
1949:
1948:
1947:
1943:
1941:
1940:
1939:
1938:
1930:Chien-Shiung Wu
1913:
1897:Gian-Carlo Wick
1880:
1878:
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1600:in 1911 and by
1582:
1568:
1566:
1565:
1564:
1560:
1558:
1557:
1556:
1555:
1540:Frederick Soddy
1526:
1512:
1461:Henri Becquerel
1457:
1452:
1443:
1422:
1419:
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1199:
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1194:
1187:
1171:
1168:
1167:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1157:
1156:
1155:
1154:
1149:
1147:
1146:
1145:
1141:
1139:
1138:
1137:
1136:
1131:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1120:
1119:
1118:
1117:
1112:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1045:
925:nuclear physics
917:
876:
863:
862:
855:
854:
690:
680:
679:
660:
650:
649:
594:
590:
587:Nucleosynthesis
579:
578:
557:
549:
548:
498:
490:
489:
463:
461:Nuclear fission
453:
452:
426:Proton emission
355:
345:
344:
310:
302:
301:
203:
190:
179:
178:
154:
86:Nuclear physics
73:
71:
70:
69:
65:
63:
62:
61:
59:
47:
45:
44:
43:
39:
37:
36:
35:
34:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
10501:
10499:
10491:
10490:
10485:
10475:
10474:
10468:
10467:
10464:
10463:
10461:
10460:
10458:(n-p) reaction
10454:
10452:
10448:
10447:
10445:
10444:
10442:Proton capture
10439:
10433:
10431:
10424:
10423:
10418:
10412:
10410:
10404:
10403:
10401:
10400:
10395:
10390:
10382:
10374:
10369:
10364:
10359:
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10329:
10323:
10321:
10313:
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10299:
10294:
10289:
10284:
10279:
10274:
10269:
10264:
10259:
10254:
10249:
10243:
10241:
10233:
10232:
10227:
10225:
10224:
10217:
10210:
10202:
10196:
10195:
10188:
10173:
10172:External links
10170:
10169:
10168:
10143:
10125:
10122:
10120:
10119:
10074:(5): 690–715.
10053:
10008:
9965:
9920:
9909:(8): 238–243.
9889:
9870:
9851:
9832:(2): 386–387.
9814:
9777:(12): 124008.
9761:
9721:
9702:(5): 368–381.
9681:
9654:(3): 393–396.
9636:
9609:(3): 359–364.
9591:
9564:
9519:
9492:
9485:
9460:
9431:
9402:
9377:
9370:
9346:
9339:
9314:
9307:
9283:
9217:
9172:(11): 113006.
9156:
9131:
9112:
9069:
9048:(1): 254–258.
9026:
9007:(7): 486–497.
8989:
8952:
8933:(2): 134–135.
8915:
8891:
8884:
8851:
8827:
8782:
8740:
8719:
8712:
8685:
8671:
8651:
8644:
8622:
8615:
8587:
8532:
8525:
8493:
8491:
8488:
8487:
8486:
8481:
8476:
8466:
8461:
8456:
8451:
8446:
8439:
8436:
8408:Main article:
8405:
8402:
8377:
8365:
8349:
8337:
8301:
8298:
8296:
8293:
8290:
8289:
8286:
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8225:
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8158:
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8137:
8134:
8131:
8128:
8125:
8122:
8119:
8116:
8065:
8062:
8045:
8023:
8019:
7996:
7993:
7986:
7983:
7974:
7967:
7964:
7955:
7951:
7945:
7941:
7937:
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7923:
7900:
7897:
7894:
7891:
7888:
7885:
7882:
7862:
7859:
7856:
7840:
7837:
7824:
7795:
7791:
7768:
7764:
7741:
7738:
7731:
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7719:
7715:
7709:
7705:
7701:
7696:
7690:
7667:
7664:
7661:
7658:
7638:
7635:
7632:
7616:
7613:
7581:Main article:
7578:
7575:
7555:
7552:
7531:
7528:
7513:
7505:
7502:
7499:
7496:
7492:
7488:
7485:
7480:
7477:
7474:
7468:
7465:
7462:
7459:
7456:
7453:
7450:
7432:
7409:
7405:
7399:
7395:
7391:
7388:
7368:
7365:
7362:
7359:
7356:
7352:
7348:
7343:
7339:
7335:
7332:
7329:
7326:
7302:
7298:
7292:
7288:
7284:
7281:
7276:
7273:
7260:
7247:Gamma function
7228:
7223:
7218:
7213:
7210:
7207:
7204:
7201:
7198:
7195:
7191:
7185:
7182:
7178:
7172:
7169:
7166:
7163:
7159:
7155:
7152:
7149:
7146:
7138:
7134:
7130:
7127:
7124:
7121:
7118:
7115:
7110:
7107:
7104:
7101:
7098:
7095:
7089:
7086:
7083:
7080:
7077:
7074:
7071:
7056:
7055:Fermi function
7053:
7021:
7017:
7013:
7010:
7007:
7004:
6999:
6995:
6991:
6987:
6983:
6980:
6975:
6972:
6926:
6904:
6900:
6896:
6893:
6890:
6887:
6884:
6881:
6878:
6875:
6872:
6869:
6866:
6863:
6860:
6857:
6854:
6849:
6845:
6841:
6838:
6835:
6832:
6829:
6788:
6777:
6774:
6765:
6751:
6746:
6742:
6738:
6733:
6729:
6724:
6719:
6714:
6704:
6700:
6679:
6675:
6672:
6668:
6645:
6641:
6637:
6633:
6630:
6610:
6605:
6601:
6596:
6588:
6584:
6579:
6575:
6571:
6566:
6556:
6552:
6531:
6525:
6521:
6517:
6512:
6508:
6504:
6500:
6477:
6471:
6467:
6462:
6458:
6455:
6444:
6443:
6436:
6428:
6417:
6403:
6393:
6385:
6375:
6364:
6352:
6349:
6342:
6328:
6318:
6307:
6285:
6280:
6276:
6271:
6265:
6261:
6257:
6254:
6250:
6245:
6235:
6231:
6210:
6206:
6203:
6199:
6176:
6172:
6168:
6164:
6161:
6141:
6136:
6132:
6127:
6119:
6115:
6110:
6106:
6101:
6097:
6093:
6089:
6084:
6074:
6070:
6049:
6043:
6039:
6035:
6031:
6008:
6002:
5998:
5993:
5989:
5986:
5975:
5974:
5967:
5959:
5948:
5940:
5930:
5916:
5906:
5895:
5884:
5881:
5874:
5860:
5850:
5839:
5814:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5795:
5785:
5782:
5762:
5758:
5755:
5751:
5728:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5713:
5684:
5679:
5669:
5666:
5646:
5640:
5636:
5614:
5591:
5585:
5581:
5567:
5549:
5544:
5540:
5534:
5529:
5526:
5523:
5519:
5515:
5510:
5506:
5500:
5496:
5492:
5489:
5484:
5480:
5475:
5452:
5446:
5442:
5438:
5433:
5429:
5424:
5401:
5397:
5377:
5358:
5352:
5349:
5342:
5319:
5315:
5300:
5289:
5272:
5249:
5243:
5239:
5227:
5226:
5212:
5208:
5203:
5195:
5189:
5186:
5179:
5175:
5170:
5166:
5162:
5158:
5153:
5143:
5140:
5120:
5114:
5110:
5106:
5102:
5079:
5073:
5069:
5064:
5060:
5057:
5039:
5038:
5030:
5020:
5009:
5001:
4991:
4977:
4967:
4956:
4945:
4942:
4939:
4938:
4936:
4933:
4930:
4926:
4925:
4918:
4915:
4909:
4905:
4904:
4902:
4897:
4891:
4887:
4886:
4884:
4877:
4872:
4868:
4867:
4865:
4862:
4859:
4855:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4843:
4837:
4836:
4834:
4827:
4819:
4815:
4814:
4807:
4804:
4798:
4790:
4789:
4787:
4784:
4778:
4770:
4769:
4766:
4763:
4754:
4739:speed of light
4708:kinetic energy
4691:
4690:Energy release
4688:
4672:
4669:
4666:
4657:(parallel) or
4646:
4643:
4640:
4621:
4618:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
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4569:
4567:
4564:
4561:
4560:
4548:
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4519:
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4514:
4507:
4505:
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4454:
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4107:
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4081:
4077:
4070:
4067:
4056:
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4033:
4025:
4015:
4007:
3996:
3987:
3970:
3967:
3960:
3951:
3937:
3928:
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3892:
3882:
3879:
3868:
3859:
3849:
3840:
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3821:
3719:
3718:
3715:
3714:
3711:
3708:
3705:
3696:
3688:
3680:
3677:
3670:
3661:
3654:
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3644:
3636:
3629:
3626:
3619:
3610:
3602:
3601:
3598:
3589:
3581:
3573:
3570:
3562:
3554:
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3543:
3536:
3527:
3520:
3517:
3514:
3511:
3504:
3495:
3487:
3486:
3483:
3474:
3464:
3456:
3453:
3446:
3438:
3431:
3428:
3421:
3412:
3405:
3402:
3399:
3396:
3389:
3380:
3361:atomic nucleus
3341:
3338:
3317:
3309:
3297:
3290:
3289:
3282:
3274:
3263:
3254:
3244:
3236:
3226:
3217:
3199:
3198:
3191:
3183:
3172:
3158:
3148:
3140:
3130:
3119:
3102:
3094:
3043:Main article:
3040:
3037:
3036:
3035:
3027:
3019:
3008:
3000:
2990:
2982:
2972:
2964:
2943:
2935:
2925:
2917:
2907:
2899:
2892:binding energy
2885:
2877:
2863:
2855:
2848:
2847:
2840:
2832:
2821:
2813:
2802:
2801:
2794:
2786:
2775:
2767:
2757:
2743:
2733:
2722:
2708:
2700:
2688:
2680:
2666:
2658:
2648:
2640:
2625:
2617:
2589:
2581:
2561:Main article:
2558:
2555:
2554:
2553:
2545:
2535:
2524:
2516:
2506:
2498:
2488:
2480:
2467:
2459:
2447:
2439:
2381:
2380:
2372:
2362:
2351:
2343:
2333:
2325:
2315:
2307:
2294:
2286:
2276:
2268:
2258:
2249:
2219:
2218:
2211:
2201:
2190:
2182:
2172:
2158:
2148:
2137:
2124:
2116:
2105:
2095:
2080:
2072:
2060:atomic nucleus
2049:
2041:
2025:
2017:
1990:
1982:
1966:
1963:
1950:
1942:
1921:Chen Ning Yang
1912:
1909:
1891:The theory of
1879:
1870:
1852:
1844:
1830:
1821:
1811:
1802:
1792:
1783:
1773:
1764:
1754:
1745:
1729:
1723:
1715:
1709:
1684:Wolfgang Pauli
1606:James Chadwick
1581:
1578:
1574:periodic table
1567:
1559:
1502:Greek alphabet
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1428:
1427:
1420:
1412:
1401:
1393:
1383:
1374:
1364:
1355:
1337:
1336:
1329:
1319:
1308:
1300:
1290:
1281:
1271:
1262:
1234:
1225:
1218:parent nuclide
1211:
1202:
1177:
1176:
1169:
1159:
1148:
1140:
1130:
1121:
1111:
1102:
1079:antineutrino.
1044:
1041:
1019:to change its
937:atomic nucleus
919:
918:
916:
915:
908:
901:
893:
890:
889:
888:
887:
874:
857:
856:
853:
852:
847:
842:
837:
832:
827:
822:
817:
812:
807:
802:
797:
792:
787:
782:
777:
772:
767:
762:
757:
752:
747:
742:
737:
732:
727:
722:
717:
712:
707:
702:
697:
691:
686:
685:
682:
681:
678:
677:
672:
667:
661:
656:
655:
652:
651:
648:
647:
646:
645:
640:
635:
626:
625:
624:
623:
618:
613:
602:
601:
599:Nuclear fusion
595:
585:
584:
581:
580:
577:
576:
571:
570:
569:
558:
555:
554:
551:
550:
547:
546:
545:
544:
539:
529:
528:
527:
522:
512:
511:
510:
499:
496:
495:
492:
491:
488:
487:
482:
481:
480:
470:
464:
459:
458:
455:
454:
451:
450:
445:
440:
435:
429:
428:
423:
418:
413:
408:
407:
406:
401:
391:
386:
385:
384:
379:
378:
377:
362:
356:
351:
350:
347:
346:
343:
342:
340:Stable nuclide
337:
332:
327:
322:
317:
315:Binding energy
311:
308:
307:
304:
303:
300:
299:
298:
297:
287:
282:
277:
271:
270:
256:
255:
248:
247:
231:
230:
218:
217:
205:
204:
191:
185:
184:
181:
180:
177:
176:
171:
166:
161:
155:
150:
149:
146:
145:
144:
143:
138:
133:
128:
126:Nuclear matter
123:
122:
121:
116:
106:
98:
97:
89:
88:
72:
64:
53:atomic nucleus
46:
38:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10500:
10489:
10488:Radioactivity
10486:
10484:
10481:
10480:
10478:
10459:
10456:
10455:
10453:
10449:
10443:
10440:
10438:
10435:
10434:
10432:
10428:
10422:
10419:
10417:
10414:
10413:
10411:
10405:
10399:
10396:
10394:
10391:
10389:
10387:
10383:
10381:
10379:
10375:
10373:
10370:
10368:
10365:
10363:
10360:
10358:
10355:
10353:
10350:
10348:
10345:
10343:
10340:
10338:
10335:
10333:
10330:
10328:
10325:
10324:
10322:
10320:
10314:
10308:
10305:
10303:
10300:
10298:
10295:
10293:
10290:
10288:
10285:
10283:
10280:
10278:
10275:
10273:
10270:
10268:
10265:
10263:
10262:Cluster decay
10260:
10258:
10255:
10253:
10250:
10248:
10245:
10244:
10242:
10240:
10234:
10230:
10223:
10218:
10216:
10211:
10209:
10204:
10203:
10200:
10194:
10192:
10189:
10186:
10185:
10180:
10176:
10175:
10171:
10162:
10158:
10151:
10150:
10144:
10140:
10136:
10132:
10128:
10127:
10123:
10115:
10111:
10107:
10103:
10099:
10095:
10091:
10087:
10082:
10077:
10073:
10069:
10068:
10060:
10058:
10054:
10049:
10045:
10041:
10037:
10033:
10029:
10025:
10021:
10020:
10012:
10009:
10004:
10000:
9996:
9992:
9988:
9984:
9980:
9976:
9969:
9966:
9961:
9957:
9953:
9949:
9945:
9941:
9937:
9933:
9932:
9924:
9921:
9916:
9912:
9908:
9904:
9900:
9893:
9890:
9886:
9882:
9879:
9874:
9871:
9866:
9862:
9855:
9852:
9847:
9843:
9839:
9835:
9831:
9827:
9826:
9818:
9815:
9810:
9806:
9802:
9798:
9794:
9790:
9785:
9780:
9776:
9772:
9765:
9762:
9757:
9753:
9749:
9745:
9741:
9737:
9736:
9731:
9725:
9722:
9717:
9713:
9709:
9705:
9701:
9697:
9696:
9691:
9685:
9682:
9677:
9673:
9669:
9665:
9661:
9657:
9653:
9649:
9648:
9640:
9637:
9632:
9628:
9624:
9620:
9616:
9612:
9608:
9604:
9603:
9595:
9592:
9587:
9583:
9579:
9575:
9568:
9565:
9560:
9556:
9552:
9548:
9544:
9540:
9536:
9532:
9531:
9523:
9520:
9509:
9508:
9503:
9496:
9493:
9488:
9482:
9478:
9477:
9469:
9467:
9465:
9461:
9450:on 2013-10-09
9449:
9445:
9441:
9435:
9432:
9421:on 2013-12-14
9420:
9416:
9412:
9406:
9403:
9392:on 2018-10-10
9391:
9387:
9381:
9378:
9373:
9367:
9363:
9359:
9358:
9350:
9347:
9342:
9336:
9332:
9328:
9321:
9319:
9315:
9310:
9304:
9300:
9296:
9295:
9287:
9284:
9279:
9275:
9271:
9267:
9263:
9259:
9255:
9251:
9246:
9241:
9237:
9233:
9229:
9221:
9218:
9213:
9209:
9205:
9201:
9197:
9193:
9189:
9185:
9180:
9175:
9171:
9167:
9160:
9157:
9145:
9141:
9135:
9132:
9127:
9123:
9116:
9113:
9107:
9102:
9098:
9094:
9090:
9086:
9085:
9080:
9073:
9070:
9064:
9059:
9055:
9051:
9047:
9043:
9042:
9037:
9030:
9027:
9022:
9018:
9014:
9010:
9006:
9002:
9001:
8993:
8990:
8985:
8981:
8977:
8973:
8969:
8965:
8964:
8956:
8953:
8948:
8944:
8940:
8936:
8932:
8928:
8927:
8919:
8916:
8905:
8901:
8895:
8892:
8887:
8881:
8877:
8873:
8869:
8865:
8858:
8856:
8852:
8841:
8837:
8831:
8828:
8823:
8819:
8815:
8811:
8807:
8803:
8799:
8795:
8794:
8786:
8783:
8778:
8774:
8770:
8766:
8762:
8758:
8757:
8756:Physics Today
8749:
8747:
8745:
8741:
8736:
8733:(in German).
8732:
8731:
8723:
8720:
8715:
8709:
8705:
8701:
8700:
8692:
8690:
8686:
8674:
8668:
8664:
8663:
8655:
8652:
8647:
8641:
8637:
8633:
8626:
8623:
8618:
8612:
8608:
8604:
8600:
8599:
8591:
8588:
8583:
8579:
8575:
8571:
8567:
8563:
8558:
8553:
8550:(1): 012015.
8549:
8545:
8544:
8536:
8533:
8528:
8522:
8518:
8514:
8507:
8505:
8503:
8501:
8499:
8495:
8489:
8485:
8482:
8480:
8477:
8474:
8470:
8467:
8465:
8462:
8460:
8457:
8455:
8452:
8450:
8447:
8445:
8442:
8441:
8437:
8435:
8433:
8429:
8424:
8411:
8403:
8401:
8399:
8385:
8382:
8359:
8354:
8331:
8327:
8323:
8318:
8314:
8312:
8308:
8307:hydrogen atom
8299:
8294:
8287:
8284:
8281:
8280:
8276:
8273:
8270:
8269:
8265:
8262:
8259:
8258:
8254:
8251:
8248:
8247:
8243:
8240:
8237:
8236:
8229:
8223:
8221:Forbiddenness
8220:
8219:
8216:
8199:
8181:
8176:
8168:
8165:
8159:
8156:
8150:
8147:
8144:
8141:
8138:
8135:
8132:
8129:
8126:
8123:
8120:
8117:
8098:
8090:
8083:require high
8082:
8078:
8072:
8063:
8061:
8059:
8043:
8021:
8017:
7994:
7991:
7981:
7972:
7962:
7953:
7949:
7943:
7939:
7935:
7930:
7927:
7898:
7895:
7892:
7889:
7886:
7883:
7860:
7857:
7854:
7846:
7838:
7836:
7822:
7814:
7811:
7793:
7789:
7766:
7762:
7739:
7736:
7726:
7717:
7713:
7707:
7703:
7699:
7694:
7665:
7662:
7659:
7636:
7633:
7630:
7622:
7614:
7612:
7609:
7605:
7600:
7593:
7584:
7576:
7574:
7571:
7569:
7565:
7561:
7553:
7551:
7545:
7541:
7537:
7529:
7527:
7524:
7511:
7503:
7500:
7497:
7494:
7490:
7486:
7483:
7478:
7475:
7472:
7466:
7460:
7457:
7454:
7448:
7440:
7437:
7431:
7427:
7421:
7403:
7397:
7393:
7389:
7386:
7363:
7360:
7350:
7346:
7341:
7337:
7333:
7330:
7327:
7324:
7300:
7296:
7290:
7286:
7282:
7279:
7274:
7271:
7256:
7248:
7239:
7226:
7221:
7208:
7205:
7202:
7199:
7183:
7180:
7176:
7170:
7167:
7164:
7161:
7153:
7150:
7147:
7136:
7128:
7125:
7122:
7119:
7105:
7102:
7099:
7093:
7087:
7081:
7078:
7075:
7069:
7061:
7054:
7052:
7049:
7043:
7019:
7011:
7008:
7002:
6997:
6989:
6985:
6981:
6973:
6970:
6961:
6957:
6953:
6948:
6942:
6938:
6934:
6917:
6902:
6894:
6891:
6888:
6882:
6879:
6873:
6870:
6867:
6861:
6855:
6847:
6843:
6839:
6833:
6827:
6819:
6815:
6811:
6806:
6802:
6794:
6787:
6782:
6775:
6773:
6770:
6749:
6744:
6740:
6736:
6731:
6727:
6722:
6717:
6712:
6702:
6698:
6677:
6673:
6670:
6666:
6643:
6639:
6635:
6631:
6628:
6608:
6603:
6599:
6594:
6586:
6582:
6577:
6573:
6569:
6564:
6554:
6550:
6529:
6523:
6519:
6515:
6510:
6506:
6502:
6498:
6475:
6469:
6465:
6460:
6456:
6453:
6407:
6359:
6358:
6357:
6350:
6348:
6332:
6296:
6283:
6278:
6274:
6269:
6263:
6259:
6255:
6252:
6248:
6243:
6233:
6229:
6208:
6204:
6201:
6197:
6174:
6170:
6166:
6162:
6159:
6139:
6134:
6130:
6125:
6117:
6113:
6108:
6104:
6099:
6095:
6091:
6087:
6082:
6072:
6068:
6047:
6041:
6037:
6033:
6029:
6006:
6000:
5996:
5991:
5987:
5984:
5920:
5890:
5889:
5888:
5882:
5880:
5864:
5828:
5812:
5808:
5803:
5798:
5793:
5783:
5780:
5760:
5756:
5753:
5749:
5726:
5722:
5718:
5714:
5711:
5682:
5677:
5667:
5664:
5644:
5638:
5634:
5612:
5589:
5583:
5579:
5563:
5547:
5542:
5538:
5532:
5527:
5524:
5521:
5517:
5513:
5508:
5504:
5498:
5494:
5490:
5487:
5482:
5478:
5473:
5450:
5444:
5440:
5436:
5431:
5427:
5422:
5399:
5395:
5384:
5356:
5347:
5340:
5317:
5313:
5270:
5247:
5241:
5237:
5210:
5206:
5201:
5193:
5184:
5177:
5173:
5168:
5164:
5160:
5156:
5151:
5141:
5138:
5118:
5112:
5108:
5104:
5100:
5077:
5071:
5067:
5062:
5058:
5055:
5048:
5047:
5046:
4981:
4951:
4950:
4949:
4943:
4937:
4934:
4931:
4928:
4927:
4923:
4919:
4916:
4910:
4907:
4906:
4903:
4898:
4892:
4889:
4888:
4885:
4878:
4873:
4870:
4869:
4866:
4863:
4860:
4857:
4856:
4853:
4850:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4838:
4835:
4828:
4820:
4817:
4816:
4812:
4808:
4799:
4792:
4791:
4788:
4785:
4779:
4777:
4772:
4771:
4767:
4764:
4761:
4755:
4752:
4751:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4736:
4732:
4727:
4725:
4721:
4709:
4700:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4670:
4667:
4664:
4644:
4641:
4638:
4630:
4625:
4619:
4617:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4562:
4543:
4534:
4527:
4515:
4482:
4462:
4456:
4452:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4436:
4425:
4423:
4401:
4397:
4388:
4379:
4376:
4371:
4362:
4352:
4348:
4342:
4313:
4310:
4305:
4289:
4286:
4278:
4273:
4264:
4241:
4238:
4233:
4230:
4222:
4217:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4165:
4160:
4152:
4135:
4131:
4123:
4122:
4121:
4105:
4094:
4088:
4084:
4079:
4075:
4068:
4065:
4054:
4049:
4047:
4044:10 years
4000:
3980:
3976:
3968:
3966:
3918:
3910:
3905:
3880:
3878:
3876:
3805:
3801:
3793:
3789:
3781:
3777:
3769:
3765:
3759:
3751:
3749:
3740:
3732:
3728:
3712:
3709:
3706:
3701:
3681:
3678:
3674:
3655:
3652:
3648:
3630:
3627:
3623:
3604:
3603:
3599:
3594:
3574:
3571:
3566:
3547:
3544:
3540:
3521:
3518:
3515:
3512:
3508:
3489:
3488:
3484:
3479:
3457:
3454:
3450:
3432:
3429:
3425:
3406:
3403:
3400:
3397:
3393:
3374:
3373:
3370:
3369:
3368:
3366:
3362:
3356:
3346:
3339:
3337:
3335:
3330:
3328:
3323:
3302:
3296:
3212:
3211:
3210:
3208:
3204:
3162:
3114:
3113:
3112:
3110:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3038:
2959:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2951:
2893:
2871:
2807:
2806:
2805:
2747:
2717:
2716:
2715:
2713:
2674:
2631:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2556:
2475:
2474:
2473:
2453:
2411:
2390:
2386:
2302:
2301:
2300:
2243:
2238:
2236:
2235:atomic number
2232:
2162:
2132:
2131:
2130:
2089:
2084:
2065:
2064:atomic number
2061:
2057:
2031:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1976:
1971:
1964:
1962:
1960:
1955:
1935:
1934:Wu experiment
1931:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1917:Tsung-Dao Lee
1910:
1908:
1906:
1902:
1901:Hideki Yukawa
1898:
1894:
1889:
1887:
1864:
1860:
1857: decay (
1838:
1797: +
1759: +
1739:
1735:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1685:
1681:
1680:famous letter
1676:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1652:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1625:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1614:Hans Geiger's
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1579:
1577:
1575:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1544:transmutation
1541:
1536:
1533:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1454:
1449:
1447:
1435:
1431:
1350:
1349:
1348:
1346:
1342:
1257:
1256:
1255:
1253:
1249:
1244:
1242:
1219:
1193:
1192:atomic number
1186:
1182:
1097:
1096:
1095:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1080:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1068:lepton number
1064:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1042:
1040:
1039:is released.
1038:
1033:
1029:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1001:
999:
997:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
975:
971:in so-called
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
941:beta particle
938:
934:
930:
926:
914:
909:
907:
902:
900:
895:
894:
892:
891:
885:
875:
872:
867:
861:
860:
859:
858:
851:
848:
846:
843:
841:
838:
836:
833:
831:
828:
826:
823:
821:
818:
816:
813:
811:
808:
806:
803:
801:
798:
796:
793:
791:
788:
786:
783:
781:
778:
776:
773:
771:
768:
766:
763:
761:
758:
756:
753:
751:
748:
746:
743:
741:
738:
736:
733:
731:
728:
726:
723:
721:
718:
716:
713:
711:
708:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
692:
689:
684:
683:
676:
673:
671:
668:
666:
663:
662:
659:
654:
653:
644:
641:
639:
636:
634:
631:
630:
628:
627:
622:
619:
617:
614:
612:
609:
608:
604:
603:
600:
597:
596:
593:
588:
583:
582:
575:
572:
568:
567:by cosmic ray
565:
564:
563:
560:
559:
553:
552:
543:
540:
538:
535:
534:
533:
530:
526:
523:
521:
518:
517:
516:
513:
509:
506:
505:
504:
501:
500:
494:
493:
486:
483:
479:
478:pair breaking
476:
475:
474:
471:
469:
466:
465:
462:
457:
456:
449:
446:
444:
443:Decay product
441:
439:
436:
434:
431:
430:
427:
424:
422:
419:
417:
416:Cluster decay
414:
412:
409:
405:
402:
400:
397:
396:
395:
392:
390:
387:
383:
380:
376:
373:
372:
371:
368:
367:
366:
363:
361:
358:
357:
354:
349:
348:
341:
338:
336:
333:
331:
328:
326:
323:
321:
318:
316:
313:
312:
306:
305:
296:
293:
292:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
272:
269:
265:
261:
260:Mirror nuclei
258:
257:
253:
250:
249:
246:
245:
242: −
241:
236:
233:
232:
229:
228:
223:
220:
219:
216:
215:
210:
207:
206:
202:
201:
196:
193:
192:
188:
183:
182:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
160:
157:
156:
153:
148:
147:
142:
139:
137:
134:
132:
131:Nuclear force
129:
127:
124:
120:
117:
115:
112:
111:
110:
107:
105:
102:
101:
100:
99:
95:
91:
90:
87:
83:
76:
58:
54:
32:
19:
18:Beta emission
10421:Photofission
10385:
10377:
10251:
10190:
10182:
10148:
10134:
10124:Bibliography
10106:10486/663891
10071:
10065:
10023:
10017:
10011:
9978:
9974:
9968:
9935:
9929:
9923:
9906:
9902:
9892:
9873:
9860:
9854:
9829:
9823:
9817:
9774:
9770:
9764:
9742:(10): 1207.
9739:
9733:
9724:
9699:
9693:
9684:
9651:
9645:
9639:
9606:
9600:
9594:
9573:
9567:
9534:
9528:
9522:
9511:. Retrieved
9507:HyperPhysics
9505:
9500:Nave, C. R.
9495:
9475:
9452:. Retrieved
9448:the original
9443:
9434:
9423:. Retrieved
9419:the original
9414:
9405:
9394:. Retrieved
9390:the original
9380:
9356:
9349:
9326:
9293:
9286:
9235:
9231:
9227:
9220:
9169:
9165:
9159:
9147:. Retrieved
9134:
9125:
9115:
9088:
9082:
9072:
9045:
9039:
9029:
9004:
8998:
8992:
8967:
8961:
8955:
8930:
8924:
8918:
8907:. Retrieved
8894:
8867:
8843:. Retrieved
8839:
8830:
8797:
8791:
8785:
8760:
8754:
8734:
8728:
8722:
8698:
8676:. Retrieved
8661:
8654:
8631:
8625:
8597:
8590:
8547:
8541:
8535:
8512:
8471:, a form of
8464:Radionuclide
8454:Betavoltaics
8425:
8413:
8398:less than 1%
8386:
8319:
8315:
8311:decay energy
8303:
8238:Superallowed
8197:
8089:nuclear spin
8070:
8067:
7844:
7842:
7620:
7618:
7610:
7603:
7586:
7572:
7568:polarization
7557:
7539:
7535:
7533:
7525:
7441:
7435:
7429:
7425:
7422:
7240:
7062:
7058:
7050:
6959:
6955:
6951:
6946:
6940:
6936:
6932:
6918:
6820:
6813:
6809:
6801:perturbation
6798:
6792:
6785:
6771:
6445:
6405:
6354:
6330:
6297:
5976:
5918:
5886:
5862:
5829:
5561:
5228:
5040:
4979:
4947:
4813:experiment.
4743:
4728:
4714:. A typical
4693:
4685:
4626:
4623:
4483:
4429:
4353:
4346:
4343:
4219:Up and down
4218:
4187:
4058:
3972:
3884:
3803:
3799:
3791:
3787:
3779:
3775:
3767:
3763:
3747:
3720:
3358:
3333:
3331:
3324:
3300:
3294:
3291:
3200:
3160:
3088:
3073:to create a
2849:
2803:
2745:
2695:
2634:
2576:
2382:
2263:) decays by
2242:free neutron
2239:
2220:
2160:
2088:antineutrino
2058:converts an
2035:
1914:
1905:Luis Alvarez
1890:
1731:
1689:Enrico Fermi
1677:
1653:
1633:nuclear spin
1626:
1612:with one of
1610:spectrometer
1594:Lise Meitner
1590:distribution
1583:
1537:
1531:
1527:
1517:
1513:
1506:
1494:Paul Villard
1473:Pierre Curie
1458:
1440:
1429:
1341:magnesium-23
1338:
1245:
1240:
1217:
1178:
1081:
1065:
1052:
1048:
1046:
1030:
1002:
995:
972:
965:antineutrino
935:in which an
928:
922:
485:Photofission
433:Decay energy
364:
360:Alpha α
267:
263:
243:
239:
226:
213:
199:
10247:Alpha decay
10237:Radioactive
8874:. pp.
8763:(9): 23–8.
8079:". Nuclear
7599: value
7592: value
5383:atomic mass
4924:experiment
4354:In general
3758:mass excess
2385:fundamental
2231:mass number
1697:Clyde Cowan
1660:Nevill Mott
1645:mass number
1637:nitrogen-14
1602:Jean Danysz
1487:. In 1899,
1185:mass number
1088:nitrogen-14
1043:Description
1013:down quarks
790:Oppenheimer
468:Spontaneous
438:Decay chain
389:K/L capture
365:Beta β
235:Isodiaphers
159:Liquid drop
10477:Categories
10398:rp-process
10372:Si burning
10362:Ne burning
10332:Li burning
10252:Beta decay
9513:2013-03-09
9454:2014-09-18
9425:2014-09-18
9396:2014-09-18
9245:1805.09702
9179:1706.08687
8970:(7): 606.
8909:2009-10-07
8845:2018-04-25
8737:: 383–391.
8605:. p.
8490:References
7536:Kurie plot
7530:Kurie plot
7249:, and (if
4765:Decay mode
4729:Since the
4322:down quark
3975:half-lives
3353:See also:
3207:bromine-81
3203:krypton-81
3075:down quark
3061:decay. An
1664:Niels Bohr
1498:gamma rays
1049:beta minus
1005:weak force
929:beta decay
820:Strassmann
810:Rutherford
688:Scientists
643:Artificial
638:Cosmogenic
633:Primordial
629:Nuclides:
606:Processes:
562:Spallation
10409:processes
10393:p-process
10367:O burning
10357:C burning
10347:α process
10342:CNO cycle
10081:1001.1946
9809:119158221
9784:1206.2560
9631:250803189
9559:125763380
9479:. Wiley.
9331:CRC Press
9278:119088802
9270:0217-751X
9212:119103283
9204:2470-0010
9149:March 24,
8678:4 October
8582:118499855
8557:1412.5559
8200:= 1 or −1
8166:−
8157:π
8154:Δ
8127:−
8115:Δ
8077:forbidden
8044:σ
7995:±
7985:^
7982:τ
7966:^
7963:σ
7950:∑
7896:±
7881:Δ
7794:±
7790:τ
7740:±
7730:^
7727:τ
7714:∑
7657:Δ
7504:η
7501:π
7495:−
7487:−
7479:η
7476:π
7467:≈
7408:ℏ
7387:ρ
7358:ℏ
7331:±
7325:η
7287:α
7283:−
7209:η
7194:Γ
7184:η
7181:π
7168:−
7154:ρ
7114:Γ
7003:−
6892:−
6737:−
6699:−
6671:−
6583:ν
6574:−
6551:−
6516:−
6253:−
6230:−
6202:−
6114:ν
6105:−
6092:−
6069:−
6034:−
5754:−
5518:∑
5514:−
5351:¯
5348:ν
5188:¯
5185:ν
5174:−
5161:−
5105:−
4796:(Tritium)
4768:Comments
4731:rest mass
4596:−
4547:¯
4544:ν
4528:−
4504:→
4466:¯
4463:ℓ
4453:−
4448:ℓ
4440:≡
4398:−
4306:−
4169:¯
4098:¯
4085:−
3365:transmute
2930:. When a
2850:However,
2671:) and an
1915:In 1956,
1888:in 1935.
1732:In 1934,
1672:principle
1598:Otto Hahn
1580:Neutrinos
1345:sodium-23
1190:, but an
1092:half-life
1084:carbon-14
1053:beta plus
1009:up quarks
991:see below
825:Świątecki
740:Pi. Curie
735:Fr. Curie
730:Ir. Curie
725:Cockcroft
700:Becquerel
621:Supernova
325:Drip line
320:p–n ratio
295:Borromean
174:Ab initio
10451:Exchange
10388:-process
10380:-process
10352:Triple-α
10161:Archived
10133:(1997).
10114:55217197
10048:10062738
10003:96376008
9960:10046415
9881:Archived
9586:34001940
8822:17796274
8636:Springer
8517:Elsevier
8449:Neutrino
8438:See also
7564:helicity
6713:′
6565:′
6446:we have
6244:′
6083:′
5794:′
5678:′
5562:electron
5152:′
4629:fermions
4298:up quark
3750:nuclides
3748:isobaric
3739:nuclides
3727:nucleons
3067:up quark
3063:electron
2950:positron
2808:p → n +
2605:positron
2557:β decay
2229:are the
2005:electron
1965:β decay
1778: →
1734:Frédéric
1618:counters
1586:neutrino
1481:polonium
1252:helium-3
969:neutrino
949:positron
945:electron
939:emits a
884:Category
785:Oliphant
770:Lawrence
750:Davisson
720:Chadwick
616:Big Bang
503:electron
473:Products
394:Isomeric
285:Even/odd
262: –
237:– equal
224:– equal
222:Isotones
211:– equal
197:– equal
195:Isotopes
187:Nuclides
109:Nucleons
10430:Capture
10317:Stellar
10086:Bibcode
10028:Bibcode
9983:Bibcode
9975:Science
9940:Bibcode
9834:Bibcode
9789:Bibcode
9744:Bibcode
9704:Bibcode
9676:5307377
9656:Bibcode
9611:Bibcode
9539:Bibcode
9250:Bibcode
9184:Bibcode
9093:Bibcode
9050:Bibcode
9009:Bibcode
8972:Bibcode
8935:Bibcode
8802:Bibcode
8793:Science
8765:Bibcode
8562:Bibcode
8285:2, 3, 4
8274:1, 2, 3
8263:0, 1, 2
8249:Allowed
8099: (
8091: (
7810:isospin
7560:History
7253:is the
7042:Q value
7040:is the
5977:giving
5883:β decay
4944:β decay
4876:6147.48
4874:5125.48
4861:5390.86
4848:156.475
4776:Neutron
4753:Isotope
4214:isospin
4206:neutron
4190:neutron
3679:+
3653:→
3628:+
3572:+
3545:+
3519:→
3455:+
3430:+
3404:→
3327:K-shell
3071:W boson
2952:and an
2601:neutron
2599:into a
2429:
2417:
2407:
2395:
2383:At the
1999:into a
1997:neutron
1703:in the
1477:thorium
1465:uranium
1450:History
1250:) into
1248:tritium
1090:with a
1025:W boson
1021:flavour
957:neutron
840:Thomson
830:Szilárd
800:Purcell
780:Meitner
715:N. Bohr
710:A. Bohr
695:Alvarez
611:Stellar
515:neutron
399:Gamma γ
252:Isomers
209:Isobars
104:Nucleus
57:virtual
10112:
10046:
10001:
9958:
9807:
9674:
9629:
9584:
9557:
9483:
9368:
9337:
9305:
9276:
9268:
9210:
9202:
8882:
8820:
8710:
8669:
8642:
8613:
8580:
8523:
8322:Daudel
8194:where
8097:parity
8095:) and
8073:> 0
7815:, and
7241:where
6919:where
6762:where
6432:ν
5963:ν
5626:, and
5305:atom,
5229:where
5025:ν
4932:1162.2
4826:1982.4
4811:KATRIN
4783:782.33
4756:Energy
4221:quarks
4210:quarks
4202:proton
4194:proton
4120:where
4029:β
4011:β
3854:, and
3733:
3731:charge
3710:
3707:
3704:
3692:ν
3676:
3650:
3625:
3597:
3585:ν
3569:
3542:
3516:
3513:
3510:
3482:
3469:ν
3452:
3427:
3401:
3398:
3395:
3313:β
3278:ν
3187:ν
3098:β
3023:ν
2881:β
2859:β
2836:ν
2790:ν
2704:β
2684:ν
2644:β
2607:, and
2597:proton
2585:β
2540:ν
2454:; the
2367:ν
2272:β
2221:where
2206:ν
2120:β
2100:ν
2045:β
2007:, and
2001:proton
1986:β
1925:parity
1865:since
1848:β
1719:β
1563:β
1485:radium
1416:ν
1324:ν
1164:ν
961:proton
953:isobar
882:
850:Wigner
845:Walton
835:Teller
765:Jensen
532:proton
275:Stable
78:boson.
42:β
10407:Other
10239:decay
10164:(PDF)
10153:(PDF)
10110:S2CID
10076:arXiv
9999:S2CID
9805:S2CID
9779:arXiv
9627:S2CID
9555:S2CID
9299:Wiley
9274:S2CID
9240:arXiv
9228:V – A
9208:S2CID
9174:arXiv
8876:11–12
8578:S2CID
8552:arXiv
8360:into
8207:and Δ
8068:When
8009:with
7754:with
4914:2.467
4896:2.555
4824:960.4
4803:18.59
4699:value
4040:1.277
3946:) to
3923:) to
3915:) or
3725:) of
3205:into
2630:boson
2452:boson
2030:boson
1678:In a
1469:Marie
1343:into
1086:into
1017:quark
998:value
993:) or
815:Soddy
795:Proca
775:Mayer
755:Fermi
705:Bethe
280:Magic
10044:PMID
9956:PMID
9672:OSTI
9582:LCCN
9481:ISBN
9366:ISBN
9335:ISBN
9303:ISBN
9266:ISSN
9200:ISSN
9151:2015
8880:ISBN
8818:PMID
8708:ISBN
8680:2017
8667:ISBN
8640:ISBN
8611:ISBN
8521:ISBN
8390:41.6
8288:Yes
8266:Yes
8252:0, 1
8056:the
7808:the
7257:and
5041:The
4773:free
4694:The
3784:and
3334:only
3077:and
3057:for
2870:mass
2575:for
2233:and
2225:and
1977:for
1919:and
1736:and
1699:and
1616:new
1596:and
1483:and
1471:and
1074:and
1072:muon
1051:and
1011:and
805:Rabi
760:Hahn
670:RHIC
290:Halo
10102:hdl
10094:doi
10036:doi
9991:doi
9979:271
9948:doi
9911:doi
9842:doi
9830:106
9797:doi
9752:doi
9712:doi
9664:doi
9619:doi
9547:doi
9258:doi
9192:doi
9101:doi
9089:105
9058:doi
9046:104
9017:doi
8980:doi
8943:doi
8810:doi
8798:124
8773:doi
8570:doi
8548:578
8277:No
8255:No
8244:No
7606:= 0
6789:max
5388:by
4912:000
4894:000
4760:keV
4724:keV
4720:MeV
4349:= 0
4204:to
4192:to
3944:39%
3921:43%
3913:18%
3794:+1)
3782:−1)
2694:).
2635:In
2299:):
2111:).
2036:In
1635:of
1475:in
1463:in
1076:tau
947:or
923:In
675:LHC
589:and
10479::
10159:.
10137:.
10108:.
10100:.
10092:.
10084:.
10072:41
10070:.
10056:^
10042:.
10034:.
10024:77
10022:.
9997:.
9989:.
9977:.
9954:.
9946:.
9936:69
9934:.
9905:.
9901:.
9840:.
9828:.
9803:.
9795:.
9787:.
9775:39
9773:.
9750:.
9740:73
9738:.
9710:.
9700:49
9698:.
9670:.
9662:.
9652:83
9650:.
9625:.
9617:.
9607:11
9605:.
9580:.
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