2221:. For example, in wound healing in animals, white blood cells move to the wound site to kill the microorganisms that cause infection. Cell motility involves many receptors, crosslinking, bundling, binding, adhesion, motor and other proteins. The process is divided into three steps: protrusion of the leading edge of the cell, adhesion of the leading edge and de-adhesion at the cell body and rear, and cytoskeletal contraction to pull the cell forward. Each step is driven by physical forces generated by unique segments of the cytoskeleton.
1444:
1164:
1080:
1566:
2680:
541:
2563:
1914:
549:
5688:
6187:
1584:(ER) is a transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications and specific destinations, as compared to molecules that float freely in the cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has ribosomes on its surface that secrete proteins into the ER, and the smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes. The smooth ER plays a role in calcium sequestration and release and also helps in synthesis of
2269:
343:
49:
2503:
6199:
78:
4739:... I could exceedingly plainly perceive it to be all perforated and porous, much like a Honey-comb, but that the pores of it were not regular these pores, or cells, were indeed the first microscopical pores I ever saw, and perhaps, that were ever seen, for I had not met with any Writer or Person, that had made any mention of them before this ...
2980:
1872:
are organelles for cellular mobility. The bacterial flagellum stretches from cytoplasm through the cell membrane(s) and extrudes through the cell wall. They are long and thick thread-like appendages, protein in nature. A different type of flagellum is found in archaea and a different type is found in
2609:. It evolved some 2 billion years ago into a population of single-celled organisms that included the last eukaryotic common ancestor, gaining capabilities along the way, though the sequence of the steps involved has been disputed, and may not have started with symbiogenesis. It featured at least one
2050:
when it is detected. Diverse repair processes have evolved in organisms ranging from bacteria to humans. The widespread prevalence of these repair processes indicates the importance of maintaining cellular DNA in an undamaged state in order to avoid cell death or errors of replication due to damage
1775:
Many cells also have structures which exist wholly or partially outside the cell membrane. These structures are notable because they are not protected from the external environment by the cell membrane. In order to assemble these structures, their components must be carried across the cell membrane
1727:
molecules. They each consist of two subunits, and act as an assembly line where RNA from the nucleus is used to synthesise proteins from amino acids. Ribosomes can be found either floating freely or bound to a membrane (the rough endoplasmatic reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell membrane in
1702:, have contractile vacuoles, which can pump water out of the cell if there is too much water. The vacuoles of plant cells and fungal cells are usually larger than those of animal cells. Vacuoles of plant cells are surrounded by a membrane which transports ions against concentration gradients.
1794:. The cell wall acts to protect the cell mechanically and chemically from its environment, and is an additional layer of protection to the cell membrane. Different types of cell have cell walls made up of different materials; plant cell walls are primarily made up of
1266:
1207:. There are a great number of proteins associated with them, each controlling a cell's structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments. The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is less well-studied but is involved in the maintenance of cell shape,
1495:, space between these two membrane is called perinuclear space. The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA from various molecules that could accidentally damage its structure or interfere with its processing. During processing,
1403:
of the human body (such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each organ performing a different function). Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have organelles, but prokaryotic organelles are generally simpler and are not membrane-bound.
2711:
both also studied cells of both animal and plants. What they discovered were significant differences between the two types of cells. This put forth the idea that cells were not only fundamental to plants, but animals as well.
2984:
2188:, where they are translated into polypeptide sequences. The ribosome mediates the formation of a polypeptide sequence based on the mRNA sequence. The mRNA sequence directly relates to the polypeptide sequence by binding to
2107:
Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular metabolism. Cell metabolism is the process by which individual cells process nutrient molecules. Metabolism has two distinct divisions:
3144:
Bianconi, Eva; Piovesan, Allison; Facchin, Federica; Beraudi, Alina; Casadei, Raffaella; Frabetti, Flavia; Vitale, Lorenza; Pelleri, Maria Chiara; Tassani, Simone; Piva, Francesco; Perez-Amodio, Soledad (2013-11-01).
443:(archaea) which only possess the cell membrane layer. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from its environment, serving as a protective filter. The cell wall consists of
3597:
586:. These cells are about fifteen times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as a thousand times greater in volume. The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as compared to prokaryotes is
294:, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells.
1746:, thus affecting the colour of the plant and organism. And these pigments also helps in food storage and tapping of light energy. There are three types of plastids based upon the specific pigments.
6172:
1127:
molecules that act as channels and pumps that move different molecules into and out of the cell. The membrane is semi-permeable, and selectively permeable, in that it can either let a substance (
2161:
Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation and maintenance of cellular activities. This process involves the formation of new protein molecules from
993:
Many groups of eukaryotes are single-celled. Among the many-celled groups are animals and plants. The number of cells in these groups vary with species; it has been estimated that the
3742:
2390:. However, complex multicellular organisms evolved only in six eukaryotic groups: animals, fungi, brown algae, red algae, green algae, and plants. It evolved repeatedly for plants (
2989:
2356:. Differentiation of cells is driven by different environmental cues (such as cell–cell interaction) and intrinsic differences (such as those caused by the uneven distribution of
2868:
2777:
elucidated the principle that plants and animals are made of cells, concluding that cells are a common unit of structure and development, and thus founding the cell theory.
648:
that coordinates a large number of cellular signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or alternatively to cell division and differentiation."
3867:
4703:
1219:. Intermediate filaments are heteropolymers whose subunits vary among the cell types in different tissues. Some of the subunit proteins of intermediate filaments include
997:
contains around 37 trillion (3.72Ă—10) cells, and more recent studies put this number at around 30 trillion (~36 trillion cells in the male, ~28 trillion in the female).
5537:
2544:. The early cell membranes were probably simpler and more permeable than modern ones, with only a single fatty acid chain per lipid. Lipids spontaneously form bilayered
1095:
that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell. In animals, the plasma membrane is the outer boundary of the cell, while in plants and prokaryotes it is usually covered by a
1696:
sequester waste products and in plant cells store water. They are often described as liquid filled spaces and are surrounded by a membrane. Some cells, most notably
3460:
1644:, Lysosomes are optimally active in an acidic environment. The cell could not house these destructive enzymes if they were not contained in a membrane-bound system.
3589:
4668:
5108:
4937:
130:
2605:
came together to create the first eukaryotic common ancestor. This cell had a new level of complexity and capability, with a nucleus and facultatively aerobic
4290:
3918:; Bengtson, Stefan; Canfield, Donald E.; et al. (July 2010). "Large colonial organisms with coordinated growth in oxygenated environments 2.1 Gyr ago".
2013:, or the process of duplicating a cell's genome, always happens when a cell divides through mitosis or binary fission. This occurs during the S phase of the
3387:
2657:, and a diverse range of single-celled organisms. The plants were created around 1.6 billion years ago with a second episode of symbiogenesis that added
2176:
Transcription is the process where genetic information in DNA is used to produce a complementary RNA strand. This RNA strand is then processed to give
3411:
Sato, N. (2006). "Origin and
Evolution of Plastids: Genomic View on the Unification and Diversity of Plastids". In Wise, R. R.; Hoober, J. K. (eds.).
2192:(tRNA) adapter molecules in binding pockets within the ribosome. The new polypeptide then folds into a functional three-dimensional protein molecule.
5677:
5644:
4982:
3839:
3026:
4929:
1529:
are self-replicating double membrane-bound organelles that occur in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells.
5853:
5530:
4807:
4220:
3428:
3286:
2930:
2235:
In August 2020, scientists described one way cells—in particular cells of a slime mold and mouse pancreatic cancer-derived cells—are able to
5055:, a collection of peer-reviewed still images, video clips and digital books that illustrate the structure, function and biology of the cell.
4181:
3649:
Tweedy, Luke; Thomason, Peter A.; Paschke, Peggy I.; Martin, Kirsty; Machesky, Laura M.; Zagnoni, Michele; Insall, Robert H. (August 2020).
3765:
3210:
Hatton, Ian A.; Galbraith, Eric D.; Merleau, Nono S. C.; Miettinen, Teemu P.; Smith, Benjamin McDonald; Shander, Jeffery A. (2023-09-26).
4226:
3001:
606:
The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present.
2699:, and saw a structure of small enclosures. He wrote "I could exceeding plainly perceive it to be all perforated and porous, much like a
1557:, like prokaryotes. Chloroplasts can only be found in plants and algae, and they capture the sun's energy to make carbohydrates through
1370:
is very small compared to nuclear chromosomes, it codes for 13 proteins involved in mitochondrial energy production and specific tRNAs.
4976:
4955:
4907:
4897:
4886:
4697:
4593:
3720:
3686:
3454:
2433:-like organisms that lived between 3 and 3.5 billion years ago. Other early fossils of multicellular organisms include the contested
525:
that project from the cell's surface. These are structures made of proteins that facilitate movement and communication between cells.
5101:
1515:
is a specialized region within the nucleus where ribosome subunits are assembled. In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in the
1399:
Organelles are parts of the cell that are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions, analogous to the
3886:
5523:
3627:
2800:
2239:
efficiently through a body and identify the best routes through complex mazes: generating gradients after breaking down diffused
2043:
3898:
6162:
5884:
5170:
4067:
Betts, Holly C.; Puttick, Mark N.; Clark, James W.; Williams, Tom A.; Donoghue, Philip C. J.; Pisani, Davide (20 August 2018).
2545:
478:(DNA), ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions. The genetic material is freely found in the cytoplasm. Prokaryotes can carry
5012:
1889:, plural pili) is a short, thin, hair-like filament found on the surface of bacteria. Fimbriae are formed of a protein called
447:
in bacteria and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and bursting (
6167:
4829:
4746:
4612:
Gest, H. (2004). "The discovery of microorganisms by Robert Hooke and Antoni Van
Leeuwenhoek, fellows of the Royal Society".
3572:
2513:, also called blue-green algae. They are among the oldest fossils of life on Earth. This one-billion-year-old fossil is from
762:
397:
2807:. By 1935, he had built an EM with twice the resolution of a light microscope, revealing previously unresolvable organelles.
6011:
5778:
5272:
5020:
2330:
2120:, in which the cell uses energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and perform other biological functions.
1312:
125:
3444:
5094:
2514:
2471:
4683:
1511:(mRNA). This mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus, where it is translated into a specific protein molecule. The
6001:
5637:
4877:
Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Morgan, David; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2015).
4658:
2526:
1284:(RNA). Cells use DNA for their long-term information storage. The biological information contained in an organism is
602:. This nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, which means "true kernel (nucleus)". Some of the other differences are:
4045:
5858:
2444:
2074:
2066:
1373:
Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into the cell by a process called
2165:
building blocks based on information encoded in DNA/RNA. Protein synthesis generally consists of two major steps:
5672:
4768:
Mikroskopische
Untersuchungen ĂĽber die Uebereinstimmung in der Struktur und dem Wachsthum der Thiere und Pflanzen
1534:
1099:. This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a
3354:
6241:
6203:
6028:
5707:
5667:
5267:
2774:
2349:
2263:
2166:
2078:
1500:
1488:
1119:, or sometimes a fluid mosaic membrane. Embedded within this membrane is a macromolecular structure called the
799:
287:
113:
101:
4390:"A molecular timescale for eukaryote evolution with implications for the origin of red algal-derived plastids"
2206:
Unicellular organisms can move in order to find food or escape predators. Common mechanisms of motion include
2020:
In meiosis, the DNA is replicated only once, while the cell divides twice. DNA replication only occurs before
1187:; and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth and mobility. The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of
5924:
5702:
5602:
5546:
2873:
2717:
1964:
1136:
5232:
2217:
In multicellular organisms, cells can move during processes such as wound healing, the immune response and
1443:
1175:
The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles in place; helps during
6191:
6096:
6081:
5909:
5803:
5783:
5630:
5207:
5067:
4766:
2879:
2455:
2287:
2274:
2252:
2170:
2132:
1956:
1882:
1546:
1236:
933:
325:
321:
232:
220:
137:
5048:
6236:
6231:
5471:
5257:
5150:
5034:
4966:
4663:
2481:
2353:
1902:
1686:. A single centrosome is present in the animal cells. They are also found in some fungi and algae cells.
1663:
1581:
1359:
1305:
1192:
1163:
804:
511:
279:
67:
4926:
3790:
3023:
2454:
The evolution of multicellularity from unicellular ancestors has been replicated in the laboratory, in
2180:(mRNA), which is free to migrate through the cell. mRNA molecules bind to protein-RNA complexes called
2135:), a molecule that possesses readily available energy, through two different pathways. In plant cells,
4824:
1079:
118:
6121:
5984:
5848:
5798:
5504:
4838:
4787:
4512:
4401:
4080:
4019:
3927:
3915:
3223:
2804:
2534:
2156:
2028:. Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for carrying out the job.
1968:
1530:
1351:
1332:
1116:
587:
498:
479:
1455:, so their DNA is diffuse and the entire nuclei are labelled. The cell on the left is going through
30:
This article is about the basic unit of lifeforms. For the branch of biology that studies them, see
6006:
5989:
5969:
5949:
5130:
4732:
2243:
which enable them to sense upcoming maze junctions before reaching them, including around corners.
2070:
1570:
1550:
1491:) occur. The nucleus is spherical and separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane called the
1092:
1017:
that envelops the cell, regulates what moves in and out (selectively permeable), and maintains the
844:
486:, which are usually circular. Linear bacterial plasmids have been identified in several species of
408:. Most prokaryotes are the smallest of all organisms, ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 ÎĽm in diameter.
366:
2372:
Multicellularity has evolved independently at least 25 times, including in some prokaryotes, like
1565:
431:. Though most prokaryotes have both a cell membrane and a cell wall, there are exceptions such as
6016:
5762:
4688:
4637:
4470:
4370:
4321:
4173:
4155:
3951:
3831:
3678:
3335:
3192:
2895:
2725:
2704:
2497:
2459:
1841:
1319:
of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into different, linear molecules called
1062:
1018:
377:
4501:"Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya"
4069:"Integrated genomic and fossil evidence illuminates life's early evolution and eukaryote origin"
3651:"Seeing around corners: Cells solve mazes and respond at a distance using attractant breakdown"
3355:"Ribosome binding of a single copy of the SecY complex: implications for protein translocation"
1754:
and some carotenoid pigments which helps in the tapping of light energy during photosynthesis.
6141:
6136:
6091:
5914:
5788:
5582:
5454:
5292:
5175:
4972:
4951:
4903:
4882:
4854:
4833:. The origin of mitosing cells: 50th anniversary of a classic paper by Lynn Sagan (Margulis).
4803:
4693:
4629:
4589:
4540:
4462:
4427:
4362:
4313:
4216:
4208:
4147:
4106:
4037:
3986:
3943:
3890:
3863:
3823:
3716:
3712:
3670:
3568:
3545:
3450:
3424:
3379:
3353:
Ménétret, Jean-François; Schaletzky, Julia; Clemons, William M.; et al. (December 2007).
3327:
3292:
3282:
3257:
3239:
3184:
3176:
3109:
3074:
2926:
2900:
2679:
2522:
2441:
2218:
1960:
1820:
1367:
1366:. The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule distinct from nuclear DNA. Although the
1135:) pass through freely, to a limited extent or not at all. Cell surface membranes also contain
645:
428:
197:
3761:
3323:
3092:
Blair, D. F.; Dutcher, S. K. (October 1992). "Flagella in prokaryotes and lower eukaryotes".
6071:
6038:
5793:
5590:
4846:
4795:
4621:
4530:
4520:
4454:
4417:
4409:
4352:
4305:
4269:
4261:
4137:
4096:
4088:
4027:
4010:
3978:
3935:
3882:
3813:
3805:
3757:
3662:
3535:
3527:
3416:
3369:
3319:
3247:
3231:
3168:
3158:
3101:
3064:
3056:
2415:
2056:
1762:
pigments like orange carotene and yellow xanthophylls which helps in synthesis and storage.
1617:
1492:
1323:
inside a discrete nucleus, usually with additional genetic material in some organelles like
1211:
and cytokinesis. The subunit protein of microfilaments is a small, monomeric protein called
637:
452:
369:
193:
185:
4913:
1897:) and are responsible for the attachment of bacteria to specific receptors on human cells (
5904:
5899:
5889:
5586:
5155:
5052:
5016:
4933:
4762:
4750:
4388:
Strassert, JĂĽrgen F. H.; Irisarri, Iker; Williams, Tom A.; Burki, Fabien (25 March 2021).
3809:
3030:
2770:
2746:
2708:
2684:
2419:
2240:
2124:
2010:
1846:
1683:
1667:
1412:
1400:
1363:
1316:
1046:
746:
664:
641:
540:
420:
309:
291:
208:
2529:. There is little experimental data defining what the first self-replicating forms were.
2521:
Small molecules needed for life may have been carried to Earth on meteorites, created at
5030:
4842:
4791:
4516:
4458:
4405:
4084:
4023:
3969:
Orgel, L. E. (December 1998). "The origin of life--a review of facts and speculations".
3931:
3252:
3227:
3211:
2562:
1913:
1823:
is present in some bacteria outside the cell membrane and cell wall. The capsule may be
594:(compartments) in which specific activities take place. Most important among these is a
548:
6076:
6053:
5959:
5954:
5894:
5879:
5843:
4422:
4389:
4274:
4249:
4174:"First cells may have emerged because building blocks of proteins stabilized membranes"
4101:
4068:
3540:
3515:
3415:. Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration. Vol. 23. Springer. pp. 75–102.
3069:
3044:
2843:
2781:
2590:
2557:
2391:
2386:
2144:
2140:
2113:
2102:
1976:
1921:
1824:
1698:
1558:
1554:
1026:
946:
381:
260:
5687:
5086:
3982:
3650:
3619:
3590:"Cells Solve an English Hedge Maze with the Same Skills They Use to Traverse the Body"
3105:
6225:
5974:
5929:
5838:
5653:
5606:
5401:
5361:
5336:
5252:
5165:
5140:
4945:
4583:
4535:
4500:
4474:
4374:
3682:
2819:
2811:
2785:
2749:, then in living plant tissue using an early compound microscope. He coined the term
2721:
2662:
2606:
2594:
2575:
2567:
2510:
2506:
2430:
2381:
2373:
2361:
2177:
2061:
bacteria are a well-studied example of a cellular organism with diverse well-defined
1946:
1898:
1803:
1679:
1595:
1526:
1508:
1208:
1204:
1196:
1184:
1158:
1100:
1088:
1074:
1014:
982:
941:
893:
633:
444:
416:
275:
252:
201:
167:
4159:
3835:
3196:
6126:
6111:
6023:
5964:
5863:
5833:
5742:
5381:
5353:
5331:
5324:
5304:
5244:
5160:
5145:
5009:
4728:
4641:
4567:
4558:
4496:
4492:
4325:
3955:
3339:
3310:
Michie, K. A.; Löwe, J. (2006). "Dynamic filaments of the bacterial cytoskeleton".
2858:
2838:
2762:
2742:
2692:
2377:
2302:
2189:
1850:
1832:
1659:
1655:
1468:
1420:
1416:
1408:
1374:
1343:
1328:
1324:
1301:
1285:
1168:
1152:
878:
848:
741:
652:
622:
618:
595:
439:
385:
313:
271:
212:
31:
4743:
4445:
GabaldĂłn, T. (October 2021). "Origin and Early
Evolution of the Eukaryotic Cell".
1265:
3374:
3276:
3163:
3146:
1029:, which lack a cell nucleus and most organelles to accommodate maximum space for
621:, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. Some eukaryotic organelles such as
106:
6116:
6106:
6101:
5610:
5570:
5483:
5449:
5376:
5371:
5262:
4309:
3420:
2885:
2853:
2833:
2796:
2674:
2658:
2642:
2579:
2541:
2493:
2477:
2399:
2268:
2230:
2136:
2094:
1988:
1917:
1858:
1836:
1828:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1476:
1424:
1354:). In humans, the nuclear genome is divided into 46 linear DNA molecules called
1188:
1180:
1176:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1058:
1006:
906:
874:
571:
347:
317:
283:
256:
216:
189:
87:
58:
4850:
4505:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4413:
2297:
that are adapted to particular functions. In mammals, major cell types include
2131:. Once inside the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine triphosphate (
1674:
which lie perpendicular to each other in which each has an organization like a
17:
6043:
5996:
5919:
5828:
5574:
5478:
5418:
5411:
5396:
5391:
5386:
5341:
5287:
5277:
5227:
5222:
5212:
4488:
4357:
4340:
4092:
4004:
Dodd, Matthew S.; Papineau, Dominic; Grenne, Tor; et al. (1 March 2017).
3296:
3060:
2863:
2730:
2696:
2626:
2341:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2298:
2236:
2162:
2109:
2098:
2082:
2062:
2047:
2037:
2025:
2014:
1972:
1925:
1853:. Capsules are not marked by normal staining protocols and can be detected by
1763:
1759:
1675:
1671:
1651:
1637:
1472:
1452:
1448:
1355:
1339:
1320:
1030:
1010:
994:
964:
855:
769:
730:
679:
610:
583:
553:
487:
460:
433:
354:
342:
337:
83:
63:
3894:
3791:"Evolution and diversity of plant cell walls: from algae to flowering plants"
3243:
3180:
2703:, but that the pores of it were not regular". To further support his theory,
5598:
5566:
5558:
5499:
5461:
5434:
5406:
5314:
5299:
5282:
5217:
5190:
5122:
5073:
4525:
3666:
3235:
2890:
2735:
2700:
2641:. In turn, the last eukaryotic common ancestor gave rise to the eukaryotes'
2638:
2610:
2586:
2578:, some 2.2 billion years ago. A second merger, 1.6 billion years ago, added
2537:, as it can both store genetic information and catalyze chemical reactions.
2423:
2411:
2407:
2294:
2117:
2021:
1980:
1894:
1854:
1795:
1791:
1785:
1625:
1621:
1594:: The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to process and package the
1516:
1512:
1428:
1394:
1096:
1022:
882:
864:
860:
794:
694:
684:
591:
535:
471:
456:
448:
424:
401:
389:
303:
171:
163:
48:
4858:
4633:
4625:
4466:
4431:
4366:
4317:
4151:
4110:
4041:
3947:
3827:
3674:
3549:
3383:
3331:
3261:
3188:
3078:
2540:
Cells emerged around 4 billion years ago. The first cells were most likely
2502:
2024:. DNA replication does not occur when the cells divide the second time, in
427:
which, for some bacteria, may be further covered by a third layer called a
4544:
4265:
4006:"Evidence for early life in Earth's oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates"
3990:
3113:
1435:
is the gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles.
6146:
6048:
5578:
5444:
5200:
5185:
5180:
4799:
4005:
2848:
2602:
2435:
2357:
2326:
2322:
2321:, and others. Cell types differ both in appearance and function, yet are
2283:
2207:
2201:
2181:
2052:
1869:
1739:
1716:
1641:
1633:
1613:
1297:
1220:
1139:
proteins that allow cells to detect external signaling molecules such as
1128:
1120:
977:
812:
656:
575:
518:
507:
492:
405:
358:
264:
224:
4250:"Highlight: Unraveling the Origins of LUCA and LECA on the Tree of Life"
4032:
3939:
3172:
2112:, in which the cell breaks down complex molecules to produce energy and
1541:
to release energy stored in cellular nutrients (typically pertaining to
609:
The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called
6086:
5979:
5757:
5752:
5466:
5366:
5319:
5195:
4742:– Hooke describing his observations on a thin slice of cork. See also:
3531:
2622:
2618:
2598:
2571:
2185:
2128:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1984:
1933:
1929:
1735:
1724:
1693:
1599:
1542:
1456:
1432:
1232:
1216:
1140:
1124:
1050:
957:
952:
787:
776:
773:
703:
698:
660:
614:
563:
483:
362:
5046:
The Image & Video
Library of The American Society for Cell Biology
4786:. Applied Optics. Vol. 25. Translated by T. Mulvey. p. 820.
3818:
2123:
Complex sugars can be broken down into simpler sugar molecules called
2042:
Cells of all organisms contain enzyme systems that scan their DNA for
1861:, which allows for higher contrast between the cells for observation.
77:
6131:
5723:
5309:
4562:
4211:. In Gargaud, Muriel; López-Garcìa, Purificacion; Martin, H. (eds.).
3887:
10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0.CO;2-6
2650:
2646:
2634:
2614:
2395:
2345:
2306:
2004:
1799:
1538:
1533:
occurs in the cell mitochondria, which generate the cell's energy by
1378:
1347:
1293:
1224:
1200:
1167:
A fluorescent image of an endothelial cell. Nuclei are stained blue,
1054:
870:
719:
711:
629:
559:
475:
464:
244:
228:
5515:
4289:
Weiss, Madeline C.; Sousa, F. L.; Mrnjavac, N.; et al. (2016).
4142:
4125:
2293:
In complex multicellular organisms, cells specialize into different
1377:. This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell's
3789:
Popper, Zoë A.; Michel, Gurvan; Hervé, Cécile; et al. (2011).
1407:
There are several types of organelles in a cell. Some (such as the
320:, which lack a nucleus but have a nucleoid region. Prokaryotes are
219:, which lack a nucleus but have a nucleoid region. Prokaryotes are
6033:
5562:
5040:
4291:"The physiology and habitat of the last universal common ancestor"
2754:
2678:
2654:
2589:
cells were created some 2.2 billion years ago in a process called
2561:
2501:
2448:
2403:
2267:
2211:
1912:
1890:
1886:
1629:
1603:
1585:
1564:
1442:
1382:
1288:
in its DNA sequence. RNA is used for information transport (e.g.,
1264:
1228:
1212:
1162:
1078:
919:
915:
886:
715:
707:
579:
567:
547:
539:
522:
341:
248:
240:
236:
175:
143:
53:
5058:
3509:
3507:
667:. Eukaryotic flagella are more complex than those of prokaryotes.
384:. They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack a
5747:
5622:
5024:
4784:
The Early
Development of Electron Lenses and Electron Microscopy
3033:, part of 2can on the EBI-EMBL database. Retrieved 5 August 2012
2997:
2630:
2334:
1738:
are membrane-bound organelle generally found in plant cells and
1289:
1244:
1240:
1038:
373:
159:
5626:
5519:
5090:
5077:
1451:, with DNA stained blue. The central and rightmost cell are in
502:, which causes Lyme disease. Though not forming a nucleus, the
5737:
5733:
5439:
5045:
5004:
3743:"The evolution of multicellularity: A minor major transition?"
2574:
and an aerobic bacterium created the eukaryotes, with aerobic
2530:
2007:
in multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells.
1720:
1504:
1496:
1484:
1480:
1281:
1277:
1269:
1260:
1256:
1132:
1057:, the cell's primary machinery. There are also other kinds of
1042:
1034:
830:
826:
821:
817:
783:
757:
599:
503:
393:
6173:
List of largest biomedical companies by market capitalization
4588:. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp. 44-45 The Cell Theory.
4213:
Origins and
Evolution of Life: An astrobiological perspective
1766:
are non-pigmented plastids and helps in storage of nutrients.
1983:
cells usually undergo a process of nuclear division, called
1955:) dividing into two daughter cells. This leads to growth in
1304:(tRNA) molecules are used to add amino acids during protein
4215:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 326–339.
2352:
into hundreds of different cell types during the course of
2143:, using the energy of light to join molecules of water and
1215:. The subunit of microtubules is a dimeric molecule called
672:
Comparison of features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
3483:
Campbell
Biology – Concepts and Connections
3131:
Campbell
Biology – Concepts and Connections
227:, whereas eukaryotes can be either single-celled, such as
184:
meaning 'small room'. Most cells are only visible under a
5065:– Visualize the entire cell lineage tree of the nematode
5005:
MBInfo – Descriptions on Cellular Functions and Processes
1123:
the universal secretory portal in cells and a variety of
174:, each with a specific function. The term comes from the
3147:"An estimation of the number of cells in the human body"
644:. Each cilium may thus be "viewed as a sensory cellular
636:. Primary cilia play important roles in chemosensation,
2784:
stated that new cells come from pre-existing cells by
1790:
Many types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a
1311:
Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple
1171:
are stained red, and microfilaments are stained green.
4207:
Latorre, A.; Durban, A; Moya, A.; Pereto, J. (2011).
4126:"Cell evolution and the problem of membrane topology"
3620:"How cells can find their way through the human body"
3281:. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders. pp. 930–937.
3125:
3123:
1385:
also insert their genetic material into the genome.
404:. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the
324:, whereas eukaryotes can be either single-celled or
192:
about 4 billion years ago. All cells are capable of
6155:
6062:
5942:
5872:
5821:
5812:
5771:
5716:
5695:
5660:
5492:
5427:
5352:
5243:
5129:
3567:(4th ed.). Garland Science. pp. 973–975.
3500:(5th ed.). DNA repair mechanisms, pp. 364–368.
2869:
List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
2329:but of different cell type due to the differential
2286:that consist of more than one cell, in contrast to
274:in 1665, who named them after their resemblance to
158:is the basic structural and functional unit of all
124:
112:
100:
95:
41:
1179:, the uptake of external materials by a cell, and
1083:Detailed diagram of lipid bilayer of cell membrane
2527:synthesized by lightning in a reducing atmosphere
1091:, or plasma membrane, is a selectively permeable
4825:"Lynn Margulis and the origin of the eukaryotes"
4614:Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London
3514:Ananthakrishnan, R.; Ehrlicher, A. (June 2007).
1415:) are typically solitary, while others (such as
251:. Eukaryotic cells contain organelles including
4209:"The role of symbiosis in eukaryotic evolution"
3736:
3734:
3732:
3216:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2818:detailing how eukaryotic cells were created by
2429:The first evidence of multicellularity is from
1951:Cell division involves a single cell (called a
1901:). There are special types of pili involved in
1431:) can be numerous (hundreds to thousands). The
1276:Two different kinds of genetic material exist:
617:proteins. All chromosomal DNA is stored in the
5059:WormWeb.org: Interactive Visualization of the
4737:London: Royal Society of London. p. 113.
3278:Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology
3043:Satir, P.; Christensen, Søren T. (June 2008).
308:Cells are broadly categorized into two types:
207:Cells are broadly categorized into two types:
5638:
5531:
5102:
4971:(2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: ASM Press.
4938:National Center for Biotechnology Information
4692:. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. 1879.
3094:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development
2340:Most distinct cell types arise from a single
1471:is the most conspicuous organelle found in a
8:
4881:(6th ed.). Garland Science. p. 2.
4607:
4605:
3520:International Journal of Biological Sciences
3212:"The human cell count and size distribution"
2325:identical. Cells are able to be of the same
987:Cell membrane and membrane-bound organelles
510:. Plasmids encode additional genes, such as
3741:Grosberg, R. K.; Strathmann, R. R. (2007).
3045:"Structure and function of mammalian cilia"
2440:and the fossils of the black shales of the
1987:, followed by division of the cell, called
1061:in cells. This article lists these primary
1025:takes up most of the cell's volume. Except
396:of a prokaryotic cell consists of a single
372:. Prokaryotic cells were the first form of
255:, which provide energy for cell functions;
179:
5818:
5645:
5631:
5623:
5538:
5524:
5516:
5109:
5095:
5087:
5074:
4202:
4200:
4198:
1235:(multiple acidic and basic keratins), and
1045:, containing the information necessary to
76:
47:
4823:Cornish-Bowden, Athel (7 December 2017).
4534:
4524:
4421:
4356:
4273:
4141:
4100:
4031:
3817:
3539:
3373:
3275:Guyton, Arthur C.; Hall, John E. (2016).
3251:
3162:
3068:
2593:. This is widely agreed to have involved
2414:. Multicellularity may have evolved from
1183:, the separation of daughter cells after
1065:, then briefly describes their function.
490:bacteria, including members of the genus
5678:Competitions and prizes in biotechnology
3762:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.114735
3324:10.1146/annurev.biochem.75.103004.142452
2695:examined a thin slice of cork under his
1999:to produce haploid cells, usually four.
1640:have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic
1203:the intermediate filaments are known as
670:
376:on Earth, characterized by having vital
62:) root cells in different phases of the
3496:Snustad, D. Peter; Simmons, Michael J.
3485:. Pearson Education. 2009. p. 138.
3133:. Pearson Education. 2009. p. 320.
2974:
2972:
2970:
2968:
2966:
2964:
2962:
2913:
2548:in water, and could have preceded RNA.
2476:The origin of cells has to do with the
1802:and bacteria cell walls are made up of
1662:. It directs the transport through the
4950:(5th ed.). New York: WH Freeman.
4130:Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology
3707:Becker, Wayne M.; et al. (2009).
3413:The Structure and Function of Plastids
2960:
2958:
2956:
2954:
2952:
2950:
2948:
2946:
2944:
2942:
2535:the earliest self-replicating molecule
1342:has genetic material contained in the
598:, an organelle that houses the cell's
517:On the outside, some prokaryotes have
411:A prokaryotic cell has three regions:
141:
38:
4048:from the original on 8 September 2017
3810:10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103809
3630:from the original on 3 September 2020
3600:from the original on 4 September 2020
3024:Karyn's Genomes: Borrelia burgdorferi
2225:Navigation, control and communication
7:
6198:
4944:Lodish, Harvey; et al. (2004).
2760:, meaning "small room") in his book
1771:Structures outside the cell membrane
1479:, and is the place where almost all
459:environment. Some eukaryotic cells (
4459:10.1146/annurev-micro-090817-062213
3463:from the original on April 14, 2021
3022:European Bioinformatics Institute,
2683:Robert Hooke's drawing of cells in
2278:highlights the nuclei of its cells.
2258:Cell specialization/differentiation
1467:: A cell's information center, the
1459:and its chromosomes have condensed.
400:that is in direct contact with the
4927:fourth edition is freely available
4706:from the original on 7 August 2021
4229:from the original on 24 March 2019
2418:of interdependent organisms, from
1798:, fungi cell walls are made up of
1670:. Centrosomes are composed of two
1650:: the cytoskeleton organizer: The
1624:). They digest excess or worn-out
752:true nucleus with double membrane
544:Structure of a typical animal cell
25:
5019:– a science education booklet by
4896:Alberts, B.; et al. (2014).
3868:"The Origins of Multicellularity"
3516:"The forces behind cell movement"
1885:(plural fimbriae also known as a
1682:and help in the formation of the
1658:of a cell—a key component of the
1606:that are synthesized by the cell.
1447:Human cancer cells, specifically
651:Motile eukaryotes can move using
590:: the presence of membrane-bound
6197:
6186:
6185:
5686:
4659:"The Origins Of The Word 'Cell'"
2983: This article incorporates
2978:
2801:transmission electron microscope
2402:, and perhaps several times for
1525:: generate energy for the cell.
1115:). Hence, the layer is called a
6163:Index of biotechnology articles
4985:from the original on 2009-06-30
4671:from the original on 2021-08-05
4184:from the original on 2021-09-18
4124:Griffiths, G. (December 2007).
3845:from the original on 2016-07-29
3689:from the original on 2020-09-12
3393:from the original on 2021-01-21
3049:Histochemistry and Cell Biology
3000:. 30 March 2004. Archived from
1628:, food particles, and engulfed
1381:, or stable, if it is. Certain
1350:) and in the mitochondria (the
932:single cells, colonies, higher
6168:List of biotechnology articles
4968:The cell: a molecular approach
4830:Journal of Theoretical Biology
4248:McGrath, Casey (31 May 2022).
4073:Nature Ecology & Evolution
3971:Trends in Biochemical Sciences
3798:Annual Review of Plant Biology
2925:. New York Chichester: Wiley.
2645:, containing the ancestors of
1019:electric potential of the cell
1:
6012:Genetically modified organism
5779:Biotechnology industrial park
5273:Microtubule organizing center
5021:National Institutes of Health
4899:Molecular Biology of the Cell
4879:Molecular Biology of the Cell
4585:Cells Building Blocks of Life
4447:Annual Review of Microbiology
3983:10.1016/S0968-0004(98)01300-0
3565:Molecular biology of the cell
3312:Annual Review of Biochemistry
3106:10.1016/S0959-437X(05)80136-4
2231:Cybernetics § In biology
1523:Mitochondria and chloroplasts
1313:circular bacterial chromosome
1101:double layer of phospholipids
1037:, the hereditary material of
659:. Motile cells are absent in
467:cells) also have a cell wall.
267:, which synthesise proteins.
27:Basic unit of many life forms
5033:in "The Biology Project" of
4782:Ernst Ruska (January 1980).
4254:Genome Biology and Evolution
3375:10.1016/j.molcel.2007.10.034
3164:10.3109/03014460.2013.807878
2921:Black, Jacquelyn G. (2004).
2582:, creating the green plants.
2472:Evolutionary history of life
2282:Multicellular organisms are
2081:and light-dependent repair (
1553:). Mitochondria multiply by
613:, which are associated with
419:, generally consisting of a
6002:Environmental biotechnology
4339:Leander, B. S. (May 2020).
4310:10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.116
3526:(5). Biolsci.org: 303–317.
3421:10.1007/978-1-4020-4061-0_4
2816:Symbiosis in Cell Evolution
2728:and drew protozoa, such as
1503:, or copied into a special
1475:cell. It houses the cell's
1199:. In the cytoskeleton of a
1021:. Inside the membrane, the
388:, and other membrane-bound
6258:
4851:10.1016/j.jtbi.2017.09.027
4414:10.1038/s41467-021-22044-z
2672:
2555:
2491:
2469:
2445:Francevillian Group Fossil
2368:Origin of multicellularity
2261:
2250:
2228:
2199:
2154:
2092:
2075:non-homologous end joining
2067:nucleotide excision repair
2065:processes. These include:
2035:
1944:
1783:
1707:Eukaryotic and prokaryotic
1392:
1254:
1156:
1150:
1072:
628:Many eukaryotic cells are
533:
415:Enclosing the cell is the
335:
301:
29:
6181:
5684:
5673:Timeline of biotechnology
5553:
5084:
5079:Links to related articles
5041:Centre of the Cell online
4902:(6th ed.). Garland.
4358:10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.052
4093:10.1038/s41559-018-0644-x
3713:Pearson Benjamin Cummings
3061:10.1007/s00418-008-0416-9
2077:of double-strand breaks,
1610:Lysosomes and peroxisomes
1535:oxidative phosphorylation
972:more than one chromosome
270:Cells were discovered by
259:, which create sugars by
162:. Every cell consists of
136:
75:
46:
6029:Microbial biodegradation
5708:Industrial biotechnology
5668:History of biotechnology
5268:Prokaryotic cytoskeleton
2790:omnis cellula ex cellula
2775:Matthias Jakob Schleiden
2264:Cellular differentiation
1678:, which separate during
901:one to several thousand
288:Matthias Jakob Schleiden
5703:Colors of biotechnology
4526:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576
3750:Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst
3667:10.1126/science.aay9792
3563:Alberts, Bruce (2002).
3236:10.1073/pnas.2303077120
3151:Annals of Human Biology
2874:Outline of cell biology
2720:taught himself to make
2718:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
2458:using predation as the
2424:symbiotic relationships
2422:, or from organisms in
2288:single-celled organisms
1965:vegetative reproduction
1957:multicellular organisms
936:with specialized cells
934:multicellular organisms
552:Structure of a typical
470:Inside the cell is the
346:Structure of a typical
322:single-celled organisms
286:, developed in 1839 by
221:single-celled organisms
6097:Biomedical engineering
5804:Pharmaceutical company
5784:Biotechnology products
4965:Cooper, G. M. (2000).
4947:Molecular Cell Biology
4667:. September 17, 2010.
4626:10.1098/rsnr.2004.0055
4582:Maton, Anthea (1997).
3498:Principles of Genetics
2985:public domain material
2880:Parakaryon myojinensis
2688:
2583:
2552:First eukaryotic cells
2518:
2279:
2275:Caenorhabditis elegans
2253:Multicellular organism
2079:recombinational repair
1995:cell may also undergo
1963:) and to procreation (
1937:
1719:is a large complex of
1573:
1460:
1273:
1237:neurofilament proteins
1193:intermediate filaments
1172:
1084:
1001:Subcellular components
837:Cytoplasmic structure
625:also contain some DNA.
556:
545:
351:
180:
138:Anatomical terminology
5258:Intermediate filament
5151:Endoplasmic reticulum
5035:University of Arizona
4664:National Public Radio
4394:Nature Communications
3916:Albani, Abderrazak El
3709:The world of the cell
2734:from rain water, and
2682:
2565:
2517:in the United States.
2515:Glacier National Park
2505:
2492:Further information:
2456:evolution experiments
2394:), once or twice for
2271:
2089:Growth and metabolism
1969:unicellular organisms
1916:
1903:bacterial conjugation
1784:Further information:
1776:by export processes.
1742:and contain specific
1582:endoplasmic reticulum
1578:Endoplasmic reticulum
1568:
1446:
1360:homologous chromosome
1278:deoxyribonucleic acid
1270:Deoxyribonucleic acid
1268:
1231:(lamins A, B and C),
1166:
1157:Further information:
1082:
955:(fission or budding)
929:usually single cells
843:highly structured by
551:
543:
512:antibiotic resistance
345:
170:; many cells contain
6122:Chemical engineering
5985:Reproductive cloning
5849:Hybridoma technology
5799:Human Genome Project
5603:Biomolecular complex
5505:Extracellular matrix
4800:10.1364/AO.25.000820
4341:"Predatory protists"
2805:University of Berlin
2745:discovered cells in
2724:, constructed basic
2633:with a cell wall of
2157:Protein biosynthesis
1758:contain fat-soluble
1362:pairs and a pair of
1352:mitochondrial genome
1333:endosymbiotic theory
1117:phospholipid bilayer
1033:, all cells possess
840:very few structures
588:compartmentalization
499:Borrelia burgdorferi
480:extrachromosomal DNA
378:biological processes
6007:Genetic engineering
5990:Therapeutic cloning
5970:Bionic architecture
5950:Animal cell culture
5717:Biological concepts
5208:Cytoplasmic granule
4843:2017JThBi.434....1C
4792:1986ApOpt..25..820R
4517:1990PNAS...87.4576W
4406:2021NatCo..12.1879S
4298:Nature Microbiology
4266:10.1093/gbe/evac072
4085:2018NatEE...2.1556B
4033:10.1038/nature21377
4024:2017Natur.543...60D
3940:10.1038/nature09166
3932:2010Natur.466..100A
3875:Integrative Biology
3594:Scientific American
3588:Willingham, Emily.
3228:2023PNAS..12003077H
3222:(39): e2303077120.
2738:from his own mouth.
2726:optical microscopes
2669:History of research
2509:are left behind by
2071:DNA mismatch repair
2051:that could lead to
1571:endomembrane system
1551:aerobic respiration
1093:biological membrane
1063:cellular components
1005:All cells, whether
673:
398:circular chromosome
6063:Interdisciplinary
6017:Molecular genetics
5763:Selective breeding
5233:Weibel–Palade body
5117:Structures of the
5051:2011-06-10 at the
5015:2017-07-20 at the
4932:2009-10-11 at the
4749:1997-06-06 at the
4689:A Latin Dictionary
3864:Bonner, John Tyler
3661:(6507): eaay9792.
3532:10.7150/ijbs.3.303
3029:2013-05-06 at the
2896:Tunneling nanotube
2705:Matthias Schleiden
2689:
2584:
2519:
2498:Evolution of cells
2480:, which began the
2460:selective pressure
2280:
1938:
1909:Cellular processes
1842:Bacillus anthracis
1574:
1461:
1274:
1173:
1085:
969:single chromosome
949:(simple division)
768:linear molecules (
749:; no true nucleus
691:Typical organisms
671:
557:
546:
506:is condensed in a
474:that contains the
472:cytoplasmic region
352:
312:, which possess a
211:, which possess a
166:enclosed within a
119:H1.00.01.0.00001
6219:
6218:
6213:
6212:
6142:Nanobiotechnology
6137:Molecular biology
5938:
5937:
5789:Biotechnology law
5620:
5619:
5547:Hierarchy of life
5513:
5512:
5293:Spindle pole body
4809:978-3-7776-0364-3
4771:. Berlin: Sander.
4734:Micrographia: ...
4511:(12): 4576–4579.
4351:(10): R510–R516.
4222:978-0-521-76131-4
4136:(12): 1018–1024.
4079:(10): 1556–1562.
3926:(7302): 100–104.
3904:on March 8, 2012.
3430:978-1-4020-4060-3
3288:978-1-4557-7005-2
2990:"What Is a Cell?"
2932:978-0-471-42084-2
2901:Vault (organelle)
2570:, a merger of an
2566:In the theory of
2442:Palaeoproterozoic
2219:cancer metastasis
2151:Protein synthesis
2139:create sugars by
2083:photoreactivation
1618:digestive enzymes
1368:mitochondrial DNA
1296:functions (e.g.,
991:
990:
807:in the cytoplasm
805:protein synthesis
735:~ 10–100 μm
332:Prokaryotic cells
318:prokaryotic cells
263:, in plants; and
217:prokaryotic cells
198:protein synthesis
152:
151:
147:
68:E. B. Wilson
16:(Redirected from
6249:
6201:
6200:
6189:
6188:
6039:Pharmacogenomics
5819:
5813:Basic techniques
5794:Green Revolution
5772:General concepts
5690:
5647:
5640:
5633:
5624:
5613:
5540:
5533:
5526:
5517:
5111:
5104:
5097:
5088:
5075:
4993:
4991:
4990:
4961:
4924:
4922:
4921:
4912:. Archived from
4892:
4863:
4862:
4820:
4814:
4813:
4779:
4773:
4772:
4763:Schwann, Theodor
4759:
4753:
4741:
4725:
4719:
4715:
4713:
4711:
4679:
4677:
4676:
4652:
4646:
4645:
4609:
4600:
4599:
4579:
4573:
4572:
4563:"Observation 18"
4555:
4549:
4548:
4538:
4528:
4497:Wheelis, Mark L.
4485:
4479:
4478:
4442:
4436:
4435:
4425:
4385:
4379:
4378:
4360:
4336:
4330:
4329:
4295:
4286:
4280:
4279:
4277:
4245:
4239:
4238:
4236:
4234:
4204:
4193:
4192:
4190:
4189:
4170:
4164:
4163:
4145:
4121:
4115:
4114:
4104:
4064:
4058:
4057:
4055:
4053:
4035:
4001:
3995:
3994:
3966:
3960:
3959:
3912:
3906:
3905:
3903:
3897:. Archived from
3872:
3860:
3854:
3853:
3851:
3850:
3844:
3821:
3795:
3786:
3780:
3779:
3777:
3776:
3770:
3764:. Archived from
3747:
3738:
3727:
3726:
3704:
3698:
3697:
3695:
3694:
3646:
3640:
3639:
3637:
3635:
3616:
3610:
3609:
3607:
3605:
3585:
3579:
3578:
3560:
3554:
3553:
3543:
3511:
3502:
3501:
3493:
3487:
3486:
3479:
3473:
3472:
3470:
3468:
3449:. Newnes. 1996.
3441:
3435:
3434:
3408:
3402:
3401:
3399:
3398:
3392:
3377:
3368:(6): 1083–1092.
3359:
3350:
3344:
3343:
3307:
3301:
3300:
3272:
3266:
3265:
3255:
3207:
3201:
3200:
3166:
3141:
3135:
3134:
3127:
3118:
3117:
3089:
3083:
3082:
3072:
3040:
3034:
3020:
3014:
3013:
3011:
3009:
2982:
2981:
2976:
2937:
2936:
2918:
2799:built the first
2629:, and a dormant
2247:Multicellularity
2241:chemoattractants
2048:repair processes
1975:cells divide by
1493:nuclear envelope
1483:replication and
1282:ribonucleic acid
1251:Genetic material
674:
665:flowering plants
638:mechanosensation
530:Eukaryotic cells
482:elements called
453:osmotic pressure
310:eukaryotic cells
282:in a monastery.
209:eukaryotic cells
190:emerged on Earth
183:
144:edit on Wikidata
86:cell (left) and
80:
51:
39:
21:
6257:
6256:
6252:
6251:
6250:
6248:
6247:
6246:
6242:1665 in science
6222:
6221:
6220:
6215:
6214:
6209:
6177:
6151:
6092:Biopharmacology
6064:
6058:
5934:
5905:Electrophoresis
5900:Kidney dialysis
5890:Crystallization
5868:
5814:
5808:
5767:
5712:
5691:
5682:
5656:
5651:
5621:
5616:
5557:
5549:
5544:
5514:
5509:
5488:
5423:
5348:
5239:
5156:Golgi apparatus
5132:
5125:
5115:
5080:
5053:Wayback Machine
5017:Wayback Machine
5010:Inside the Cell
5001:
4996:
4988:
4986:
4979:
4964:
4958:
4943:
4934:Wayback Machine
4919:
4917:
4910:
4895:
4889:
4876:
4872:
4870:Further reading
4867:
4866:
4822:
4821:
4817:
4810:
4781:
4780:
4776:
4761:
4760:
4756:
4751:Wayback Machine
4727:
4726:
4722:
4718:
4709:
4707:
4700:
4682:
4674:
4672:
4657:
4653:
4649:
4611:
4610:
4603:
4596:
4581:
4580:
4576:
4557:
4556:
4552:
4487:
4486:
4482:
4444:
4443:
4439:
4387:
4386:
4382:
4345:Current Biology
4338:
4337:
4333:
4293:
4288:
4287:
4283:
4247:
4246:
4242:
4232:
4230:
4223:
4206:
4205:
4196:
4187:
4185:
4172:
4171:
4167:
4143:10.1038/nrm2287
4123:
4122:
4118:
4066:
4065:
4061:
4051:
4049:
4018:(7643): 60–64.
4003:
4002:
3998:
3977:(12): 491–495.
3968:
3967:
3963:
3914:
3913:
3909:
3901:
3870:
3862:
3861:
3857:
3848:
3846:
3842:
3793:
3788:
3787:
3783:
3774:
3772:
3768:
3745:
3740:
3739:
3730:
3723:
3715:. p. 480.
3706:
3705:
3701:
3692:
3690:
3648:
3647:
3643:
3633:
3631:
3618:
3617:
3613:
3603:
3601:
3587:
3586:
3582:
3575:
3562:
3561:
3557:
3513:
3512:
3505:
3495:
3494:
3490:
3481:
3480:
3476:
3466:
3464:
3457:
3443:
3442:
3438:
3431:
3410:
3409:
3405:
3396:
3394:
3390:
3357:
3352:
3351:
3347:
3309:
3308:
3304:
3289:
3274:
3273:
3269:
3209:
3208:
3204:
3143:
3142:
3138:
3129:
3128:
3121:
3091:
3090:
3086:
3042:
3041:
3037:
3031:Wayback Machine
3021:
3017:
3007:
3005:
2988:
2979:
2977:
2940:
2933:
2920:
2919:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2829:
2771:Theodor Schwann
2709:Theodor Schwann
2677:
2671:
2661:, derived from
2560:
2554:
2500:
2490:
2482:history of life
2474:
2468:
2447:B Formation in
2420:cellularization
2370:
2344:cell, called a
2266:
2260:
2255:
2249:
2233:
2227:
2204:
2198:
2184:located in the
2159:
2153:
2125:monosaccharides
2105:
2093:Main articles:
2091:
2040:
2034:
2011:DNA replication
2003:cells serve as
1959:(the growth of
1949:
1943:
1911:
1879:
1867:
1847:hyaluronic acid
1817:
1812:
1788:
1782:
1773:
1709:
1684:mitotic spindle
1668:Golgi apparatus
1592:Golgi apparatus
1569:Diagram of the
1441:
1413:Golgi apparatus
1397:
1391:
1364:sex chromosomes
1358:, including 22
1317:nucleoid region
1263:
1255:Main articles:
1253:
1161:
1155:
1149:
1077:
1071:
1027:red blood cells
1003:
956:
803:
793:coupled in the
747:nucleoid region
642:thermosensation
538:
532:
437:(bacteria) and
421:plasma membrane
370:domains of life
340:
334:
306:
300:
292:Theodor Schwann
280:Christian monks
235:, such as some
148:
91:
71:
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Biological cell
15:
12:
11:
5:
6255:
6253:
6245:
6244:
6239:
6234:
6224:
6223:
6217:
6216:
6211:
6210:
6208:
6207:
6195:
6182:
6179:
6178:
6176:
6175:
6170:
6165:
6159:
6157:
6153:
6152:
6150:
6149:
6144:
6139:
6134:
6129:
6124:
6119:
6114:
6109:
6104:
6099:
6094:
6089:
6084:
6082:Bioengineering
6079:
6077:Bioelectronics
6074:
6068:
6066:
6060:
6059:
6057:
6056:
6054:Tissue culture
6051:
6046:
6041:
6036:
6031:
6026:
6021:
6020:
6019:
6014:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5993:
5992:
5987:
5977:
5972:
5967:
5962:
5960:Bioinformatics
5957:
5955:Biofabrication
5952:
5946:
5944:
5940:
5939:
5936:
5935:
5933:
5932:
5927:
5922:
5917:
5912:
5907:
5902:
5897:
5895:Chromatography
5892:
5887:
5882:
5880:Centrifugation
5876:
5874:
5873:Chemical field
5870:
5869:
5867:
5866:
5861:
5856:
5851:
5846:
5844:Flow cytometry
5841:
5836:
5831:
5825:
5823:
5816:
5810:
5809:
5807:
5806:
5801:
5796:
5791:
5786:
5781:
5775:
5773:
5769:
5768:
5766:
5765:
5760:
5755:
5750:
5745:
5740:
5731:
5726:
5720:
5718:
5714:
5713:
5711:
5710:
5705:
5699:
5697:
5693:
5692:
5685:
5683:
5681:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5664:
5662:
5658:
5657:
5652:
5650:
5649:
5642:
5635:
5627:
5618:
5617:
5615:
5614:
5554:
5551:
5550:
5545:
5543:
5542:
5535:
5528:
5520:
5511:
5510:
5508:
5507:
5502:
5496:
5494:
5490:
5489:
5487:
5486:
5481:
5476:
5475:
5474:
5469:
5459:
5458:
5457:
5452:
5447:
5437:
5431:
5429:
5428:Other internal
5425:
5424:
5422:
5421:
5416:
5415:
5414:
5409:
5404:
5399:
5394:
5389:
5384:
5379:
5374:
5364:
5358:
5356:
5350:
5349:
5347:
5346:
5345:
5344:
5339:
5329:
5328:
5327:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5302:
5297:
5296:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5280:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5255:
5249:
5247:
5241:
5240:
5238:
5237:
5236:
5235:
5230:
5225:
5220:
5215:
5205:
5204:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5178:
5168:
5163:
5158:
5153:
5148:
5143:
5137:
5135:
5127:
5126:
5116:
5114:
5113:
5106:
5099:
5091:
5085:
5082:
5081:
5078:
5072:
5071:
5056:
5043:
5038:
5028:
5007:
5000:
4999:External links
4997:
4995:
4994:
4978:978-0878931026
4977:
4962:
4957:978-0716743668
4956:
4941:
4909:978-0815344322
4908:
4893:
4888:978-0815344322
4887:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4865:
4864:
4815:
4808:
4774:
4754:
4720:
4717:
4716:
4699:978-1999855789
4698:
4680:
4654:
4647:
4620:(2): 187–201.
4601:
4595:978-0134234762
4594:
4574:
4550:
4480:
4453:(1): 631–647.
4437:
4380:
4331:
4281:
4260:(6): evac072.
4240:
4221:
4194:
4165:
4116:
4059:
3996:
3961:
3907:
3855:
3781:
3728:
3722:978-0321554185
3721:
3699:
3641:
3611:
3580:
3573:
3555:
3503:
3488:
3474:
3456:978-0080984735
3455:
3436:
3429:
3403:
3362:Molecular Cell
3345:
3302:
3287:
3267:
3202:
3157:(6): 463–471.
3136:
3119:
3100:(5): 756–767.
3084:
3055:(6): 687–693.
3035:
3015:
2994:Science Primer
2938:
2931:
2912:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2844:Cellular model
2841:
2836:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2823:
2808:
2793:
2782:Rudolf Virchow
2778:
2767:
2739:
2673:Main article:
2670:
2667:
2591:eukaryogenesis
2558:Eukaryogenesis
2556:Main article:
2553:
2550:
2533:may have been
2523:deep-sea vents
2489:
2488:Origin of life
2486:
2478:origin of life
2470:Main article:
2467:
2464:
2392:Chloroplastida
2387:Methanosarcina
2369:
2366:
2350:differentiates
2337:they contain.
2272:Staining of a
2262:Main article:
2259:
2256:
2251:Main article:
2248:
2245:
2226:
2223:
2200:Main article:
2197:
2194:
2155:Main article:
2152:
2149:
2145:carbon dioxide
2141:photosynthesis
2114:reducing power
2103:Photosynthesis
2090:
2087:
2046:and carry out
2036:Main article:
2033:
2030:
1977:binary fission
1945:Main article:
1942:
1939:
1922:binary fission
1910:
1907:
1878:
1875:
1866:
1863:
1825:polysaccharide
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1781:
1778:
1772:
1769:
1768:
1767:
1729:
1708:
1705:
1704:
1703:
1687:
1645:
1607:
1596:macromolecules
1589:
1563:
1562:
1559:photosynthesis
1555:binary fission
1545:) to generate
1520:
1440:
1437:
1393:Main article:
1390:
1387:
1348:nuclear genome
1252:
1249:
1205:neurofilaments
1197:microfilaments
1151:Main article:
1148:
1145:
1073:Main article:
1070:
1067:
1002:
999:
989:
988:
985:
980:
974:
973:
970:
967:
961:
960:
950:
947:binary fission
944:
938:
937:
930:
927:
923:
922:
912:
909:
903:
902:
899:
896:
890:
889:
867:
858:
852:
851:
841:
838:
834:
833:
824:
815:
809:
808:
802:in the nucleus
797:
791:
780:
779:
766:
760:
754:
753:
750:
744:
737:
736:
733:
727:
723:
722:
701:
692:
688:
687:
682:
677:
669:
668:
649:
626:
607:
534:Main article:
531:
528:
527:
526:
515:
468:
382:cell signaling
336:Main article:
333:
330:
302:Main article:
299:
296:
261:photosynthesis
150:
149:
140:
134:
133:
128:
122:
121:
116:
110:
109:
104:
98:
97:
93:
92:
81:
73:
72:
52:
44:
43:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6254:
6243:
6240:
6238:
6235:
6233:
6230:
6229:
6227:
6206:
6205:
6196:
6194:
6193:
6184:
6183:
6180:
6174:
6171:
6169:
6166:
6164:
6161:
6160:
6158:
6154:
6148:
6145:
6143:
6140:
6138:
6135:
6133:
6130:
6128:
6125:
6123:
6120:
6118:
6115:
6113:
6110:
6108:
6105:
6103:
6100:
6098:
6095:
6093:
6090:
6088:
6085:
6083:
6080:
6078:
6075:
6073:
6070:
6069:
6067:
6061:
6055:
6052:
6050:
6047:
6045:
6042:
6040:
6037:
6035:
6032:
6030:
6027:
6025:
6022:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6009:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5991:
5988:
5986:
5983:
5982:
5981:
5978:
5976:
5975:Cell immunity
5973:
5971:
5968:
5966:
5963:
5961:
5958:
5956:
5953:
5951:
5948:
5947:
5945:
5941:
5931:
5930:Sedimentation
5928:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5918:
5916:
5913:
5911:
5908:
5906:
5903:
5901:
5898:
5896:
5893:
5891:
5888:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5877:
5875:
5871:
5865:
5862:
5860:
5857:
5855:
5852:
5850:
5847:
5845:
5842:
5840:
5839:Cultured meat
5837:
5835:
5832:
5830:
5827:
5826:
5824:
5822:Biology field
5820:
5817:
5811:
5805:
5802:
5800:
5797:
5795:
5792:
5790:
5787:
5785:
5782:
5780:
5777:
5776:
5774:
5770:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5756:
5754:
5751:
5749:
5746:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5735:
5732:
5730:
5727:
5725:
5722:
5721:
5719:
5715:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5700:
5698:
5694:
5689:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5665:
5663:
5659:
5655:
5654:Biotechnology
5648:
5643:
5641:
5636:
5634:
5629:
5628:
5625:
5612:
5608:
5607:Macromolecule
5604:
5600:
5596:
5592:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5576:
5572:
5568:
5564:
5560:
5556:
5555:
5552:
5548:
5541:
5536:
5534:
5529:
5527:
5522:
5521:
5518:
5506:
5503:
5501:
5498:
5497:
5495:
5491:
5485:
5482:
5480:
5477:
5473:
5470:
5468:
5465:
5464:
5463:
5460:
5456:
5453:
5451:
5448:
5446:
5443:
5442:
5441:
5438:
5436:
5433:
5432:
5430:
5426:
5420:
5417:
5413:
5410:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5402:Proteinoplast
5400:
5398:
5395:
5393:
5390:
5388:
5385:
5383:
5380:
5378:
5375:
5373:
5370:
5369:
5368:
5365:
5363:
5362:Mitochondrion
5360:
5359:
5357:
5355:
5354:Endosymbionts
5351:
5343:
5340:
5338:
5337:Lamellipodium
5335:
5334:
5333:
5330:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5307:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5275:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5253:Microfilament
5251:
5250:
5248:
5246:
5242:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5226:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5210:
5209:
5206:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5179:
5177:
5174:
5173:
5172:
5169:
5167:
5166:Autophagosome
5164:
5162:
5159:
5157:
5154:
5152:
5149:
5147:
5144:
5142:
5141:Cell membrane
5139:
5138:
5136:
5134:
5131:Endomembrane
5128:
5124:
5120:
5112:
5107:
5105:
5100:
5098:
5093:
5092:
5089:
5083:
5076:
5070:
5069:
5064:
5062:
5057:
5054:
5050:
5047:
5044:
5042:
5039:
5036:
5032:
5029:
5026:
5023:, in PDF and
5022:
5018:
5014:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5002:
4998:
4984:
4980:
4974:
4970:
4969:
4963:
4959:
4953:
4949:
4948:
4942:
4939:
4935:
4931:
4928:
4916:on 2014-07-14
4915:
4911:
4905:
4901:
4900:
4894:
4890:
4884:
4880:
4875:
4874:
4869:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4840:
4836:
4832:
4831:
4826:
4819:
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4811:
4805:
4801:
4797:
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4789:
4785:
4778:
4775:
4770:
4769:
4764:
4758:
4755:
4752:
4748:
4745:
4740:
4736:
4735:
4730:
4729:Hooke, Robert
4724:
4721:
4705:
4701:
4695:
4691:
4690:
4685:
4681:
4670:
4666:
4665:
4660:
4656:
4655:
4651:
4648:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4627:
4623:
4619:
4615:
4608:
4606:
4602:
4597:
4591:
4587:
4586:
4578:
4575:
4570:
4569:
4564:
4560:
4559:Hooke, Robert
4554:
4551:
4546:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4499:(June 1990).
4498:
4494:
4493:Kandler, Otto
4490:
4484:
4481:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4441:
4438:
4433:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4403:
4399:
4395:
4391:
4384:
4381:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4335:
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4323:
4319:
4315:
4311:
4307:
4303:
4299:
4292:
4285:
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4276:
4271:
4267:
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4244:
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4228:
4224:
4218:
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4203:
4201:
4199:
4195:
4183:
4179:
4175:
4169:
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4157:
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4149:
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4131:
4127:
4120:
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4112:
4108:
4103:
4098:
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4078:
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4070:
4063:
4060:
4047:
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4029:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4013:
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4000:
3997:
3992:
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3957:
3953:
3949:
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3941:
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3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3911:
3908:
3902:(PDF, 0.2 MB)
3900:
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3892:
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3833:
3829:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3792:
3785:
3782:
3771:on 2016-03-04
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
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3744:
3737:
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3333:
3329:
3325:
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3303:
3298:
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3284:
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3263:
3259:
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3249:
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3241:
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3233:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3213:
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3203:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3140:
3137:
3132:
3126:
3124:
3120:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3088:
3085:
3080:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3039:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3025:
3019:
3016:
3004:on 2009-12-08
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2986:
2975:
2973:
2971:
2969:
2967:
2965:
2963:
2961:
2959:
2957:
2955:
2953:
2951:
2949:
2947:
2945:
2943:
2939:
2934:
2928:
2924:
2917:
2914:
2907:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2881:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2820:symbiogenesis
2817:
2813:
2812:Lynn Margulis
2809:
2806:
2803:(TEM) at the
2802:
2798:
2794:
2791:
2787:
2786:cell division
2783:
2779:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2765:
2764:
2759:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2737:
2733:
2732:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2714:
2713:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2668:
2666:
2664:
2663:cyanobacteria
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2595:symbiogenesis
2592:
2588:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2568:symbiogenesis
2564:
2559:
2551:
2549:
2547:
2543:
2538:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2516:
2512:
2511:cyanobacteria
2508:
2507:Stromatolites
2504:
2499:
2495:
2487:
2485:
2483:
2479:
2473:
2465:
2463:
2461:
2457:
2452:
2450:
2446:
2443:
2439:
2437:
2432:
2431:cyanobacteria
2427:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2388:
2383:
2382:actinomycetes
2379:
2375:
2374:cyanobacteria
2367:
2365:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2338:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2277:
2276:
2270:
2265:
2257:
2254:
2246:
2244:
2242:
2238:
2232:
2224:
2222:
2220:
2215:
2213:
2209:
2203:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2178:messenger RNA
2174:
2172:
2168:
2167:transcription
2164:
2158:
2150:
2148:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2121:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2088:
2086:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2045:
2039:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2018:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1948:
1947:Cell division
1940:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1908:
1906:
1904:
1900:
1899:cell adhesion
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1864:
1862:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1843:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1819:A gelatinous
1814:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1804:peptidoglycan
1801:
1797:
1793:
1787:
1779:
1777:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1730:
1728:prokaryotes).
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1711:
1710:
1706:
1701:
1700:
1695:
1691:
1688:
1685:
1681:
1680:cell division
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1654:produces the
1653:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1608:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1572:
1567:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1521:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1509:messenger RNA
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1489:transcription
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1445:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1405:
1402:
1396:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1371:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1271:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1250:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1185:cell division
1182:
1178:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1159:Morphogenesis
1154:
1146:
1144:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1089:cell membrane
1081:
1076:
1075:Cell membrane
1069:Cell membrane
1068:
1066:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1000:
998:
996:
986:
984:
983:cell membrane
981:
979:
976:
975:
971:
968:
966:
963:
962:
959:
954:
951:
948:
945:
943:
942:Cell division
940:
939:
935:
931:
928:
926:Organization
925:
924:
921:
917:
913:
910:
908:
905:
904:
900:
897:
895:
892:
891:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
869:flagella and
868:
866:
862:
859:
857:
856:Cell movement
854:
853:
850:
846:
845:endomembranes
842:
839:
836:
835:
832:
828:
825:
823:
819:
816:
814:
811:
810:
806:
801:
800:RNA synthesis
798:
796:
792:
789:
785:
782:
781:
778:
775:
771:
767:
764:
761:
759:
756:
755:
751:
748:
745:
743:
739:
738:
734:
732:
728:
726:Typical size
725:
724:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
702:
700:
696:
693:
690:
689:
686:
683:
681:
678:
676:
675:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
647:
643:
639:
635:
634:primary cilia
631:
627:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
605:
604:
603:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
555:
550:
542:
537:
529:
524:
520:
516:
513:
509:
505:
501:
500:
495:
494:
489:
485:
481:
477:
473:
469:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
445:peptidoglycan
442:
441:
436:
435:
430:
426:
423:covered by a
422:
418:
417:cell envelope
414:
413:
412:
409:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
368:
365:, two of the
364:
360:
356:
349:
344:
339:
331:
329:
327:
326:multicellular
323:
319:
315:
311:
305:
297:
295:
293:
289:
285:
281:
278:inhabited by
277:
273:
268:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
233:multicellular
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
205:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
182:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
160:forms of life
157:
145:
139:
135:
132:
129:
127:
123:
120:
117:
115:
111:
108:
105:
103:
99:
94:
89:
85:
79:
74:
69:
65:
61:
60:
55:
50:
45:
40:
37:
33:
19:
6237:Cell anatomy
6232:Cell biology
6202:
6190:
6127:Microbiology
6112:Biochemicals
6024:Gene therapy
5965:Biosynthesis
5943:Applications
5864:Spectroscopy
5834:Cell culture
5743:Fermentation
5728:
5609: >
5605: >
5601: >
5597: >
5594:
5593: >
5589: >
5585: >
5583:Organ system
5581: >
5577: >
5573: >
5569: >
5565: >
5561: >
5382:Gerontoplast
5332:Pseudopodium
5325:Radial spoke
5305:Undulipodium
5245:Cytoskeleton
5161:Parenthesome
5118:
5066:
5063:Cell lineage
5060:
5031:Cell Biology
4987:. Retrieved
4967:
4946:
4918:. Retrieved
4914:the original
4898:
4878:
4834:
4828:
4818:
4783:
4777:
4767:
4757:
4744:Robert Hooke
4738:
4733:
4723:
4708:. Retrieved
4687:
4673:. Retrieved
4662:
4650:
4617:
4613:
4584:
4577:
4568:Micrographia
4566:
4553:
4508:
4504:
4483:
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4446:
4440:
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4393:
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4301:
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4284:
4257:
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4243:
4231:. Retrieved
4212:
4186:. Retrieved
4178:ScienceDaily
4177:
4168:
4133:
4129:
4119:
4076:
4072:
4062:
4050:. Retrieved
4015:
4009:
3999:
3974:
3970:
3964:
3923:
3919:
3910:
3899:the original
3881:(1): 27–36.
3878:
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3858:
3847:. Retrieved
3801:
3797:
3784:
3773:. Retrieved
3766:the original
3753:
3749:
3708:
3702:
3691:. Retrieved
3658:
3654:
3644:
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3623:
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3602:. Retrieved
3593:
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3445:
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3406:
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3365:
3361:
3348:
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3154:
3150:
3139:
3130:
3097:
3093:
3087:
3081:. 1432-119X.
3052:
3048:
3038:
3018:
3006:. Retrieved
3002:the original
2993:
2923:Microbiology
2922:
2916:
2878:
2859:Cytotoxicity
2839:Cell culture
2815:
2789:
2763:Micrographia
2761:
2757:
2750:
2743:Robert Hooke
2729:
2693:Robert Hooke
2690:
2659:chloroplasts
2607:mitochondria
2585:
2580:chloroplasts
2576:mitochondria
2542:heterotrophs
2539:
2520:
2475:
2453:
2434:
2428:
2385:
2378:myxobacteria
2371:
2339:
2303:muscle cells
2292:
2281:
2273:
2234:
2216:
2205:
2190:transfer RNA
2175:
2160:
2137:chloroplasts
2122:
2106:
2057:
2041:
2019:
2009:
1952:
1950:
1880:
1873:eukaryotes.
1868:
1851:streptococci
1840:
1833:meningococci
1818:
1789:
1774:
1756:Chromoplasts
1748:Chloroplasts
1743:
1731:
1712:
1697:
1689:
1660:cytoskeleton
1656:microtubules
1647:
1609:
1591:
1577:
1527:Mitochondria
1522:
1469:cell nucleus
1465:Cell nucleus
1464:
1421:chloroplasts
1417:mitochondria
1406:
1398:
1375:transfection
1372:
1344:cell nucleus
1337:
1329:chloroplasts
1325:mitochondria
1310:
1302:Transfer RNA
1275:
1189:microtubules
1174:
1169:mitochondria
1153:Cytoskeleton
1147:Cytoskeleton
1103:, which are
1086:
1059:biomolecules
1004:
992:
907:Chloroplasts
894:Mitochondria
879:lamellipodia
875:microtubules
849:cytoskeleton
653:motile cilia
623:mitochondria
619:cell nucleus
596:cell nucleus
572:slime moulds
558:
497:
491:
440:Thermoplasma
438:
432:
410:
353:
307:
272:Robert Hooke
269:
257:chloroplasts
253:mitochondria
206:
155:
153:
90:cell (right)
57:
36:
32:Cell biology
6117:Biorobotics
6107:Biomimetics
6102:Biomedicine
5611:Biomolecule
5571:Biocoenosis
5484:Magnetosome
5450:Spliceosome
5377:Chromoplast
5372:Chloroplast
5263:Microtubule
4489:Woese, C.R.
4400:(1): 1879.
3804:: 567–590.
3756:: 621–654.
3634:7 September
3604:7 September
3467:November 9,
3446:Prokaryotes
3318:: 467–492.
2886:Plasmolysis
2854:Cytorrhysis
2834:Cell cortex
2797:Ernst Ruska
2716:1632–1723:
2675:Cell theory
2643:crown group
2627:peroxisomes
2597:, in which
2494:Abiogenesis
2408:slime molds
2400:brown algae
2398:, once for
2354:development
2323:genetically
2315:fibroblasts
2311:blood cells
2171:translation
2095:Cell growth
1989:cytokinesis
1973:Prokaryotic
1953:mother cell
1941:Replication
1918:Prokaryotes
1859:methyl blue
1837:polypeptide
1829:pneumococci
1810:Prokaryotic
1764:Leucoplasts
1752:chlorophyll
1638:Peroxisomes
1531:Respiration
1501:transcribed
1487:synthesis (
1477:chromosomes
1425:peroxisomes
1356:chromosomes
1321:chromosomes
1306:translation
1181:cytokinesis
1177:endocytosis
1113:hydrophilic
1111:and partly
1109:hydrophobic
1105:amphiphilic
1007:prokaryotic
965:Chromosomes
885:containing
873:containing
770:chromosomes
729:~ 1–5
680:Prokaryotes
611:chromosomes
461:plant cells
355:Prokaryotes
348:prokaryotic
284:Cell theory
194:replication
96:Identifiers
88:prokaryotic
59:Allium cepa
6226:Categories
6072:Bioeconomy
6044:Stem cells
5997:Embryology
5920:Filtration
5910:Extraction
5829:Bioreactor
5575:Population
5479:Proteasome
5472:Inclusions
5419:Nitroplast
5412:Apicoplast
5397:Elaioplast
5392:Amyloplast
5387:Leucoplast
5342:Filopodium
5288:Basal body
5278:Centrosome
5228:Peroxisome
5223:Glyoxysome
5213:Melanosome
5123:organelles
5068:C. elegans
5061:C. elegans
4989:2017-08-30
4940:Bookshelf.
4920:2016-07-06
4675:2021-08-05
4188:2021-09-18
3849:2013-12-23
3819:10379/6762
3775:2013-12-23
3693:2020-09-13
3574:0815340729
3397:2020-09-01
3297:1027900365
2908:References
2864:Lipid raft
2814:published
2731:Vorticella
2701:Honey-comb
2697:microscope
2587:Eukaryotic
2484:on Earth.
2342:totipotent
2331:expression
2319:stem cells
2299:skin cells
2295:cell types
2229:See also:
2163:amino acid
2110:catabolism
2099:Metabolism
2063:DNA repair
2038:DNA repair
2032:DNA repair
2026:meiosis II
2015:cell cycle
1981:eukaryotic
1928:divide by
1926:eukaryotes
1920:divide by
1760:carotenoid
1740:euglenoids
1672:centrioles
1652:centrosome
1648:Centrosome
1626:organelles
1622:hydrolases
1473:eukaryotic
1453:interphase
1449:HeLa cells
1439:Eukaryotic
1389:Organelles
1340:human cell
1280:(DNA) and
1031:hemoglobin
1011:eukaryotic
995:human body
790:synthesis
765:(usually)
685:Eukaryotes
592:organelles
584:eukaryotic
554:plant cell
488:spirochete
434:Mycoplasma
390:organelles
380:including
338:Prokaryote
298:Cell types
186:microscope
172:organelles
84:eukaryotic
66:(drawn by
64:cell cycle
5915:Fed Batch
5815:and tools
5599:Organelle
5567:Ecosystem
5559:Biosphere
5500:Cell wall
5462:Cytoplasm
5435:Nucleolus
5407:Tannosome
5315:Flagellum
5300:Myofibril
5283:Centriole
5218:Microbody
5191:Phagosome
4684:"cellĹla"
4475:236916203
4375:218710816
4233:27 August
3895:1093-4391
3683:221342551
3244:0027-8424
3181:0301-4460
2891:Syncytium
2691:In 1665,
2639:cellulose
2611:centriole
2412:red algae
2358:molecules
2284:organisms
2182:ribosomes
2118:anabolism
2022:meiosis I
1895:antigenic
1855:India ink
1796:cellulose
1792:cell wall
1786:Cell wall
1780:Cell wall
1713:Ribosomes
1676:cartwheel
1642:peroxides
1614:Lysosomes
1517:cytoplasm
1513:nucleolus
1507:, called
1429:lysosomes
1395:Organelle
1298:ribosomal
1294:enzymatic
1097:cell wall
1023:cytoplasm
1013:, have a
978:Membranes
883:filopodia
865:flagellin
813:Ribosomes
795:cytoplasm
536:Eukaryote
457:hypotonic
455:due to a
449:cytolysis
425:cell wall
402:cytoplasm
304:Cell type
265:ribosomes
164:cytoplasm
6192:Category
6147:Virology
6049:Telomere
5696:Branches
5579:Organism
5493:External
5445:Ribosome
5201:Acrosome
5186:Endosome
5181:Lysosome
5049:Archived
5013:Archived
4983:Archived
4930:Archived
4859:28992902
4765:(1839).
4747:Archived
4731:(1665).
4710:5 August
4704:Archived
4669:Archived
4634:15209075
4561:(1665).
4467:34343017
4432:33767194
4367:32428491
4318:27562259
4227:Archived
4182:Archived
4160:31072778
4152:17971839
4111:30127539
4046:Archived
4042:28252057
3948:20596019
3866:(1998).
3840:Archived
3836:11961888
3828:21351878
3687:Archived
3675:32855311
3628:Archived
3624:phys.org
3598:Archived
3550:17589565
3461:Archived
3388:Archived
3384:18158904
3332:16756499
3262:37722043
3253:10523466
3197:16247166
3189:23829164
3079:18365235
3027:Archived
2849:Cytoneme
2827:See also
2736:bacteria
2603:bacteria
2572:archaean
2546:vesicles
2438:spiralis
2436:Grypania
2416:colonies
2362:division
2327:genotype
2237:navigate
2208:flagella
2202:Motility
2196:Motility
2127:such as
2053:mutation
1979:, while
1924:, while
1877:Fimbriae
1870:Flagella
1865:Flagella
1750:contain
1744:pigments
1732:Plastids
1717:ribosome
1694:Vacuoles
1690:Vacuoles
1666:and the
1634:bacteria
1616:contain
1600:proteins
1598:such as
1537:, using
1221:vimentin
1209:polarity
1141:hormones
1137:receptor
1129:molecule
1121:porosome
1107:(partly
1053:such as
1051:proteins
1049:various
1015:membrane
863:made of
861:flagella
777:proteins
763:circular
740:Type of
704:protists
695:bacteria
661:conifers
657:flagella
646:antennae
630:ciliated
582:are all
576:protozoa
519:flagella
508:nucleoid
496:notably
493:Borrelia
484:plasmids
406:nucleoid
359:bacteria
357:include
225:bacteria
223:such as
202:motility
188:. Cells
168:membrane
6204:Commons
6087:Biology
5980:Cloning
5758:Protein
5753:Plasmid
5661:History
5467:Cytosol
5367:Plastid
5320:Axoneme
5196:Vacuole
5176:Exosome
5171:Vesicle
5146:Nucleus
4839:Bibcode
4788:Bibcode
4642:8297229
4545:2112744
4513:Bibcode
4423:7994803
4402:Bibcode
4326:2997255
4275:9168435
4102:6152910
4081:Bibcode
4052:2 March
4020:Bibcode
3991:9868373
3956:4331375
3928:Bibcode
3655:Science
3541:1893118
3340:4550126
3224:Bibcode
3114:1458024
3070:2386530
2766:(1665).
2758:cellula
2647:animals
2637:and/or
2623:syngamy
2619:meiosis
2617:, sex (
2599:archaea
2466:Origins
2396:animals
2360:during
2348:, that
2333:of the
2307:neurons
2186:cytosol
2129:glucose
2058:E. coli
2005:gametes
2001:Haploid
1997:meiosis
1993:diploid
1985:mitosis
1934:meiosis
1930:mitosis
1883:fimbria
1821:capsule
1815:Capsule
1736:Plastid
1725:protein
1630:viruses
1543:glucose
1457:mitosis
1433:cytosol
1409:nucleus
1383:viruses
1315:in the
1286:encoded
1233:keratin
1217:tubulin
1125:protein
1055:enzymes
958:meiosis
953:mitosis
788:protein
774:histone
772:) with
742:nucleus
720:animals
699:archaea
615:histone
564:animals
451:) from
429:capsule
386:nucleus
363:archaea
314:nucleus
245:animals
229:amoebae
213:nucleus
181:cellula
107:D002477
70:, 1900)
6132:Mining
6065:fields
5724:Allele
5591:Tissue
5310:Cilium
5133:system
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2722:lenses
2687:, 1665
2655:plants
2635:chitin
2615:cilium
2410:, and
2346:zygote
2116:, and
2101:, and
2044:damage
1961:tissue
1849:as in
1827:as in
1800:chitin
1715:: The
1699:Amoeba
1620:(acid
1604:lipids
1580:: The
1539:oxygen
1401:organs
1379:genome
1300:RNA).
1292:) and
1225:desmin
1201:neuron
1041:, and
920:plants
847:and a
716:plants
640:, and
578:, and
560:Plants
514:genes.
476:genome
465:fungal
392:. The
316:, and
247:, and
241:plants
215:, and
200:, and
131:686465
6156:Lists
6034:Omics
5587:Organ
5563:Biome
5455:Vault
4936:from
4837:: 1.
4638:S2CID
4536:54159
4471:S2CID
4371:S2CID
4322:S2CID
4294:(PDF)
4156:S2CID
3952:S2CID
3871:(PDF)
3843:(PDF)
3832:S2CID
3794:(PDF)
3769:(PDF)
3746:(PDF)
3679:S2CID
3391:(PDF)
3358:(PDF)
3336:S2CID
3193:S2CID
3008:3 May
2987:from
2755:Latin
2651:fungi
2525:, or
2449:Gabon
2404:fungi
2384:, or
2335:genes
2212:cilia
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1891:pilin
1887:pilus
1586:lipid
1346:(the
1331:(see
1272:(DNA)
1229:lamin
1213:actin
1047:build
1039:genes
916:algae
911:none
898:none
887:actin
871:cilia
712:fungi
708:algae
632:with
580:algae
568:fungi
367:three
276:cells
249:fungi
237:algae
231:, or
178:word
176:Latin
142:[
54:Onion
5885:CSTR
5854:HPLC
5748:Gene
5729:Cell
5595:Cell
5119:cell
5025:ePub
4973:ISBN
4952:ISBN
4904:ISBN
4883:ISBN
4855:PMID
4804:ISBN
4712:2021
4694:ISBN
4630:PMID
4590:ISBN
4541:PMID
4463:PMID
4428:PMID
4363:PMID
4314:PMID
4235:2017
4217:ISBN
4148:PMID
4107:PMID
4054:2017
4038:PMID
3987:PMID
3944:PMID
3891:ISSN
3824:PMID
3717:ISBN
3671:PMID
3636:2020
3606:2020
3569:ISBN
3546:PMID
3469:2020
3451:ISBN
3425:ISBN
3380:PMID
3328:PMID
3293:OCLC
3283:ISBN
3258:PMID
3240:ISSN
3185:PMID
3177:ISSN
3110:PMID
3075:PMID
3010:2013
2998:NCBI
2927:ISBN
2773:and
2751:cell
2747:cork
2707:and
2685:cork
2631:cyst
2621:and
2613:and
2601:and
2496:and
2210:and
2169:and
1991:. A
1723:and
1602:and
1427:and
1411:and
1327:and
1290:mRNA
1259:and
1245:NF–M
1241:NF–L
1195:and
1087:The
918:and
881:and
829:and
820:and
663:and
523:pili
521:and
463:and
374:life
361:and
350:cell
290:and
156:cell
154:The
102:MeSH
42:Cell
5925:PFR
5859:NMR
5738:RNA
5734:DNA
5440:RNA
4847:doi
4835:434
4796:doi
4622:doi
4531:PMC
4521:doi
4455:doi
4418:PMC
4410:doi
4353:doi
4306:doi
4270:PMC
4262:doi
4138:doi
4097:PMC
4089:doi
4028:doi
4016:543
3979:doi
3936:doi
3924:466
3883:doi
3814:hdl
3806:doi
3758:doi
3663:doi
3659:369
3536:PMC
3528:doi
3417:doi
3370:doi
3320:doi
3248:PMC
3232:doi
3220:120
3169:hdl
3159:doi
3102:doi
3065:PMC
3057:doi
3053:129
2625:),
2531:RNA
2364:).
2133:ATP
2085:).
1932:or
1857:or
1845:or
1839:as
1835:or
1721:RNA
1632:or
1547:ATP
1505:RNA
1499:is
1497:DNA
1485:RNA
1481:DNA
1335:).
1261:RNA
1257:DNA
1247:).
1133:ion
1131:or
1043:RNA
1035:DNA
1009:or
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818:50S
784:RNA
758:DNA
655:or
600:DNA
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