511:, and it flags mutations that vary from the original Wuhan sequence by at least a minimum specified threshold amount. Using this strategy, she and colleagues identified a particular Spike mutation, Aspartic acid (Asp) to Glycine (Gly) at position 614 (D614G), that was gaining prevalence across the globe since February 2020. This finding, which was controversial at first, was validated by multiple other groups who showed that the D614G mutation was shown to improve the efficiency of replication and transmission of SARS-CoV-2, and this mutation, as of June 2020, has become part of all globally prevalent SARS-CoV-2 strains. As of September 28, 2021, she and her group continue to analyze GISAID data for novel variants, and she continues to be an active member of the NIH TRACE Working Group, whose objective is to "provide actionable intelligence on SARS-CoV-2 variants through genomic surveillance, data sharing and curation, and standardized
398:(killer cells). Also, Korber and her collaborators have developed a graphical analysis called Epigraph that can generate promising antigens with a mixture of epitopes. Korber explains that the approach of designing a protein via computer, combining bits of known proteins that provoke immune responses, had never been tried. She says, "Even after it worked, it was hard to convince people that this novel thing could be a vaccine because it hadn't been done before".
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352:, and evaluates the evidence for the strength of each epitope in eliciting immune responses. There is also data on the immunological profiles of individuals resistant to HIV. Korber and many other researchers have applied the data to devise possible treatments and vaccines against HIV. Her work has resulted in design of vaccines now being tested in clinical trials.
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test proteins are designed to represent the most common forms of HIV-1 virus that can be recognized by antibodies or cellular immune responses (epitopes). In 2009, Korber described the process: "I create sort of little
Frankenstein proteins that look and feel like HIV proteins but they don't exist in
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rapidly, creating multiple variants that may not be recognized by immune system components specific to the original infecting virus. The most variable region is the surface of the virus, but there is also some variation of the internal proteins involved in virus replication, which may be attacked by
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began, using a model of evolution based on the mutation rate of HIV strains and assuming that variable was the same on all branches of the evolutionary tree. In 2000 they published an estimate of approximately 1930 for the origin of the human immunodeficiency virus. Their research was covered widely
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to choose epitopes to combine into a mosaic molecule for the mosaic antigens. In 2009, she described a designed mosaic protein this way: "People didn't know if it would fold properly, if it would be antigenic, or if it would have the same sites that recognized by killer T cells". They found that the
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Several of the major variations are included in each molecule of protein, thus producing a variant protein antigen that probably does not exist in the wild virus population but should cross-react with variants that do exist. Korber has taken two different approaches to designing such antigens. Her
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Korber, Bette; Fischer, Will M.; Gnanakaran, Sandrasegaram; Yoon, Hyejin; Theiler, James; Abfalterer, Werner; Hengartner, Nick; Giorgi, Elena E.; Bhattacharya, Tanmoy; Foley, Brian; Hastie, Kathryn M.; Parker, Matthew D.; Partridge, David G.; Evans, Cariad M.; Freeman, Timothy M.; de Silva, Thushan
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Goulder, P. J. R.; Brander, C.; Yang, Y.; Tremblay, C.; Colbert, R. A.; Addo, M. M.; Rosenberg, E. S.; Nguyen, T.; Allen, R.; Trocha, A.; Altfeld, M.; He, S.; Bunce, M.; Funkhouser, R.; Pelton, S. I.; Burchett, S. K.; McIntosh, K.; Korber, B. T. M.; Walker, B. D. (2001). "Evolution and transmission
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Barouch, D. H.; O'Brien, K. L.; Simmons, N. L.; King, S. L.; Abbink, P.; Maxfield, L. F.; Sun, Y.; La Porte, A.; Riggs, A. M.; Lynch, D. M.; Clark, S. L.; Backus, K.; Perry, J. R.; Seaman, M. S.; Carville, A.; Mansfield, K. G.; Szinger, J. J.; Fischer, W.; Muldoon, M.; Korber, B. (2010).
323:. She said, "We learned a lot about HIV while he was sick. But there was no treatment for him and he died in 1991. I decided when I graduated from my PhD program that I wanted to work on HIV." Several years later, looking back on this event, she described its effects: "I
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In 2008, Worobey and collaborators used a computer modeling approach similar to Korber's but with a relaxed evolutionary model and two older samples, collected earlier than any genomes included in Korber's study, and found an origin date for HIV of approximately 1900.
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in 1999 that HIV could have jumped from chimpanzees to humans because of an accidental contamination by chimpanzee SIV of the oral polio vaccine (CHAT) used in Africa in the 1950s. Korber and her colleagues employed the Los Alamos
National Laboratory database's
377:. Korber developed a novel mosaic HIV vaccine that may slow or prevent HIV infection; this is currently in human testing in Africa. The goal of the mosaic antigen vaccine is to protect the vaccinated person against the great variety of HIV variants encountered.
343:
Korber oversees the HIV Database and
Analysis Project at Los Alamos. She and her team have built a global HIV database of more than 840,000 sequences from publications of the viral genome. In addition, the database focuses on the small regions (called
444:
In recognition of her research, Korber received the 2018 Feynman Award for
Innovation, the first woman at Los Alamos National Laboratory to receive one. She recalled that at Caltech when few women were there, she took a class with physicist
531:, working through Nurturing Orphans of AIDS for Humanity (NOAH). She has joined the Board of NOAH. She also contributed to the distribution of Earth Boxes of maintenance-free portable gardens to orphanages, clinics, and schools in Africa.
437:, the researchers tested a mosaic vaccine for safety in human subjects; it passed that test too. In 2017, the group of collaborators announced a human efficiency test with that same mosaic protein preparation, vaccinating 2,600 women in
441:, who will be examined for several years to show how efficiently, if at all, the virus interferes with infection. Korber cautioned that effectiveness of this strategy in monkeys is not a guarantee that a human vaccine will work.
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Korber, Bette; Fischer, Will M.; Gnanakaran, Sandrasegaram; Yoon, Hyejin; Theiler, James; Abfalterer, Werner; Hengartner, Nick; Giorgi, Elena E.; Bhattacharya, Tanmoy; Foley, Brian; Hastie, Kathryn M. (2020-08-20).
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Fischer, Will; Giorgi, Elena E.; Chakraborty, Srirupa; Nguyen, Kien; Bhattacharya, Tanmoy; Theiler, James; Goloboff, Pablo A.; Yoon, Hyejin; Abfalterer, Werner; Foley, Brian T.; Tegally, Houriiyah (2021-07-14).
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Out of her concern for the impact of AIDS on those with few financial resources, Korber contributed $ 50,000 from her EO Lawrence Award to help establish, along with family and friends, an AIDS orphanage in
2528:
Shen, Xiaoying; Tang, Haili; McDanal, Charlene; Wagh, Kshitij; Fischer, William; Theiler, James; Yoon, Hyejin; Li, Dapeng; Haynes, Barton F.; Sanders, Kevin O.; Gnanakaran, Sandrasegaram (2021-04-14).
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Hou, Yixuan J.; Chiba, Shiho; Halfmann, Peter; Ehre, Camille; Kuroda, Makoto; Dinnon, Kenneth H.; Leist, Sarah R.; Schäfer, Alexandra; Nakajima, Noriko; Takahashi, Kenta; Lee, Rhianna E. (2020-12-18).
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Shen, Xiaoying; Tang, Haili; McDanal, Charlene; Wagh, Kshitij; Fischer, William; Theiler, James; Yoon, Hyejin; Li, Dapeng; Haynes, Barton F.; Sanders, Kevin O.; Gnanakaran, Sandrasegaram (2021-04-14).
216:'s highest award for scientific achievement. She has also received several other awards including the Elizabeth Glaser Award for pediatric AIDS research and the Richard Feynman Award for Innovation.
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Keele, Brandon F.; Giorgi, Elena E.; Salazar-Gonzalez, Jesus F.; Decker, Julie M.; Pham, Kimmy T.; Salazar, Maria G.; Sun, Chuanxi; Grayson, Truman; Wang, Shuyi; Li, Hui; Wei, Xiping (2008-05-27). "
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Gaschen, B.; Taylor, J.; Yusim, K.; Foley, B.; Gao, F.; Lang, D.; Novitsky, V.; Haynes, B.; Hahn, B. H.; Bhattacharya, T.; Korber, B. (2002). "Diversity considerations in HIV-1 vaccine selection".
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and became friends with him. She said, "At a time when kindness seemed rare, I really appreciated his generous spirit and encouragement. I think he would have been pleased about this award".
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Li, Xiaojun; Giorgi, Elena E.; Marichannegowda, Manukumar
Honnayakanahalli; Foley, Brian; Xiao, Chuan; Kong, Xiang-Peng; Chen, Yue; Gnanakaran, S.; Korber, Bette; Gao, Feng (2020).
503:
pandemic unfolded, Korber and her Los Alamos colleagues devised computational strategies that look for evolutionary changes in genes that encode the Spike proteins that stud the
236:, where her father was a sociology professor, her mother graduated in nursing, and her sister graduated in journalism. From 1981 to 1988, she was in the graduate program at the
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Worobey, M.; Gemmel, M.; Teuwen, D.; Haselkorn, T.; Kunstman, K.; Bunce, M.; Muyembe, J.; Kabongo, J.; Kalengayi, R.; Van Marck, E.; Gilbert, M. T. P.; Wolinsky, S. M. (2008).
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Binley, J. M.; Wrin, T.; Korber, B.; Zwick, M. B.; Wang, M.; Chappey, C.; Stiegler, G.; Kunert, R.; Zolla-Pazner, S.; Katinger, H.; Petropoulos, C. J.; Burton, D. R. (2004).
1729:
Sherman, M. P.; Dube, D. K.; Saksena, N. K.; Poiesz, B. J. (1993). "Human T-cell lymphoma/Leukemia retroviruses and malignancy". In
Freireich, E. J.; Kantarjian, H. (eds.).
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I.; McDanal, Charlene; Perez, Lautaro G.; Tang, Haili; Moon-Walker, Alex; Whelan, Sean P.; LaBranche, Celia C.; Saphire, Erica O.; Montefiori, David C. (2020-08-20).
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1980:
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against the HIV/AIDS virus. She first became interested in HIV when a close friend of hers and her fiancé's at
Caltech contracted one of the first cases of AIDS in
315:
Korber conducts her research at Los Alamos
National Laboratory, where she began in 1990. Her approach involves applying computational biology to the design of a
1618:"Polymerase chain reaction analysis of defective human T-Cell leukemia virus type I proviral genomes in leukemic cells of patients with adult T-Cell leukemia"
844:
Kong, R.; Louder, M. K.; Wagh, K.; Bailer, R. T.; Greene, K.; Gao, H.; Taft, J. D.; Gazumyan, A.; Liu, C.; Nussenzweig, M. C.; Korber, B.; Montefiori, D. C.;
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568:
1540:"Developmental and tissue-specific expression of nuclear proteins that bind the regulatory element of the major histocompatibility complex Class I gene"
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that has enabled her to design novel mosaic HIV vaccines, one of which is currently in human testing in Africa. The database contains thousands of HIV
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801:"Complete protection of the BALB/c and C57BL/6J mice against Ebola and Marburg virus lethal challenges by pan-filovirus T-cell epigraph vaccine"
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50:
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Rahim, M.N.; Wee, E.G.; He, S.; Audet, J.; Tierney, K.; Moyo, N.; Hannoun, Z.; Crook, A.; Baines, A.; Korber, B.; Qiu, X.; Hanke, T. (2019).
480:
1463:"Promising Los Alamos Innovations Take the Spotlight: Bette Korber receives 2018 Richard P Feynman Innovation Award for HIV vaccine designs"
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as possible vaccines. With one series of tests, Barouch checked a number of possible ways to deliver the virus genes and chose to use the
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cells. Her work on these viral partial and complete genomes was influential and widely cited. She became a visiting faculty member at the
327:
HIV ... I lost a couple friends to it. HIV kills in horrible ways. I think of what the epidemic has done to Africa and it motivates me."
1247:"Regulation of murine Class I genes by interferons is controlled by regions located both 5' and 3' to the transcription initiation site"
434:
237:
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850:"Improving neutralization potency and breadth by combining broadly reactive HIV-1 antibodies targeting major neutralization epitopes"
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1194:"Covariation of mutations in the V3 loop of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope protein: an information theoretic analysis"
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1011:"Comprehensive cross-clade neutralization analysis of a panel of anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 monoclonal antibodies"
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In 2019, Korber led a series of lectures called
Frontiers in Science that focused on her work designing a vaccine against HIV.
487:). These two concepts of the origin of this virus plus other related theories continued to compete for scientific credibility.
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Korber, B.; Muldoon, M.; Theiler, J.; Gao, F.; Gupta, R.; Lapedes, A.; Hahn, B. H.; Wolinsky, S.; Bhattacharya, T. (2000).
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Richard
Feynman Award for Innovation 2018, Thomson Reuters Corporation 100 most influential scientists of decade 2014,
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421:(SIV), and for 66 percent of monkeys exposed multiple times, no infection resulted. Next, in collaboration with the
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Energy, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Operated by Los Alamos National Security, LLC, for the U. S. Department of.
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Energy, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Operated by Los Alamos National Security, LLC, for the U. S. Department of.
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Energy, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Operated by Los Alamos National Security, LLC, for the U. S. Department of.
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coronavirus and give it its crown-like appearance. Her strategies can examine millions of global genomes stored by
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284:
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Identification and characterization of transmitted and early founder virus envelopes in primary HIV-1 infection
166:
2530:"SARS-CoV-2 variant B.1.1.7 is susceptible to neutralizing antibodies elicited by ancestral spike vaccines"
699:"SARS-CoV-2 variant B.1.1.7 is susceptible to neutralizing antibodies elicited by ancestral spike vaccines"
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2147:
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1909:. Symbios, the NIH National Center for Physics-based Simulation of Biological Structures. pp. 20–31.
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virus as a vehicle. The tested mosaic vaccine routinely slowed monkey infection with the closely related
95:
2391:"Tracking Changes in SARS-CoV-2 Spike: Evidence that D614G Increases Infectivity of the COVID-19 Virus"
1538:
Burke, P. A.; Hirschfeld, S.; Shirayoshi, Y.; Kasik, J. W.; Hamada, K.; Appella, E.; Ozato, K. (1989).
596:"Tracking Changes in SARS-CoV-2 Spike: Evidence that D614G Increases Infectivity of the COVID-19 Virus"
1314:
Korber, B.; Kuiken, C. (2002), Leitner, T. (ed.), "The HIV Databases: History, Design, and Function",
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Sainani, K. (2009). "Evolution and HIV: Using computational phylogenetics to close in on a killer".
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newly designed antigens did fold properly and acted as a strong antigen, and were recognized by the
2253:
1925:"Epigraph: A vaccine design tool applied to an HIV therapeutic vaccine and a pan-filovirus vaccine"
925:"Mosaic HIV-1 vaccines expand the breadth and depth of cellular immune responses in rhesus monkeys"
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Feuer, G.; Chen, I. (1992). "Mechanisms of human T-cell leukemia virus-induced leukemogenesis".
32:
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1826:"T-cell vaccine strategies for human immunodeficiency virus, the virus with a thousand faces"
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2473:"SARS-CoV-2 D614G variant exhibits efficient replication ex vivo and transmission in vivo"
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responses. A recent approach that Korber and collaborators have taken is to design mosaic
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Theiler, J.; Yoon, H.; Yusim, K.; Picker, L. J.; Fruh, K.; Korber, B. (October 5, 2016).
907:
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2014: Selected to Thomson Reuters Corporation's 100 Most Influential Minds of the Decade
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1733:. Cancer Treatment and Research. Vol. 64. Boston, MA: Springer. pp. 79–103.
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2004, Los Alamos National Laboratory fellow 2002, Distinguished Alumna of CSULB 2001,
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Hooper, E. (2003). "AIDS and the polio vaccine: Edward Hopper finds new evidence".
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2796:"Los Alamos scientist Bette Korber to discuss her work developing an HIV vaccine"
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750:"Emergence of SARS-CoV-2 through recombination and strong purifying selection"
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complex type 1 genes, producing cell surface proteins that participate in the
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648:"HIV-1 and SARS-CoV-2: Patterns in the evolution of two pandemic pathogens"
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248:'s laboratory, receiving her PhD in chemistry in 1988. Her work focused on
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1237:
2637:"Two Los Alamos Medal winners recognized for revolutionary contributions"
2364:"The coronavirus has changed since it left Wuhan. Is it more infectious?"
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2019: Inventor of the Year, Battelle, 2019, Award given in Columbus, Ohio
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Korber, B.; Okayama, A.; Donnelly, R.; Tachibana, N.; Essex, M. (1991).
307:
374:
345:
316:
1948:
1702:
Bangham, C. R. (1993). "Retrovirus infections of the nervous system".
360:
Creating a vaccine against HIV has been challenging because the virus
2726:"Three LANL Scientists Noted Among Decade's Most Influential 'minds'"
2338:
2280:"Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960"
1192:
Korber, B. T.; Farber, R. M.; Wolpert, D. H.; Lapedes, A. S. (1993).
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483:, and therefore refuting concerns about using oral polio vaccine (
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2447:"Covid Mutants Multiply as Scientists Race to Decode Variations"
185:. She has contributed heavily to efforts to obtain an effective
182:
2018:. Boston, New York, and London: Little, Brown and Co. p.
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as establishing a new date for the origin of the human virus,
178:
1487:
Williams, B. R. G. (1991). Christen, P.; Hofmann, E. (eds.).
1489:"Transcriptional regulation of interferon-stimulated genes"
523:
Korber married James Theiler in 1988. They have two sons.
1357:"LANL biologist 'cautiously' optimistic about HIV vaccine"
540:
2021: Los Alamos Medal, for changing the course of science
287:(PCR) to show both complete and deleted versions of viral
1877:"New global HIV vaccine design shows promise in monkeys"
208:
at Los Alamos National Laboratory. She has received the
2699:"R&D Magazine Announces 2018 Scientist of the Year"
1669:
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Reviews on Cancer
2675:"Inventors of Year Use Creativity as a Driving Force"
2615:
Nurturing Orphans of AIDS for Humanity (NOAH) website
571:
Scientist, for work on pediatric AIDS, presented by
515:
assessments of therapeutics against novel strains."
461:
virus with regard to when and where HIV originated,
2148:"HIV Crossed to Humans 70 Years Ago, Analysis Says"
1145:"Timing the ancestor of the HIV-1 pandemic strains"
140:
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2014:The River: A Journey to the Source of HIV and AIDS
2011:
1098:of stable CTL escape mutations in HIV infection".
467:The River: A Journey to the Source of HIV and AIDS
1595:California State University, Long Beach Chemistry
299:in 1991, continuing in that position until 2011.
64:designing AIDS vaccines using HIV virus database
2122:"AIDS Virus Originated Around 1930, Study Says"
1808:McEnerny, R. (2010), "Tracking HIV Evolution",
1251:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1198:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
896:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1245:Korber, B.; Hood, L.; Stroynowski, I. (1987).
1704:Current Opinion in Neurology and Neurosurgery
465:had postulated in a best-selling book called
409:, some of these antigens have been tested in
348:) within the virus that can be recognized by
339:Phylogenetic tree showing HIV compared to SIV
8:
2818:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2779:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2659:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2611:"Meet Our Board: Dr. Bette Korber, Director"
1731:Leukemia: Advances in Research and Treatment
561:2002: Los Alamos National Laboratory Fellow
546:2018: R&D Magazine Scientist of the Year
1316:The Molecular Epidemiology of Human Viruses
380:Since the proteins of HIV vary so greatly,
267:She then became a postdoctoral fellow with
181:virus that causes infection and eventually
1824:Korber, B.; Levin, N.; Haynes, B. (2009).
1389:US Department of Energy, Office of Science
549:2018: Richard Feynman Award for Innovation
31:
20:
2869:California Institute of Technology alumni
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2339:"COVID-19 Viral Genome Analysis Pipeline"
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1956:
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1431:California State University at Long Beach
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2874:Los Alamos National Laboratory personnel
2752:"A short history of women at Los Alamos"
1981:"A short history of women at Los Alamos"
1812:, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 4–9
1493:European Journal of Biochemistry Reviews
1427:"2001 Distinguished Alumna Bette Korber"
1318:, Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers
481:discrediting the oral polio virus theory
1303:
234:California State University, Long Beach
41:women at the orphanage she helped found
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968:"HIV-1 vaccine development after STEP"
51:California State University Long Beach
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2854:American women molecular biologists
2703:Research & Development Magazine
2590:National Institutes of Health (NIH)
1385:"The Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award"
966:Barouch, D. H.; Korber, B. (2010).
564:2001: Distinguished Alumna of CSULB
279:, the human leukemia virus, at the
37:Korber with basket made for her by
2362:Vartabedian, Ralph (2 July 2020).
1506:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1991.tb21041.x
1027:10.1128/jvi.78.23.13232-13252.2004
238:California Institute of Technology
55:California Institute of Technology
14:
2146:Maugh II, T. (February 2, 2000).
2070:"The hunt for the origin of AIDS"
984:10.1146/annurev.med.042508.093728
435:Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
240:(Caltech), where she worked with
80:Scientist for pediatric AIDS 1997
2174:"Theories on AIDS origin argued"
2095:"Scientists find origin of AIDS"
1987:. March 22, 2018. Archived from
1881:DOE (Department of Energy) Pulse
1635:10.1128/JVI.65.10.5471-5476.1991
1544:Journal of Experimental Medicine
427:Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies
16:American computational biologist
2252:Carmichael, M. (May 30, 2006).
2120:Altman, L. (February 2, 2000).
474:data to calculate when the HIV
283:until 1990. There, Korber used
281:Harvard School of Public Health
2172:Brown, D. (February 2, 2000).
1985:Los Alamos National Laboratory
1588:"1981 graduates: Bette Korber"
311:HIV release from infected cell
191:Los Alamos National Laboratory
118:Los Alamos National Laboratory
1:
2859:American molecular biologists
2724:Matlock, S. (July 22, 2014).
2216:10.1126/science.288.5472.1757
1907:Biomedical Computation Review
1355:Edge, S. (December 2, 2017).
1169:10.1126/science.288.5472.1789
557:Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award
423:National Institutes of Health
419:Simian Immunodeficiency Virus
264:induced by viral infections.
210:Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award
189:. She created a database at
74:Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award
1681:10.1016/0304-419X(92)90017-S
818:10.1371/journal.ppat.1007564
250:regulation of the expression
197:sequences and related data.
2258:WGBH educational foundation
2198:Hillis, D. (June 9, 2000).
1739:10.1007/978-1-4615-3086-2_5
2890:
2546:10.1016/j.chom.2021.03.002
2407:10.1016/j.cell.2020.06.043
2068:Cohen, J. (October 2000).
715:10.1016/j.chom.2021.03.002
664:10.1016/j.chom.2021.05.012
612:10.1016/j.cell.2020.06.043
275:of the AIDS/HIV virus and
260:of tissue transplants, by
2254:"Theories of HIV Origins"
972:Annual Review of Medicine
285:polymerase chain reaction
228:. She earned her B.S. in
200:Korber is a scientist in
156:
84:
30:
224:Bette Korber grew up in
220:Early life and education
2844:Computational chemistry
2534:Cell Host & Microbe
2497:10.1126/science.abe8499
1272:10.1073/pnas.84.10.3380
1219:10.1073/pnas.90.15.7176
1074:10.1126/science.1070441
908:10.1073/pnas.0802203105
703:Cell Host & Microbe
652:Cell Host & Microbe
167:computational biologist
2048:London Review of Books
1556:10.1084/jem.169.4.1309
774:10.1126/sciadv.abb9153
453:Dating the HIV-1 virus
407:Harvard Medical School
401:In collaboration with
389:group has developed a
340:
312:
273:molecular epidemiology
2849:Computational biology
2586:"TRACE Working Group"
587:Selected publications
431:Johnson & Johnson
338:
310:
96:computational biology
2864:American virologists
2730:Santa Fe New Mexican
1991:on September 4, 2019
1842:10.1128/jvi.00114-09
1361:Santa Fe New Mexican
866:10.1128/jvi.03136-14
321:Pasadena, California
214:Department of Energy
2489:2020Sci...370.1464H
2483:(6523): 1464–1468.
2304:10.1038/nature07390
2296:2008Natur.455..661W
2210:(5472): 1757–1759.
2010:Hooper, E. (1999).
1941:2016NatSR...633987T
1883:. November 18, 2018
1830:Journal of Virology
1622:Journal of Virology
1467:Newswise Los Alamos
1263:1987PNAS...84.3380K
1210:1993PNAS...90.7176K
1161:2000Sci...288.1789K
1155:(5472): 1789–1796.
1112:2001Natur.412..334G
1066:2002Sci...296.2354G
1060:(5577): 2354–2360.
1021:(23): 13232–13252.
1015:Journal of Virology
854:Journal of Virology
766:2020SciA....6.9153L
459:history of HIV/AIDS
226:Southern California
202:theoretical biology
175:population genetics
104:population genetics
2705:. October 11, 2018
2401:(4): 812–827.e19.
2101:. February 1, 2000
1929:Scientific Reports
606:(4): 812–827.e19.
476:sequence evolution
439:Sub Saharan Africa
391:computer algorithm
356:HIV vaccine design
341:
313:
297:Santa Fe Institute
254:histocompatibility
122:Santa Fe Institute
2540:(4): 529–539.e3.
2368:Los Angeles Times
2290:(7213): 661–664.
2152:Los Angeles Times
1949:10.1038/srep33987
1836:(17): 8306–8314.
1748:978-1-4613-6348-4
1628:(10): 5471–5476.
1516:978-3-540-55012-9
1257:(10): 3380–3384.
1204:(15): 7176–7180.
902:(21): 7552–7557.
709:(4): 529–539.e3.
535:Awards and honors
405:, a professor at
396:cytotoxic T cells
367:cellular immunity
271:, working on the
242:Iwona Stroynowski
171:molecular biology
160:
159:
151:Iwona Stroynowski
100:molecular biology
86:Scientific career
2881:
2824:
2823:
2817:
2809:
2807:
2806:
2791:
2785:
2784:
2778:
2770:
2768:
2767:
2758:. Archived from
2747:
2741:
2740:
2738:
2736:
2721:
2715:
2714:
2712:
2710:
2695:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2685:
2671:
2665:
2664:
2658:
2650:
2648:
2647:
2632:
2626:
2625:
2623:
2621:
2607:
2601:
2600:
2598:
2597:
2582:
2576:
2575:
2565:
2525:
2519:
2518:
2508:
2468:
2462:
2461:
2459:
2458:
2443:
2437:
2436:
2426:
2385:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2349:
2335:
2326:
2325:
2315:
2275:
2269:
2268:
2266:
2264:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2200:"Origins of HIV"
2195:
2189:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2169:
2163:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2143:
2137:
2136:
2134:
2132:
2117:
2111:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2091:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2080:
2065:
2056:
2055:
2043:
2034:
2033:
2017:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1960:
1920:
1911:
1910:
1902:
1893:
1892:
1890:
1888:
1873:
1864:
1863:
1853:
1821:
1815:
1813:
1805:
1782:
1780:
1774:
1770:
1768:
1760:
1726:
1720:
1719:
1699:
1693:
1692:
1675:(2–3): 223–233.
1664:
1658:
1657:
1647:
1637:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1592:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1567:
1550:(4): 1309–1320.
1535:
1529:
1528:
1508:
1484:
1478:
1477:
1475:
1473:
1459:
1442:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1423:
1400:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1381:
1372:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1352:
1321:
1319:
1311:
1294:
1284:
1274:
1241:
1231:
1221:
1188:
1139:
1120:10.1038/35085576
1093:
1048:
1038:
1005:
995:
962:
952:
887:
877:
860:(5): 2659–2671.
840:
830:
820:
795:
785:
760:(27): eabb9153.
754:Science Advances
744:
734:
693:
683:
658:(7): 1093–1110.
641:
631:
569:Elizabeth Glaser
169:focusing on the
142:Doctoral advisor
136:
78:Elizabeth Glaser
35:
21:
2889:
2888:
2884:
2883:
2882:
2880:
2879:
2878:
2829:
2828:
2827:
2810:
2804:
2802:
2793:
2792:
2788:
2771:
2765:
2763:
2749:
2748:
2744:
2734:
2732:
2723:
2722:
2718:
2708:
2706:
2697:
2696:
2692:
2683:
2681:
2679:Inside Battelle
2673:
2672:
2668:
2651:
2645:
2643:
2634:
2633:
2629:
2619:
2617:
2609:
2608:
2604:
2595:
2593:
2584:
2583:
2579:
2527:
2526:
2522:
2470:
2469:
2465:
2456:
2454:
2445:
2444:
2440:
2387:
2386:
2382:
2372:
2370:
2361:
2360:
2356:
2347:
2345:
2337:
2336:
2329:
2277:
2276:
2272:
2262:
2260:
2251:
2250:
2246:
2236:
2234:
2197:
2196:
2192:
2182:
2180:
2178:Washington Post
2171:
2170:
2166:
2156:
2154:
2145:
2144:
2140:
2130:
2128:
2119:
2118:
2114:
2104:
2102:
2093:
2092:
2088:
2078:
2076:
2067:
2066:
2059:
2045:
2044:
2037:
2030:
2009:
2008:
2004:
1994:
1992:
1979:
1978:
1974:
1922:
1921:
1914:
1904:
1903:
1896:
1886:
1884:
1875:
1874:
1867:
1823:
1822:
1818:
1807:
1806:
1785:
1771:
1761:
1749:
1728:
1727:
1723:
1701:
1700:
1696:
1666:
1665:
1661:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1600:
1598:
1590:
1586:
1585:
1581:
1537:
1536:
1532:
1517:
1486:
1485:
1481:
1471:
1469:
1461:
1460:
1445:
1435:
1433:
1425:
1424:
1403:
1393:
1391:
1383:
1382:
1375:
1365:
1363:
1354:
1353:
1324:
1313:
1312:
1305:
1301:
1244:
1191:
1142:
1106:(6844): 334–8.
1096:
1051:
1008:
965:
941:10.1038/nm.2089
929:Nature Medicine
921:
843:
811:(2): e1007564.
798:
747:
696:
644:
592:
589:
581:
573:Hillary Clinton
537:
521:
497:
455:
447:Richard Feynman
429:(a division of
358:
333:
305:
222:
165:is an American
134:
47:Alma mater
42:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2887:
2885:
2877:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2831:
2830:
2826:
2825:
2786:
2742:
2716:
2690:
2666:
2627:
2602:
2577:
2520:
2463:
2438:
2380:
2354:
2327:
2270:
2244:
2190:
2164:
2138:
2126:New York Times
2112:
2086:
2057:
2035:
2028:
2002:
1972:
1912:
1894:
1865:
1816:
1783:
1747:
1721:
1710:(2): 176–181.
1694:
1659:
1608:
1579:
1530:
1515:
1499:(1): 111–121.
1479:
1443:
1401:
1373:
1322:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1296:
1295:
1242:
1189:
1140:
1094:
1049:
1006:
963:
935:(3): 319–323.
919:
888:
846:Mascola, J. R.
841:
805:PLOS Pathogens
796:
745:
694:
642:
588:
585:
580:
577:
576:
575:
565:
562:
559:
553:
550:
547:
544:
541:
536:
533:
520:
517:
496:
493:
454:
451:
357:
354:
332:
329:
304:
301:
221:
218:
158:
157:
154:
153:
144:
138:
137:
131:
125:
124:
115:
111:
110:
93:
89:
88:
82:
81:
70:
66:
65:
62:
61:Known for
58:
57:
48:
44:
43:
36:
28:
27:
24:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2886:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2839:Living people
2837:
2836:
2834:
2821:
2815:
2801:
2797:
2790:
2787:
2782:
2776:
2762:on 2019-09-04
2761:
2757:
2753:
2746:
2743:
2731:
2727:
2720:
2717:
2704:
2700:
2694:
2691:
2680:
2676:
2670:
2667:
2662:
2656:
2642:
2638:
2631:
2628:
2616:
2612:
2606:
2603:
2591:
2587:
2581:
2578:
2573:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2524:
2521:
2516:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2467:
2464:
2452:
2451:Bloomberg.com
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2442:
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2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
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2355:
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2334:
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2328:
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2319:
2314:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2274:
2271:
2263:September 15,
2259:
2255:
2248:
2245:
2237:September 28,
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2194:
2191:
2183:September 28,
2179:
2175:
2168:
2165:
2157:September 28,
2153:
2149:
2142:
2139:
2131:September 28,
2127:
2123:
2116:
2113:
2105:September 15,
2100:
2096:
2090:
2087:
2079:September 15,
2075:
2071:
2064:
2062:
2058:
2053:
2049:
2042:
2040:
2036:
2031:
2029:9780316372619
2025:
2021:
2016:
2015:
2006:
2003:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1976:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1919:
1917:
1913:
1908:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1887:September 28,
1882:
1878:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1820:
1817:
1811:
1804:
1802:
1800:
1798:
1796:
1794:
1792:
1790:
1788:
1784:
1778:
1766:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1725:
1722:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1698:
1695:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1663:
1660:
1655:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1612:
1609:
1597:. August 1988
1596:
1589:
1583:
1580:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1534:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1498:
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1483:
1480:
1468:
1464:
1458:
1456:
1454:
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1450:
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1444:
1432:
1428:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1402:
1390:
1386:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1366:September 28,
1362:
1358:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1345:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1331:
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1317:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1298:
1292:
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1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
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1243:
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1235:
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1211:
1207:
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1199:
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1190:
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1154:
1150:
1146:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1037:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1007:
1003:
999:
994:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
964:
960:
956:
951:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
920:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
876:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
842:
838:
834:
829:
824:
819:
814:
810:
806:
802:
797:
793:
789:
784:
779:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
746:
742:
738:
733:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
695:
691:
687:
682:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
643:
639:
635:
630:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
591:
590:
586:
584:
578:
574:
570:
566:
563:
560:
558:
554:
551:
548:
545:
542:
539:
538:
534:
532:
530:
524:
519:Personal life
518:
516:
514:
510:
506:
502:
494:
492:
488:
486:
482:
477:
473:
468:
464:
463:Edward Hooper
460:
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450:
448:
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428:
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404:
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290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
265:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
232:in 1981 from
231:
227:
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211:
207:
203:
198:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
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132:
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126:
123:
119:
116:
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105:
101:
97:
94:
90:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
56:
52:
49:
45:
40:
34:
29:
22:
19:
2803:. Retrieved
2800:www.lanl.gov
2799:
2789:
2764:. Retrieved
2760:the original
2756:www.lanl.gov
2755:
2745:
2733:. Retrieved
2729:
2719:
2707:. Retrieved
2702:
2693:
2682:. Retrieved
2678:
2669:
2644:. Retrieved
2641:www.lanl.gov
2640:
2630:
2620:September 1,
2618:. Retrieved
2614:
2605:
2594:. Retrieved
2592:. 2021-06-21
2589:
2580:
2537:
2533:
2523:
2480:
2476:
2466:
2455:. Retrieved
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