Bipedalism - Knowledge

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diameter of the branch, which can increase an arboreal feeding range and can be attributed to a convergent evolution of bipedalism evolving in arboreal environments. Hominine fossils found in dry grassland environments led anthropologists to believe hominines lived, slept, walked upright, and died only in those environments because no hominine fossils were found in forested areas. However, fossilization is a rare occurrence—the conditions must be just right in order for an organism that dies to become fossilized for somebody to find later, which is also a rare occurrence. The fact that no hominine fossils were found in forests does not ultimately lead to the conclusion that no hominines ever died there. The convenience of the savanna-based theory caused this point to be overlooked for over a hundred years.

1992:, holding onto supporting branches in order to navigate branches that were too flexible or unstable otherwise. In more than 75 percent of observations, the orangutans used their forelimbs to stabilize themselves while navigating thinner branches. Increased fragmentation of forests where A. afarensis as well as other ancestors of modern humans and other apes resided could have contributed to this increase of bipedalism in order to navigate the diminishing forests. Findings also could shed light on discrepancies observed in the anatomy of A. afarensis, such as the ankle joint, which allowed it to "wobble" and long, highly flexible forelimbs. If bipedalism started from upright navigation in trees, it could explain both increased flexibility in the ankle as well as long forelimbs which grab hold of branches. 2195:(1961) suggested that the carrying of meat "over considerable distances" (Hewes 1961:689) was the key factor. Isaac (1978) and Sinclair et al. (1986) offered modifications of this idea, as indeed did Lovejoy (1981) with his "provisioning model" described above. Others, such as Nancy Tanner (1981), have suggested that infant carrying was key, while others again have suggested stone tools and weapons drove the change. This stone-tools theory is very unlikely, as though ancient humans were known to hunt, the discovery of tools was not discovered for thousands of years after the origin of bipedalism, chronologically precluding it from being a driving force of evolution. (Wooden tools and spears fossilize poorly and therefore it is difficult to make a judgment about their potential usage.) 1817:, an adaptation that non-bipedal primates would not need to make. Adapting bipedalism would have required less shoulder stability, which allowed the shoulder and other limbs to become more independent of each other and adapt for specific suspensory behaviors. In addition to the change in shoulder stability, changing locomotion would have increased the demand for shoulder mobility, which would have propelled the evolution of bipedalism forward. The different hypotheses are not necessarily mutually exclusive and a number of selective forces may have acted together to lead to human bipedalism. It is important to distinguish between adaptations for bipedalism and adaptations for running, which came later still. 38: 1841:) that favored a more elevated eye-position, and to reduce the amount of skin exposed to the tropical sun. It is possible that bipedalism provided a variety of benefits to the hominin species, and scientists have suggested multiple reasons for evolution of human bipedalism. There is also not only the question of why the earliest hominins were partially bipedal but also why hominins became more bipedal over time. For example, the postural feeding hypothesis describes how the earliest hominins became bipedal for the benefit of reaching food in trees while the savanna-based theory describes how the late hominins that started to settle on the ground became increasingly bipedal. 1965:. This hypothesis asserts that chimpanzees were only bipedal when they eat. While on the ground, they would reach up for fruit hanging from small trees and while in trees, bipedalism was used to reach up to grab for an overhead branch. These bipedal movements may have evolved into regular habits because they were so convenient in obtaining food. Also, Hunt's hypotheses states that these movements coevolved with chimpanzee arm-hanging, as this movement was very effective and efficient in harvesting food. When analyzing fossil anatomy, 2445: 2149:

groups of apes beginning to adopt bipedal postures more often. Others (e.g. Dart 1925) have offered the idea that the need for more vigilance against predators could have provided the initial motivation. Dawkins (e.g. 2004) has argued that it could have begun as a kind of fashion that just caught on and then escalated through sexual selection. And it has even been suggested (e.g. Tanner 1981:165) that male phallic display could have been the initial incentive, as well as increased sexual signaling in upright female posture.

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in a reduction in heat gain and helps heat dissipation. When a hominid is higher above the ground, the organism accesses more favorable wind speeds and temperatures. During heat seasons, greater wind flow results in a higher heat loss, which makes the organism more comfortable. Also, Wheeler explains that a vertical posture minimizes the direct exposure to the sun whereas quadrupedalism exposes more of the body to direct exposure. Analysis and interpretations of

2316: 8065: 8001: 8025: 1944:, has a divergent big toe as well as the ankle strength to walk upright. "Little Foot" could grasp things using his feet like an ape, perhaps tree branches, and he was bipedal. Ancient pollen found in the soil in the locations in which these fossils were found suggest that the area used to be much more wet and covered in thick vegetation and has only recently become the arid desert it is now. 8053: 2460:

3:1, 2:1, 1:1, 5:2, and 3:2), although a 2:1 coupling ratio appears to be favored. Even though the evolution of bipedal gait has reduced the mechanical constraints on respiration in man, thereby permitting greater flexibility in breathing pattern, it has seemingly not eliminated the need for the synchronization of respiration and body motion during sustained running."

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metabolic rate via oxygen consumption, it was found that the quadrupedal and bipedal energy costs were very similar, implying that this transition in early ape-like ancestors would not have been very difficult or energetically costing. This increased travel efficiency is likely to have been selected for as it assisted foraging across widely dispersed resources.

309:— very rare genetic neurological disorders rather than normal behavior. Even if one ignores exceptions caused by some kind of injury or illness, there are many unclear cases, including the fact that "normal" humans can crawl on hands and knees. This article therefore avoids the terms "facultative" and "obligate", and focuses on the range of styles of locomotion 8013: 612: 1855:

and reproductive success. Ko (2015) stated that there are two questions main regarding bipedalism 1. Why were the earliest hominins partially bipedal? and 2. Why did hominins become more bipedal over time? He argued that these questions can be answered with combination of prominent theories such as Savanna-based, Postural feeding, and Provisioning.

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the species became more bipedal, specialized feet would prevent the infant from conveniently clinging to the mother - hampering the mother's freedom and thus make her and her offspring more dependent on resources collected by others. Modern monogamous primates such as gibbons tend to be also territorial, but fossil evidence indicates that

2140:, threatening synchronous body movements, loud voice and extremely loud rhythmic singing/stomping/drumming on external subjects. Slow locomotion and strong body odor (both characteristic for hominids and humans) are other features often employed by aposematic species to advertise their non-profitability for potential predators. 2487: 219:, exclusively walk on two legs during the brief periods they spend on the ground. Many animals rear up on their hind legs while fighting or copulating. Some animals commonly stand on their hind legs to reach food, keep watch, threaten a competitor or predator, or pose in courtship, but do not move bipedally. 2203:

The observation that large primates, including especially the great apes, that predominantly move quadrupedally on dry land, tend to switch to bipedal locomotion in waist deep water, has led to the idea that the origin of human bipedalism may have been influenced by waterside environments. This idea,

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The thermoregulatory model explaining the origin of bipedalism is one of the simplest theories so far advanced, but it is a viable explanation. Dr. Peter Wheeler, a professor of evolutionary biology, proposes that bipedalism raises the amount of body surface area higher above the ground which results

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An alternative explanation is that the mixture of savanna and scattered forests increased terrestrial travel by proto-humans between clusters of trees, and bipedalism offered greater efficiency for long-distance travel between these clusters than quadrupedalism. In an experiment monitoring chimpanzee

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before losing it in Australopithecus. The evolution of an orthograde posture would have been very helpful on a savanna as it would allow the ability to look over tall grasses in order to watch out for predators, or terrestrially hunt and sneak up on prey. It was also suggested in P. E. Wheeler's "The

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fossils from 4.2 to 3.9 million years ago and recent studies have suggested that obligate bipedal hominid species were present as early as 7 million years ago. Nonetheless, the evolution of bipedalism was accompanied by significant evolutions in the spine including the forward movement in position of

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engaged in pair-bonding that enabled greater parental effort directed towards rearing offspring. Lovejoy proposes that male provisioning of food would improve the offspring survivorship and increase the pair's reproductive rate. Thus the male would leave his mate and offspring to search for food and

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The form and function of modern-day humans' upper bodies appear to have evolved from living in a more forested setting. Living in this kind of environment would have made it so that being able to travel arboreally would have been advantageous at the time. Although different to human walking, bipedal

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Limited and exclusive bipedalism can offer a species several advantages. Bipedalism raises the head; this allows a greater field of vision with improved detection of distant dangers or resources, access to deeper water for wading animals and allows the animals to reach higher food sources with their

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while moving than do bipedal humans. "Quadrupedal species normally synchronize the locomotor and respiratory cycles at a constant ratio of 1:1 (strides per breath) in both the trot and gallop. Human runners differ from quadrupeds in that while running they employ several phase-locked patterns (4:1,

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Prehistoric fossil records show that early hominins first developed bipedalism before being followed by an increase in brain size. The consequences of these two changes in particular resulted in painful and difficult labor due to the increased favor of a narrow pelvis for bipedalism being countered

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There are a variety of ideas which promote a specific change in behaviour as the key driver for the evolution of hominid bipedalism. For example, Wescott (1967) and later Jablonski & Chaplin (1993) suggest that bipedal threat displays could have been the transitional behaviour which led to some

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lived in large groups. However, while both gibbons and hominids have reduced canine sexual dimorphism, female gibbons enlarge ('masculinize') their canines so they can actively share in the defense of their home territory. Instead, the reduction of the male hominid canine is consistent with reduced

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males were nearly twice the weight of females. However, Lovejoy's model posits that the larger range a provisioning male would have to cover (to avoid competing with the female for resources she could attain herself) would select for increased male body size to limit predation risk. Furthermore, as

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Sigmon (1971) demonstrated that chimpanzees exhibit bipedalism in different contexts, and one single factor should be used to explain bipedalism: preadaptation for human bipedalism. Day (1986) emphasized three major pressures that drove evolution of bipedalism: food acquisition, predator avoidance,

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Shoulder stability would decrease with the evolution of bipedalism. Shoulder mobility would increase because the need for a stable shoulder is only present in arboreal habitats. Shoulder mobility would support suspensory locomotion behaviors which are present in human bipedalism. The forelimbs are

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Respiration through bipedality means that there is better breath control in bipeds, which can be associated with brain growth. The modern brain utilizes approximately 20% of energy input gained through breathing and eating, as opposed to species like chimpanzees who use up twice as much energy as

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by reducing the total surface area exposed to direct sunlight while simultaneously allowing for more space for cooling winds. Additionally, having longer limbs is more energy-efficient, since longer limbs mean that overall muscle strain is lessened. Better energy efficiency, in turn, means higher

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Charles Darwin wrote that "Man could not have attained his present dominant position in the world without the use of his hands, which are so admirably adapted to the act of obedience of his will". Darwin (1871:52) and many models on bipedal origins are based on this line of thought. Gordon Hewes

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came down from the tree's branches and adapted to life on the savanna by walking erect on two feet. The theory suggests that early hominids were forced to adapt to bipedal locomotion on the open savanna after they left the trees. One of the proposed mechanisms was the knuckle-walking hypothesis,

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It seems unlikely that any single factor was responsible for such a dramatic change in behaviour. In addition to the advantages of accruing from ability to carry objects – food or otherwise – the improvement of the visual range and the freeing of the hands for purposes of defence and offence may

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Other theories have been proposed that suggest wading and the exploitation of aquatic food sources (providing essential nutrients for human brain evolution or critical fallback foods) may have exerted evolutionary pressures on human ancestors promoting adaptations which later assisted full-time

2227:", as originally formulated, has not been accepted or considered a serious theory within the anthropological scholarly community. Others, however, have sought to promote wading as a factor in the origin of human bipedalism without referring to further ("aquatic ape" related) factors. Since 2000 2135:

of potential predators and competitors with exaggerated visual and audio signals. According to this model, hominids were trying to stay as visible and as loud as possible all the time. Several morphological and behavioral developments were employed to achieve this goal: upright bipedal posture,

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Most bipedal animals move with their backs close to horizontal, using a long tail to balance the weight of their bodies. The primate version of bipedalism is unusual because the back is close to upright (completely upright in humans), and the tail may be absent entirely. Many primates can stand

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can be used to quantify the whole-body kinetic & potential energy, with walking displaying an out-of-phase relationship indicating exchange between the two. This model applies to all walking organisms regardless of the number of legs, and thus bipedal locomotion does not differ in terms of

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upright. It is possible that bipedalism evolved in the trees, and was later applied to the savanna as a vestigial trait. Humans and orangutans are both unique to a bipedal reactive adaptation when climbing on thin branches, in which they have increased hip and knee extension in relation to the

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species move bipedally when running, usually to escape from threats. Many primate and bear species will adopt a bipedal gait in order to reach food or explore their environment, though there are a few cases where they walk on their hind limbs only. Several arboreal primate species, such as

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other than infants normally walk and run in biped fashion, but almost all can crawl on hands and knees when necessary. There are even reports of humans who normally walk on all fours with their feet but not their knees on the ground, but these cases are a result of conditions such as

2521:. Recently, spurred by the success of creating a fully passive, un-powered bipedal walking robot, those working on such machines have begun using principles gleaned from the study of human and animal locomotion, which often relies on passive mechanisms to minimize power consumption. 2268:

appears to be rare and actively avoided cross-culturally, even if birthing methods may differ between said cultures. This is due to the fact that the narrowing of the hips and the change in the pelvic angle caused a discrepancy in the ratio of the size of the head to the

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Early hominins underwent post-cranial changes in order to better adapt to bipedality, especially running. One of these changes is having longer hindlimbs proportional to the forelimbs and their effects. As previously mentioned, longer hindlimbs assist in

651:, although usually quadrupedal, will sometimes move between adjacent feeding patches with a squatting, shuffling bipedal form of locomotion. However, they can only do so for brief amounts, as their bodies are not adapted for constant bipedal locomotion. 1787:

There are at least twelve distinct hypotheses as to how and why bipedalism evolved in humans, and also some debate as to when. Bipedalism evolved well before the large human brain or the development of stone tools. Bipedal specializations are found in

2468:. This is because breath control means that the muscles associated with breathing can be manipulated into creating sounds. This means that the onset of bipedality, leading to more efficient breathing, may be related to the origin of verbal language. 2214:

who said: "It seems to me likely that Man learnt to stand erect first in water and then, as his balance improved, he found he became better equipped for standing up on the shore when he came out, and indeed also for running." It was then promoted by

2186:, rather than the hotter conditions being hypothetically bipedalism's initial stimulus. A feedback mechanism from the advantages of bipedality in hot and open habitats would then in turn make a forest preadaptation solidify as a permanent state. 2107:

may have possessed an arboreal type of bipedalism that later independently evolved towards knuckle-walking in chimpanzees and gorillas and towards efficient walking and running in modern humans (see figure). It is also proposed that one cause of

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evolution of bipedality and loss of functional body hair in hominids", that a possible advantage of bipedalism in the savanna was reducing the amount of surface area of the body exposed to the sun, helping regulate body temperature. In fact,

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Humans are the only primates who are normally biped, due to an extra curve in the spine which stabilizes the upright position, as well as shorter arms relative to the legs than is the case for the nonhuman great apes. The evolution of

560:. Humans, as their bipedalism has been extensively studied, are documented in the next section. Macropods are believed to have evolved bipedal hopping only once in their evolution, at some time no later than 45 million years ago. 2080:

suggest that the species was closely related to African-ape ancestors. This possibly provides a species close to the true connection between fully bipedal hominins and quadruped apes. According to Richard Dawkins in his book

2033:, suggests a reduction in inter-male antagonistic behavior in early hominids. In addition, this model is supported by a number of modern human traits associated with concealed ovulation (permanently enlarged breasts, lack of 1911:

supports the savanna-based theory by explaining the shrinking of forested areas due to global warming and cooling, which forced animals out into the open grasslands and caused the need for hominids to acquire bipedality.

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Others state hominines had already achieved the bipedal adaptation that was used in the savanna. The fossil evidence reveals that early bipedal hominins were still adapted to climbing trees at the time they were also

4985: 2298:. The difficulties associated with simple standing in upright humans are highlighted by the greatly increased risk of falling present in the elderly, even with minimal reductions in control system effectiveness. 299:

Zoologists often label behaviors, including bipedalism, as "facultative" (i.e. optional) or "obligate" (the animal has no reasonable alternative). Even this distinction is not completely clear-cut — for example,

2097:. These apes may have once been bipedal, but then lost this ability when they were forced back into an arboreal habitat, presumably by those australopithecines from whom eventually evolved hominins. Early 2672:

Heglund, NC; Cavagna, GA; Taylor, CR (1982). "Energetics and mechanics of terrestrial locomotion. III. Energy changes of the centre of mass as a function of speed and body size in birds and mammals".

674:. One hypothesis for human bipedalism is that it evolved as a result of differentially successful survival from carrying food to share with group members, although there are alternative hypotheses. 2432:

muscles of the thigh are both so crucial to bipedal activities that each alone is much larger than the well-developed biceps of the arms. In addition to the leg muscles, the increased size of the

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Running is characterized by a spring-mass movement. Kinetic and potential energy are in phase, and the energy is stored & released from a spring-like limb during foot contact, achieved by the

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However, this model has been debated, as others have argued that early bipedal hominids were instead polygynous. Among most monogamous primates, males and females are about the same size. That is

1934:, found in Hadar in Ethiopia, which may have been forested at the time of Lucy's death, had curved fingers that would still give her the ability to grasp tree branches, but she walked bipedally. " 693:

and Poko (chimpanzee), were found to move bipedally. Natasha switched to exclusive bipedalism after an illness, while Poko was discovered in captivity in a tall, narrow cage. Oliver reverted to

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used by various groups of animals. Normal humans may be considered "obligate" bipeds because the alternatives are very uncomfortable and usually only resorted to when walking is impossible.

2233: 2585: 599:, became famous locally and on the internet for having a frequent bipedal gait, although this is attributed to injuries on the bear's front paws. A two-legged fox was filmed in a 3216:

Sereno, Paul C.; Catherine A. Forster; Raymond R. Rogers; Alfredo M. Monetta (January 1993). "Primitive dinosaur skeleton from Argentina and the early evolution of Dinosauria".

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of all dinosaurs; if this is true, its traits suggest that the first dinosaurs were small, bipedal predators. The discovery of primitive, dinosaur-like ornithodirans such as

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can exceed 100 km/h (62 mph). Even though bipedalism is slower at first, over long distances, it has allowed humans to outrun most other animals according to the

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will fight in a bipedal stance to use their forelegs as weapons. A number of mammals will adopt a bipedal stance in specific situations such as for feeding or fighting.

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Isbell LA, Young TP (1996). "The evolution of bipedalism in hominids and reduced group size in chimpanzees: alternative responses to decreasing resource availability".

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from the University of Melbourne recently (2011) suggested that bipedalism was one of the central elements of the general defense strategy of early hominids, based on

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return carrying the food in his arms walking on his legs. This model is supported by the reduction ("feminization") of the male canine teeth in early hominids such as

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bipedalism. It has also been thought that consistent water-based food sources had developed early hominid dependency and facilitated dispersal along seas and rivers.

2223:, who cited bipedalism among a cluster of other human traits unique among primates, including voluntary control of breathing, hairlessness and subcutaneous fat. The " 7898: 398:

whose fossils date from 290 million years ago. Its long hind-legs, short forelegs, and distinctive joints all suggest bipedalism. The species became extinct in the

206:) as well as various other extinct groups evolving the trait independently. A larger number of modern species intermittently or briefly use a bipedal gait. Several 825:

walk bipedally on the sea floor using two of their arms, allowing the remaining arms to be used to camouflage the octopus as a mat of algae or a floating coconut.

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The great majority of living terrestrial vertebrates are quadrupeds, with bipedalism exhibited by only a handful of living groups. Humans, gibbons and large birds

6714:, "The Archeological Evidence for the Activities of Early African Hominids" In:Early Hominids of Africa (Jolly, C.J. (Ed.)), Duckworth (London), 219–254, (1978). 2505:

involved only wheels, treads, or multiple legs. Recent cheap and compact computing power has made two-legged robots more feasible. Some notable biped robots are

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Crompton, R. H.; Thorpe, S. K. S. (2007-11-16). "Response to Comment on "Origin of Human Bipedalism As an Adaptation for Locomotion on Flexible Branches"".

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will squat on their hindlegs to manipulate some objects but revert to four limbs when moving (the beaver will move bipedally if transporting wood for their

2037:) and low sperm competition (moderate sized testes, low sperm mid-piece volume) that argues against recent adaptation to a polygynous reproductive system. 4155: 3681: 3025: 1608: 359:

by raising one foot at a time. On the other hand, most macropods, smaller birds, lemurs and bipedal rodents move by hopping on both legs simultaneously.

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in humans is an important adaptation as it provides support and stability to the trunk and lessens the amount of stress on the joints when running.

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Green, Alemseged, David, Zeresenay (2012). "Australopithecus afarensis Scapular Ontogeny, Function, and the Role of Climbing in Human Evolution".

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locomotion in trees was thought to be advantageous. It has also been proposed that, like some modern-day apes, early hominins had undergone a

7893: 7771: 6935: 6446: 6408: 6110: 6081: 6053: 6022: 5176: 4910: 4044: 3556: 3497: 3409:"Locomotor versatility in the white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar): A spatiotemporal analysis of the bipedal, tripedal, and quadrupedal gaits" 2656: 2629: 522:, a sister group to the avemetatarsalians (the group including dinosaurs and relatives), also evolved bipedal forms – a poposauroid from the 3000: 6841: 3167: 363:

are able to walk or hop, most commonly alternating feet when moving arboreally and hopping on both feet simultaneously when on the ground.

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Bipedal movement occurs in a number of ways and requires many mechanical and neurological adaptations. Some of these are described below.

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hip and hind limb very clearly indicate bipedalism, but these fossils also indicate very inefficient locomotive movement when compared to

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Thorpe, S. K.; Holder, R. L.; Crompton, R. H. (2007). "Origin of human bipedalism as an adaptation for locomotion on flexible branches".

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after developing arthritis. Non-human primates often use bipedal locomotion when carrying food, or while moving through shallow water.

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of bipedalism was linked to monogamy. In the face of long inter-birth intervals and low reproductive rates typical of the apes, early

3888: 3455: 3293:"The Phylogenetic Position of the Musky Rat-Kangaroo and the Evolution of Bipedal Hopping in Kangaroos (Macropodidae: Diprotodontia)" 2231:

has published a series of papers and a book on a variant of the wading hypothesis, which he calls the "amphibian generalist theory" (

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which states that human ancestors used quadrupedal locomotion on the savanna, as evidenced by morphological characteristics found in

7825: 464: 2273:. The result of this is that there is greater difficulty in birthing for hominins in general, let alone to be doing it by oneself. 571:. All primates possess some bipedal ability, though most species primarily use quadrupedal locomotion on land. Primates aside, the 544:

A number of groups of extant mammals have independently evolved bipedalism as their main form of locomotion - for example humans,

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move bipedally by hopping. Very few non-primate mammals commonly move bipedally with an alternating leg gait. Exceptions are the

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Non-human primates habitually deliver their young on their own, but the same cannot be said for modern-day humans. Isolated

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The maximum bipedal speed appears slower than the maximum speed of quadrupedal movement with a flexible backbone – both the

5697:"Independent evolution of knuckle-walking in African apes shows that humans did not evolve from a knuckle-walking ancestor" 2074:

and was reduced in chimpanzee and gorilla when they became more specialized. Other recent studies of the foot structure of

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strata supports this view; analysis of recovered fossils suggests that these animals were indeed small, bipedal predators.

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become bipedal during high-speed, sprint locomotion, including the world's fastest lizard, the spiny-tailed iguana (genus

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humans have that non-human apes do not. Rather, walking is characterized by an "inverted pendulum" movement in which the

7835: 7712: 7598: 5939: 3265: 2595: 2339:, which requires the engagement of both the hip and the knee joints. This human ability to walk is made possible by the 1981:. For this reason, Hunt argues that bipedalism evolved more as a terrestrial feeding posture than as a walking posture. 1088: 860: 284: 8057: 8029: 7933: 7751: 7272: 7126: 6967: 4902:

Java man: how two geologists' dramatic discoveries changed our understanding of the evolutionary path to modern humans

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humans for the same amount of movement. This excess energy, leading to brain growth, also leads to the development of

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freed from weight-bearing requirements, which makes the shoulder a place of evidence for the evolution of bipedalism.

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Energy-efficient means of standing bipedally involve constant adjustment of balance, and of course these must avoid

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Jablonski, N.G.; Chaplin, G. (1993). "Origin of Habitual Terrestrial Bipedalism in the Ancestor of the Hominidae".

5021: 3334:"A new Pleistocene tree-kangaroo (Diprotodontia: Macropodidae) from the Nullarbor Plain of south-central Australia" 2046: 1967: 1940: 1930: 1809: 1541: 1275: 1267: 1259: 7974: 7870: 7766: 2015: 1908: 1379: 328:. Staying still on both legs. In most bipeds this is an active process, requiring constant adjustment of balance. 256:

become free for other uses, including manipulation (in primates and rodents), flight (in birds), digging (in the

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has very similar features of the hand and shoulder to the chimpanzee, which indicates hanging arms. Also, the

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Several groups of modern species are habitual bipeds whose normal method of locomotion is two-legged. In the

3270: 8090: 7943: 7880: 7840: 7286: 6809: 5372:"An enlarged postcranial sample confirms Australopithecus afarensis dimorphism was similar to modern humans" 3866:"Bipedal orangs, gait of a dinosaur, and new-look Ichthyostega: exciting times in functional anatomy part I" 3653: 3575:

Daver G, Guy F, Mackaye HT, Likius A, Boisserie J, Moussa A, Pallas L, Vignaud P, Clarisse ND (2022-08-24).

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Some of the fossils found actually showed that there was still an adaptation to arboreal life. For example,

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Napier (1963) argued that it is unlikely that a single factor drove the evolution of bipedalism. He stated "

1349: 853: 6805: 5116:"Arboreal bipedalism in wild chimpanzees: Implications for the evolution of hominid posture and locomotion" 1813:. This dimorphism has been seen as an evolutionary adaptation of females to bear lumbar load better during 7938: 7913: 7908: 7801: 7756: 7717: 7279: 7001: 6945: 6930: 6850: 5068: 4168:

This article has good pictures explaining the differences between bipedal and non-bipedal pregnancy loads.

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in the foot and leg, respectively. Again, the whole-body kinetics are similar to animals with more limbs.

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were previously thought to have been bipedal, but recent trackways have all shown quadrupedal locomotion.

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Pontzer, H.; Raichlen, D. A.; Rodman, P. S. (2014). "Bipedal and quadrupedal locomotion in chimpanzees".

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Wheeler, P.E. (1991). "The influence of bipedalism on the energy and water budgets of early hominids".

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Richmond, B. G.; Strait, D. S. (2000). "Evidence that humans evolved from a knuckle-walking ancestor".

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by larger heads passing through the constricted birth canal. This phenomenon is commonly known as the

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Wheeler, P. E. (1990). "The influence of thermoregulatory selection pressures on hominid evolution".

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forelimbs, and that it is less parsimonious to assume that knuckle walking developed twice in genera

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has been hypothesized to improve locomotor performance, which could aid in escaping from predators.

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Wheeler, P. E. (1984). "The Evolution of Bipedality and Loss of Functional Body Hair in Hominoids".

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Wheeler, P. E. (1984) "The Evolution of Bipedality and Loss of Functional Body Hair in Hominoids."

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Wheeler, P. E. (1984). "The evolution of bipedality and loss of functional body hair in hominids".

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with bipedal sideways hopping movements of the hind legs, holding their forelimbs up for balance.

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Harmon E (2009). "Size and shape variation in the proximal femur of Australopithecus africanus".

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Davies, S.J.J.F. (2003). "Birds I Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins". In Hutchins, Michael (ed.).

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Huffard CL, Boneka F, Full RJ (2005). "Underwater bipedal locomotion by octopuses in disguise".

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Other mammals engage in limited, non-locomotory, bipedalism. A number of other animals, such as

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Bauer, Harold (1976). "Chimpanzee bipedal locomotion in the Gombe National Park, East Africa".

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DeSilva, J., "First Steps: How Upright Walking Made Us Human" HarperCollins (New York), (2021)

6607: 6526: 6462: 6442: 6404: 6370: 6344: 6325:"Spinopelvic pathways to bipedality: why no hominids ever relied on a bent-hip-bent-knee gait" 6305: 6262: 6246: 6205: 6147: 6106: 6102: 6077: 6049: 6018: 5914: 5736: 5677: 5659: 5603: 5552: 5499: 5444: 5401: 5344: 5286: 5224: 5172: 5143: 5135: 4951: 4906: 4838: 4773: 4647: 4528: 4407: 4372: 4307: 4291: 4203: 4128: 4040: 4036: 4028: 4009: 3958: 3817: 3701: 3615: 3607: 3552: 3523:"Primate Factsheets: Gelada baboon (Theropithecus gelada) Taxonomy, Morphology, & Ecology" 3522: 3475: 3436: 3314: 3098: 3073: 2895: 2887: 2751: 2733: 2689: 2652: 2625: 2590: 2344: 2179: 2041: 1961:

The postural feeding hypothesis has been recently supported by Dr. Kevin Hunt, a professor at

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White TD, et al. (2009). "Ardipithecus ramidus and the paleobiology of early hominids".

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began in primates about four million years ago, or as early as seven million years ago with

86: 5168: 5162: 805:. Many reptile species will also temporarily adopt bipedalism while fighting. One genus of 7662: 7635: 7533: 7491: 7103: 7056: 6894: 6684: 6486: 6069: 5753: 5047: 3892: 3382: 2921:

Djawdan, M (1993). "Locomotor performance of bipedal and quadrupedal heteromyid rodents".

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stage prior to adapting the back limbs for bipedality while retaining forearms capable of

1822: 1333: 1102: 1058: 731: 694: 588: 545: 504: 5115: 5000: 6731: 6595: 6293: 5892: 5853: 5783: 5712: 5591: 5540: 5432: 5332: 5274: 5212: 4939: 4877: 4826: 4761: 4698: 4635: 4592: 4516: 4448: 4350: 4279: 4191: 4116: 3997: 3805: 3595: 3424: 3229: 3136: 3086: 2934: 2875: 8069: 7482: 7186: 7172: 7111: 7012: 6800: 6778: 6664: 6457: 6365: 6324: 5909: 5876: 5731: 5696: 5672: 5637: 5521: 5494: 5463: 5396: 5371: 5251: 4367: 4334: 4005: 2841: 2792: 2746: 2713: 2540: 2481: 2477: 2452: 1904: 1796: 1778: 1154: 1141: 1071: 1045: 802: 664: 485: 265: 257: 253: 240: 61: 6579: 6280:

Sylvester, Adam D. (2006). "Locomotor Coupling and the Origin of Hominin Bipedalism".

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Sylvester, Adam D. (2006). "Locomotor Coupling and the Origin of Hominin Bipedalism".

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Sigmon, Becky (1971). "Bipedal behavior and the emergence of erect posture in man".

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Sigmon, Becky (1971). "Bipedal behavior and the emergence of erect posture in man".

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when threatened, rearing up on its front legs while facing the attacker so that its

480:

establishes its presence in the fossil record at this time. Paleontologists suspect

8064: 7656: 7644: 7586: 7460: 7408: 7373: 7298: 7205: 7038: 6884: 6674: 6242: 5993: 5298: 5236: 4659: 3245: 3024:. Centre for Philosophy of Natural and Social Science, London School of Economics. 2907: 2560: 2402: 2336: 2159: 2132: 2093: 1891: 1804: 1799:, where the spinal cord leaves the cranium. Recent evidence regarding modern human 1749: 1323: 1290: 1204: 1128: 1115: 767: 759: 746:) can stand or move on two legs if trained, or if birth defect or injury precludes 738:

will stand on hind legs to survey their surroundings, but will not walk bipedally.

576: 572: 557: 519: 515: 288: 276: 203: 179: 175: 162:, all the early forms and many later groups were habitual or exclusive bipeds; the 46: 6763: 6746:

Tanner, N. M., "On Becoming Human", Cambridge University Press (Cambridge), (1981)

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Dean, F. 2000. Primate diversity. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc: New York. Print.

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the well muscled legs, against the small and bony wings. Likewise in humans, the

2182:. This then allowed for the more efficient exploitation of the hotter conditions 334:. One foot in front of another, with at least one foot on the ground at any time. 7540: 7467: 7439: 7432: 7380: 7028: 7007: 6992: 6982: 6977: 6940: 6878: 6711: 2465: 2417:

Bipedalism requires strong leg muscles, particularly in the thighs. Contrast in

2348: 2124: 1935: 1395: 1019: 771: 755: 743: 656: 340:. One foot in front of another, with periods where both feet are off the ground. 6301: 4199: 3603: 3144: 2371:

Rotation of the hips about the horizontal axis to improve balance during stance

817:

are known to move bipedally at high speeds. Bipedalism is rarely found outside

611: 7525: 7446: 7033: 6632: 6538: 6506: 5818: 5192:

Brunet M, Guy F, Pilbeam D, Mackaye HT, Likius A, et al. (11 July 2002).

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suggest bipedalism. It is thus possible that bipedalism evolved very early in

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There are a number of states of movement commonly associated with bipedalism.

183: 6530: 6348: 6250: 5933: 5663: 5250:

Suwa G, Kono RT, Simpson SW, Asfaw B, Lovejoy CO, White TD (2 October 2009).

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antelope stands on its hind legs while eating from trees, as did the extinct

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Kuliukas, A. (2013). "Wading Hypotheses of the Origin of Human Bipedalism".

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One theory on the origin of bipedalism is the behavioral model presented by

1989: 1870: 1814: 1733: 1564: 1410: 814: 810: 787: 783: 747: 644: 568: 533: 501: 456: 423: 394: 216: 151: 147: 6739: 6466: 6438: 6374: 6340: 6309: 6151: 5918: 5740: 5681: 5607: 5556: 5503: 5448: 5405: 5387: 5348: 5290: 5228: 5147: 4955: 4885: 4842: 4777: 4651: 4376: 4311: 4207: 4132: 3962: 3705: 3619: 3440: 3318: 3160:"Global Warming Led To Atmospheric Hydrogen Sulfide And Permian Extinction" 3102: 2899: 2755: 2729: 2368:

Rotation of the hips about the axis of the spine, to increase stride length

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Injured chimpanzees and bonobos have been capable of sustained bipedalism.

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Bipedalism: Pressures, origins and modes. Major topics in human evolution

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A short 'push' from the ankle prior to toe-off, propelling the swing leg

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bipedalism preceded further refinement of bipedalism by the pressure of

459:

ancestors approximately 230 million years ago during the Middle to Late

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Berman, David S.; et al. (2000). "Early Permian Bipedal Reptile".

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can run bipedally across the surface of water for some distance. Among

790: 751: 735: 723: 715: 632: 427: 372: 356: 343: 337: 331: 280: 272: 195: 136: 128: 124: 73: 42: 6258: 6226: 5484: 2380: 1988:, Professor Susannah Thorpe examined the most arboreal great ape, the 17: 4643: 4101:"Fetal load and the evolution of lumbar lordosis in bipedal hominins" 3237: 2270: 2163: 1834: 794: 719: 648: 640: 636: 628: 564: 553: 346:/hopping. Moving by a series of jumps with both feet moving together. 212: 207: 171: 69: 6697:

Hewes, G. W., "Food Transport and the Origin of Hominid Bipedalism"

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Das Geheimnis des Aufrechten Gangs ~ Unsere Evolution Verlief Anders

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reveal that this hypothesis needs modification to consider that the

2056:

inter-male aggression in a pair-bonded though group living primate.

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Unlike non-human apes that are able to practice bipedality such as

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Verhaegena M, Puechb PF, Munro S (2002). "Aquaboreal ancestors?".

6128:"Shallow-water habitats as sources of fallback foods for hominins" 3549:

Primate morphophysiology, locomotor analyses, and human bipedalism

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labelled "the wading hypothesis", was originally suggested by the

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bipedalism is rare, but it is found in the "reared-up" running of

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Burk, Angela; Michael Westerman; Mark Springer (September 1988).

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Wrangham R, Cheney D, Seyfarth R, Sarmiento E (December 2009).

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afarensisassemblages confirm only moderate skeletal dimorphism"

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Lewin, Roger; Swisher, Carl Celso; Curtis, Garniss H. (2000).

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In humans, walking is composed of several separate processes:

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longer legs, long tightly coiled hair on the top of the head,

1766: 832: 739: 711: 430:

chicks have claws on their wings which they use for climbing.

261: 65: 166:

are members of a clade of exclusively bipedal dinosaurs, the

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Aerts, Peter; Evie E. Vereeckea; Kristiaan D'Aoûta (2006).

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Keith Oatley; Dacher Keltner; Jennifer M. Jenkins (2006).

1833:

in provisioning, changes in climate and environment (from

279:

can reach speeds of 70 km/h (43 mph), while the

60:

where an animal moves by means of its two rear (or lower)

6430:

A moving topic: control and dynamics of animal locomotion

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Survival of the fattest: the key to human brain evolution

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Thorpe, S. K. S.; Holder, R. L.; Crompton, R. H. (2007).

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10.1671/0272-4634(2008)28[463:ANPTDM]2.0.CO;2

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wiped out an estimated 95 percent of all life on Earth.

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Whitcome KK, Shapiro LJ, Lieberman DE (December 2007).

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Bramble, Dennis M.; Lieberman, Daniel E. (2004-11-18).

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gracile type species while gorillas are descended from

603:

garden in 2023, most likely having been born that way.

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Bipedal movement also re-evolved in a number of other

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The human respiratory system, encased by the rib cage

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Lovejoy, C.O. (1988). "Evolution of Human walking".

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The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex

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D36040612. 2842:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1997.tb04840.x 2793:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1983.tb02087.x 2622:Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia 2455:, have more restrictive breathing 2116:Warning display (aposematic) model 158:) developed bipedalism; among the 25: 6400:Muscles, reflexes, and locomotion 6175:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 5636:Prang, Thomas Cody (2019-04-30). 4083:Steve Connor (13 December 2007). 1938:", a nearly-complete specimen of 821:, though at least two species of 465:Permian-Triassic extinction event 8063: 8051: 8023: 8011: 8000: 7999: 5942:from the original on 2013-05-22. 5932:Tanner, Nancy Makepeace (1981). 5308:from the original on 2022-10-09. 5103:from the original on 2022-10-09. 4988:from the original on 2017-03-05. 4978:South African Journal of Science 3891:. Wildlife Times. Archived from 3864:Naish, Darren (April 28, 2008). 3637:from the original on 2022-08-25. 3192:from the original on 2012-09-01. 3170:from the original on 2011-06-05. 3031:from the original on 2008-09-10. 3006:from the original on 2010-06-16. 2359:Vaulting over a stiff stance leg 782:Bipedalism is unknown among the 85: 6643:from the original on 2013-11-07 6433:. Vol. 6. pp. 387–8. 5164:Images of the Past, 5th edition 4482:. Archives de Biologie (Liege). 4060:Wayman, Erin (August 6, 2012). 3923:from the original on 2012-11-26 3529:from the original on 2012-05-09 3364:from the original on 2011-10-19 2674:Journal of Experimental Biology 2319:Profile view of the human spine 2242:Amphibische Generalistentheorie 1948:Traveling efficiency hypothesis 1890:instead of evolving it once as 49:, at 70 km/h (43 mph) 6403:. Princeton University Press. 6282:Journal of Theoretical Biology 6243:10.1525/maq.1996.10.2.02a00100 6231:Medical Anthropology Quarterly 5992:(174): 642–645. Archived from 4180:Journal of Theoretical Biology 3887:Sharma, Jayanth (2007-03-08). 3259:Handwerk, Brian (2006-01-26). 2112:was a less efficient running. 591:and in some circumstances the 552:, numerous species of jumping 455:Dinosaurs diverged from their 1: 6764:10.1525/aa.1967.69.6.02a00110 6204:. HarperCollins. p. 17. 6187:10.1016/S0169-5347(02)02490-4 5792:10.1016/s0047-2484(84)80079-2 5370:Reno PL, et al. (2010). 5062:Hooper, Rowan (31 May 2007). 4972:Hunt, Kevin (February 1996). 4707:10.1016/s0047-2484(84)80079-2 2648:The Secret World of Kangaroos 1984:A related study conducted by 829:Evolution of human bipedalism 706:Limited bipedalism in mammals 389:The first known biped is the 227:The word is derived from the 6806:Human Timeline (Interactive) 6225:Trevathan, Wenda R. (1996). 5901:10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.02.006 5862:10.1016/0047-2484(91)90003-e 5701:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 5625:(2nd ed.). p. 235. 5600:10.1126/science.211.4480.341 5462:Reno PL, Lovejoy CO (2015). 5441:10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.01.002 5041:Kaplan, Matt (31 May 2007). 4999:Gibbons, Ann (31 May 2007). 4948:10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.10.002 4725:Shreeve, James (July 1996). 4601:10.1590/S1516-89132015060399 4525:10.1590/S1516-89132015060399 4457:10.1590/S1516-89132015060399 3433:10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.12.011 3095:10.1126/science.290.5493.969 3049:. 2000-11-03. Archived from 2596:National Wildlife Federation 285:endurance running hypothesis 8030:Evolutionary biology Portal 6968:Comparative foot morphology 6671:", Murray (London), (1871). 6567:. New York: Harper Collins. 6397:McMahon, Thomas A. (1984). 6097:Cunnane, Stephen C (2005). 3765:Waldman, Dan (2004-07-21). 3158:Penn State (1 March 2005). 1957:Postural feeding hypothesis 260:), combat (in bears, great 239:'foot', as contrasted with 112:, meaning 'two feet' (from 8112: 6772:Journal of Human Evolution 6720:Journal of Human Evolution 6706:Journal of Human Evolution 6302:10.1016/j.jtbi.2006.04.016 6015:The Aquatic Ape Hypothesis 5020:Minkel, JR (31 May 2007). 4928:Journal of Human Evolution 4866:Journal of Human Evolution 4687:Journal of Human Evolution 4200:10.1016/j.jtbi.2006.04.016 3604:10.1038/s41586-022-04901-z 3413:Journal of Human Evolution 3145:10.1016/j.crpv.2005.09.002 3116:Hutchinson, J. R. (2006). 2781:Journal of Zoology, London 2584:Stewart, D. (2006-08-01). 2475: 2384:A group of children racing 2053:Australopithecus afarensis 2047:Australopithecus afarensis 1968:Australopithecus afarensis 1941:Australopithecus africanus 1931:Australopithecus afarensis 1880:Australopithecus afarensis 1876:Australopithecus anamensis 1862: 1810:Australopithecus africanus 1776: 518:. Some extinct members of 385:Early reptiles and lizards 29: 7995: 7975:Evolutionary anthropology 7360: 7167: 7047: 6851:Animal locomotion on land 5819:10.1017/s0140525x00079218 5083:Thorpe, Susannah (2007). 4359:10.1007/s00114-009-0637-3 4333:Niemitz, Carsten (2010). 2016:Sahelanthropus tchadensis 1909:turnover pulse hypothesis 1762: 846: 835: 6801:The Origin of Bipedalism 6578:Bramble, Dennis (1983). 6563:DeSilva, Jeremy (2021). 6505:Pontzer, Herman (2012). 6200:DeSilva, Jeremy (2021). 6044:. Alpha Books. pp. 5093:University of Birmingham 4160:National Geographic News 3836:"Walking tall after all" 2144:Other behavioural models 1986:University of Birmingham 76:that usually moves in a 7881:Origin of modern humans 6752:American Anthropologist 6699:American Anthropologist 6681:, 145, 195–199, (1925). 6604:10.1126/science.6849136 5722:10.1073/pnas.0901280106 5549:10.1126/science.1175834 5341:10.1126/science.1175802 5283:10.1126/science.1175824 4835:10.1126/science.1140799 4770:10.1126/science.1227123 4727:"Sunset on the savanna" 4404:10.1002/ajpa.1330340105 4288:10.1126/science.1140799 4227:Anthropological Science 4221:Kimura, Tasuku (2019). 4027:McHenry, H. M. (2009). 3955:10.1126/science.1109616 3814:10.1126/science.1146580 3654:Smithsonian Institution 3472:10.1002/ajpa.1330440207 3310:10.1080/106351598260824 1750:P a r a n t h r o p u s 1609:Dispersal beyond Africa 150:(a group that includes 8086:Terrestrial locomotion 6931:Rectilinear locomotion 6740:10.1006/jhev.1993.1021 6708:, 26, 183–202, (1994). 6701:, 63, 687–710, (1961). 6439:10.1098/rsbl.2010.0294 6341:10.1098/rstb.2010.0112 6132:Am. J. Phys. Anthropol 5388:10.1098/rstb.2010.0086 5069:New Scientist Magazine 4905:. New York: Scribner. 4886:10.1006/jhev.1996.0034 3125:Comptes Rendus Palevol 2820:Sharp, N.C.C. (1997). 2730:10.1098/rsif.2018.0276 2586:"A Bird Like No Other" 2494: 2449: 2385: 2320: 2241: 2225:aquatic ape hypothesis 2221:aquatic ape hypothesis 2153:Thermoregulatory model 2110:Neanderthal extinction 881:−10 — 768:walk on its front legs 619: 577:kangaroo rats and mice 180:kangaroo rats and mice 146:period some groups of 58:terrestrial locomotion 50: 7889:Recent African origin 7127:Last common ancestors 6926:Undulatory locomotion 6637:Ruina.tam.cornell.edu 5623:Understanding Emotion 3840:Research Intelligence 3547:Kondō, Shirō (1985). 2489: 2447: 2383: 2352:whole-body kinetics. 2318: 1859:Savannah-based theory 971:−1 — 961:−2 — 951:−3 — 941:−4 — 931:−5 — 921:−6 — 911:−7 — 901:−8 — 891:−9 — 614: 514:lineages such as the 80:manner is known as a 40: 8058:Evolutionary biology 7904:Behavioral modernity 7894:Multiregional origin 7674:archaic Homo sapiens 7669:Homo heidelbergensis 7614:Red Deer Cave people 6511:Current Anthropology 5254:Ardipithecus ramidus 2977:Journal of Mammalogy 2466:verbal communication 2104:Ardipithecus ramidus 2077:Ardipithecus ramidus 2067:Ardipithecus ramidus 2022:Ardipithecus ramidus 1565:Earliest stone tools 567:, most of which are 7541:H. neanderthalensis 7461:H. e. tautavelensis 6921:Concertina movement 6875:Arboreal locomotion 6732:1993JHumE..24..259J 6689:The Ancestor's Tale 6596:1983Sci...219..251B 6335:(1556): 3289–3299. 6294:2006JThBi.242..581S 5893:2016JHumE..94...72D 5854:1991JHumE..21..117W 5784:1984JHumE..13...91W 5713:2009PNAS..10614241K 5655:10.7554/eLife.44433 5592:1981Sci...211..341L 5541:2009Sci...326...74L 5520:Lovejoy CO (2009). 5433:2009JHumE..56..551H 5382:(1556): 3355–3363. 5333:2009Sci...326...75W 5275:2009Sci...326...94S 5221:10.1038/nature00879 5213:2002Natur.418..145B 5027:Scientific American 4940:2014JHumE..66...64P 4878:1996JHumE..30..389I 4827:2007Sci...316.1328T 4762:2012Sci...338..514G 4699:1984JHumE..13...91W 4636:2000Natur.404..382R 4593:2015arXiv150802739K 4517:2015arXiv150802739K 4478:Napier, JR (1964). 4449:2015arXiv150802739K 4351:2010NW.....97..241N 4339:Naturwissenschaften 4280:2007Sci...316.1328T 4274:(5829): 1328–1331. 4192:2006JThBi.242..581S 4125:10.1038/nature06342 4117:2007Natur.450.1075W 4111:(7172): 1075–1078. 3998:1988SciAm.259e.118L 3986:Scientific American 3806:2007Sci...318.1066C 3657:. August 14, 2016. 3596:2022Natur.609...94D 3498:"Coquerel's Sifaka" 3454:Rose, M.D. (1976). 3425:2006JHumE..50..552V 3266:National Geographic 3230:1993Natur.361...64S 3137:2006CRPal...5..519H 3087:2000Sci...290..969B 2935:1993FuEco...7..195D 2884:10.1038/nature03052 2876:2004Natur.432..345B 2686:10.1242/jeb.97.1.41 2259:obstetrical dilemma 2083:The Ancestor's Tale 1865:Savannah hypothesis 819:terrestrial animals 678:Injured individuals 671:Danuvius guggenmosi 550:giant ground sloths 7728:Self-domestication 7519:H. heidelbergensis 7468:H. e. yuanmouensis 7433:H. e. lantianensis 7160:Australopithecines 6144:10.1002/ajpa.21122 6038:Meier, R. (2003). 6017:. Souvenir Press. 5132:10.1002/ajpa.20284 4240:10.1537/ase.190219 3744:10.1007/BF02382940 3698:10.1002/ajpa.10058 3297:Systematic Biology 2923:Functional Ecology 2830:Journal of Zoology 2645:Penny, M. (2002). 2536:Orthograde posture 2495: 2450: 2386: 2321: 2302:Shoulder stability 1996:Provisioning model 1963:Indiana University 1366:H. heidelbergensis 756:giant ground sloth 701:Limited bipedalism 620: 617:Eadweard Muybridge 615:A Man Running; by 595:. One black bear, 469:Radiometric dating 200:australopithecines 51: 8039: 8038: 7980:Paleoanthropology 7922: 7921: 7899:Archaic admixture 7777:Stoned ape theory 7713:Endurance running 7630: 7629: 7626: 7625: 7622: 7621: 7477: 7476: 7440:H. e. nankinensis 7396:H. tsaichangensis 7332: 7331: 7070: 7069: 6954: 6953: 6590:(4582): 251–256. 6517:(S6): S346–S358. 6448:978-0-19-850022-3 6410:978-0-691-02376-2 6112:978-981-256-191-6 6083:978-3-406-51606-1 6055:978-0-02-864421-9 6024:978-0-285-63518-0 5999:on 26 March 2009. 5973:Hardy, Alister C. 5935:On Becoming Human 5586:(4480): 341–350. 5485:10.7717/peerj.925 5207:(6894): 145–151. 5178:978-0-07-340520-9 4912:978-0-684-80000-4 4821:(5829): 1328–31. 4756:(6106): 514–517. 4630:(6776): 382–385. 4046:978-0-674-03175-3 4029:"Human Evolution" 3558:978-4-13-066093-8 3081:(5493): 969–972. 2870:(7015): 345–352. 2724:(146): 20180276. 2658:978-0-7398-4986-6 2631:978-0-7876-5784-0 2591:National Wildlife 2493:- a bipedal robot 2345:center of gravity 2219:, as part of the 2180:natural selection 2042:sexual dimorphism 1831:sexual dimorphism 1801:sexual dimorphism 1775: 1774: 1767:million years ago 1726: 1725: 1704: 1703: 1682: 1681: 1674:Earliest rock art 1660: 1659: 1636: 1635: 1629:Earliest language 1616: 1615: 1596: 1595: 1572: 1571: 1552: 1551: 1542:Earliest sign of 1529: 1528: 1519:Earliest sign of 1506: 1505: 1486: 1485: 1466: 1465: 1446: 1445: 1089:Ou. macedoniensis 529:Effigia okeeffeae 307:Uner Tan syndrome 268:) or camouflage. 32:Bipedality (film) 16:(Redirected from 8103: 8068: 8067: 8056: 8055: 8047: 8027: 8015: 8014: 8003: 8002: 7939:Human prehistory 7914:Recent evolution 7909:Early migrations 7851:Thermoregulation 7752:Expensive tissue 7723:Sexual selection 7693: 7565: 7447:H. e. pekinensis 7358: 7351: 7266:A. bahrelghazali 7235:Australopithecus 7165: 7135:Chimpanzee–human 7123: 7097: 7090: 7083: 7074: 6865: 6844: 6837: 6830: 6821: 6790: 6767: 6743: 6652: 6651: 6649: 6648: 6629: 6623: 6622: 6620: 6618: 6575: 6569: 6568: 6560: 6551: 6550: 6502: 6491: 6490: 6484: 6480: 6478: 6470: 6460: 6424: 6415: 6414: 6394: 6379: 6378: 6368: 6320: 6314: 6313: 6277: 6271: 6270: 6222: 6216: 6215: 6197: 6191: 6190: 6170: 6164: 6163: 6123: 6117: 6116: 6094: 6088: 6087: 6070:Niemitz, Carsten 6066: 6060: 6059: 6035: 6029: 6028: 6007: 6001: 6000: 5998: 5981: 5969: 5963: 5962: 5950: 5944: 5943: 5929: 5923: 5922: 5912: 5872: 5866: 5865: 5837: 5831: 5830: 5807:Behav. Brain Sci 5802: 5796: 5795: 5767: 5761: 5751: 5745: 5744: 5734: 5724: 5692: 5686: 5685: 5675: 5657: 5633: 5627: 5626: 5618: 5612: 5611: 5575: 5569: 5568: 5535:(5949): 74e1–8. 5526: 5517: 5508: 5507: 5497: 5487: 5466:Australopithecus 5459: 5453: 5452: 5416: 5410: 5409: 5399: 5367: 5361: 5360: 5316: 5310: 5309: 5307: 5260: 5247: 5241: 5240: 5198: 5189: 5183: 5182: 5158: 5152: 5151: 5111: 5105: 5104: 5102: 5089: 5080: 5074: 5073: 5059: 5053: 5052: 5038: 5032: 5031: 5017: 5011: 5010: 5006:Science Magazine 4996: 4990: 4989: 4969: 4960: 4959: 4923: 4917: 4916: 4896: 4890: 4889: 4861: 4855: 4854: 4810: 4804: 4803: 4797: 4789: 4745: 4739: 4738: 4733:. Archived from 4722: 4711: 4710: 4682: 4676: 4673: 4664: 4663: 4644:10.1038/35006045 4619: 4613: 4612: 4586: 4566: 4560: 4559: 4554:Day, MH (1986). 4551: 4545: 4544: 4510: 4490: 4484: 4483: 4475: 4469: 4468: 4442: 4422: 4416: 4415: 4387: 4381: 4380: 4370: 4330: 4324: 4323: 4259: 4253: 4252: 4242: 4218: 4212: 4211: 4175: 4169: 4167: 4162:. Archived from 4151: 4145: 4144: 4096: 4091:. Archived from 4080: 4074: 4073: 4057: 4051: 4050: 4024: 4018: 4017: 3981: 3975: 3974: 3938: 3932: 3931: 3929: 3928: 3913: 3907: 3906: 3904: 3903: 3897: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3872:. Archived from 3870:Tetrapod Zoology 3861: 3855: 3854: 3852: 3851: 3832: 3826: 3825: 3789: 3783: 3782: 3780: 3779: 3762: 3756: 3755: 3727: 3721: 3720: 3718: 3717: 3708:. Archived from 3677: 3671: 3670: 3668: 3666: 3645: 3639: 3638: 3636: 3590:(7925): 94–100. 3581: 3572: 3563: 3562: 3544: 3538: 3537: 3535: 3534: 3519: 3513: 3512: 3510: 3509: 3494: 3488: 3487: 3482:. Archived from 3451: 3445: 3444: 3404: 3398: 3397: 3395: 3394: 3379: 3373: 3372: 3370: 3369: 3329: 3323: 3322: 3312: 3288: 3282: 3281: 3279: 3278: 3269:. Archived from 3256: 3250: 3249: 3238:10.1038/361064a0 3213: 3207: 3200: 3194: 3193: 3178: 3172: 3171: 3155: 3149: 3148: 3131:(3–4): 519–530. 3122: 3113: 3107: 3106: 3068: 3062: 3061: 3059: 3058: 3039: 3033: 3032: 3030: 3023: 3014: 3008: 3007: 3005: 2974: 2961: 2955: 2954: 2918: 2912: 2911: 2861: 2852: 2846: 2845: 2824:Acinonyx jubatus 2817: 2811: 2810: 2808: 2807: 2801: 2795:. Archived from 2778: 2766: 2760: 2759: 2749: 2709: 2698: 2697: 2669: 2663: 2662: 2642: 2636: 2635: 2617: 2611: 2610: 2608: 2607: 2598:. Archived from 2581: 2564: 2557: 2503:robot locomotion 2391:thermoregulation 2341:spinal curvature 2236: 2209:marine biologist 2184:ecological niche 2088:Australopithecus 2031:Australopithecus 1974:Australopithecus 1845:Multiple factors 1791:Australopithecus 1755: 1753: 1752: 1738: 1736: 1720: 1711: 1706: 1698: 1696:Earliest clothes 1689: 1684: 1676: 1667: 1662: 1643: 1638: 1623: 1618: 1603: 1598: 1585:Earliest sign of 1579: 1574: 1559: 1554: 1544:Australopithecus 1536: 1531: 1513: 1508: 1499:Earliest bipedal 1493: 1488: 1479:Chimpanzee split 1473: 1468: 1453: 1448: 1433: 1428: 1414: 1413: 1399: 1398: 1382: 1368: 1354: 1326: 1313: 1293: 1280: 1252: 1250:Australopithecus 1239: 1224: 1207: 1194: 1170: 1157: 1144: 1131: 1118: 1105: 1093: 1074: 1061: 1048: 1036: 1022: 1009: 996: 994: 982: 977: 972: 967: 962: 957: 952: 947: 942: 937: 932: 927: 922: 917: 912: 907: 902: 897: 892: 887: 882: 870: 863: 856: 850: 840: 839:Hominin timeline 833: 786:. Among the non- 732:Ground squirrels 689:and two chimps, 546:ground pangolins 434:Other archosaurs 371:Many species of 287:. Bipedality in 111: 110: 107: 106: 103: 100: 97: 94: 91: 21: 8111: 8110: 8106: 8105: 8104: 8102: 8101: 8100: 8076: 8075: 8074: 8062: 8050: 8042: 8040: 8035: 7991: 7948: 7934:Human evolution 7918: 7875: 7819: 7813: 7792:Cooperative eye 7737:Specific models 7732: 7684: 7663:Homo antecessor 7618: 7554: 7548:H. rhodesiensis 7512:H. floresiensis 7473: 7454:H. e. soloensis 7426:H. e. georgicus 7402: 7366:H. gautengensis 7341: 7339: 7328: 7292: 7228: 7199: 7154: 7145:Orangutan–human 7114: 7106: 7104:Human evolution 7101: 7071: 7066: 7057:Fish locomotion 7043: 7017: 6950: 6909: 6895:Knuckle-walking 6853: 6848: 6797: 6783:Natural History 6777: 6749: 6717: 6661: 6659:Further reading 6656: 6655: 6646: 6644: 6631: 6630: 6626: 6616: 6614: 6577: 6576: 6572: 6562: 6561: 6554: 6504: 6503: 6494: 6481: 6471: 6449: 6426: 6425: 6418: 6411: 6396: 6395: 6382: 6322: 6321: 6317: 6279: 6278: 6274: 6224: 6223: 6219: 6212: 6199: 6198: 6194: 6172: 6171: 6167: 6125: 6124: 6120: 6113: 6096: 6095: 6091: 6084: 6068: 6067: 6063: 6056: 6037: 6036: 6032: 6025: 6009: 6008: 6004: 5996: 5979: 5971: 5970: 5966: 5961:(3–4): 213–236. 5955:Human Evolution 5952: 5951: 5947: 5931: 5930: 5926: 5874: 5873: 5869: 5839: 5838: 5834: 5804: 5803: 5799: 5769: 5768: 5764: 5754:Joseph Jordania 5752: 5748: 5707:(34): 14241–6. 5694: 5693: 5689: 5635: 5634: 5630: 5620: 5619: 5615: 5577: 5576: 5572: 5524: 5519: 5518: 5511: 5461: 5460: 5456: 5418: 5417: 5413: 5369: 5368: 5364: 5327:(5949): 75–86. 5318: 5317: 5313: 5305: 5269:(5949): 94–99. 5258: 5249: 5248: 5244: 5196: 5191: 5190: 5186: 5179: 5160: 5159: 5155: 5113: 5112: 5108: 5100: 5087: 5082: 5081: 5077: 5061: 5060: 5056: 5048:Nature Magazine 5040: 5039: 5035: 5019: 5018: 5014: 4998: 4997: 4993: 4971: 4970: 4963: 4925: 4924: 4920: 4913: 4898: 4897: 4893: 4863: 4862: 4858: 4812: 4811: 4807: 4790: 4747: 4746: 4742: 4724: 4723: 4714: 4684: 4683: 4679: 4674: 4667: 4621: 4620: 4616: 4568: 4567: 4563: 4553: 4552: 4548: 4492: 4491: 4487: 4477: 4476: 4472: 4424: 4423: 4419: 4389: 4388: 4384: 4332: 4331: 4327: 4261: 4260: 4256: 4220: 4219: 4215: 4177: 4176: 4172: 4153: 4152: 4148: 4098: 4089:The Independent 4082: 4081: 4077: 4066:Smithsonian.com 4059: 4058: 4054: 4047: 4026: 4025: 4021: 3983: 3982: 3978: 3940: 3939: 3935: 3926: 3924: 3915: 3914: 3910: 3901: 3899: 3895: 3886: 3885: 3881: 3876:on May 8, 2012. 3863: 3862: 3858: 3849: 3847: 3834: 3833: 3829: 3791: 3790: 3786: 3777: 3775: 3764: 3763: 3759: 3729: 3728: 3724: 3715: 3713: 3679: 3678: 3674: 3664: 3662: 3647: 3646: 3642: 3634: 3579: 3574: 3573: 3566: 3559: 3546: 3545: 3541: 3532: 3530: 3521: 3520: 3516: 3507: 3505: 3496: 3495: 3491: 3453: 3452: 3448: 3406: 3405: 3401: 3392: 3390: 3381: 3380: 3376: 3367: 3365: 3331: 3330: 3326: 3290: 3289: 3285: 3276: 3274: 3258: 3257: 3253: 3224:(6407): 64–66. 3215: 3214: 3210: 3201: 3197: 3180: 3179: 3175: 3157: 3156: 3152: 3120: 3115: 3114: 3110: 3070: 3069: 3065: 3056: 3054: 3041: 3040: 3036: 3028: 3021: 3016: 3015: 3011: 3003: 2989:10.2307/1381631 2972: 2966:Garland, T. Jr. 2963: 2962: 2958: 2943:10.2307/2389887 2920: 2919: 2915: 2859: 2854: 2853: 2849: 2819: 2818: 2814: 2805: 2803: 2799: 2776: 2770:Garland, T. Jr. 2768: 2767: 2763: 2711: 2710: 2701: 2671: 2670: 2666: 2659: 2644: 2643: 2639: 2632: 2619: 2618: 2614: 2605: 2603: 2583: 2582: 2578: 2573: 2568: 2567: 2558: 2554: 2549: 2527: 2484: 2476:Main articles: 2474: 2442: 2434:gluteus maximus 2415: 2407:Achilles tendon 2378: 2313: 2304: 2292: 2287: 2279: 2254: 2232: 2229:Carsten Niemitz 2201: 2192: 2190:Carrying models 2174:of early-stage 2155: 2146: 2129:warning display 2121:Joseph Jordania 2118: 2062: 2035:sexual swelling 2002:C. Owen Lovejoy 1998: 1959: 1950: 1867: 1861: 1847: 1823:knuckle-walking 1785: 1777:Main articles: 1771: 1770: 1758: 1757: 1756: 1748: 1747: 1745: 1741: 1740: 1739: 1734:H o m i n i d s 1732: 1730: 1722: 1721: 1716: 1709: 1700: 1699: 1694: 1687: 1678: 1677: 1672: 1665: 1656: 1655: 1641: 1632: 1631: 1621: 1612: 1611: 1601: 1592: 1591: 1586: 1577: 1568: 1567: 1557: 1548: 1547: 1534: 1525: 1524: 1511: 1502: 1501: 1491: 1482: 1481: 1471: 1462: 1461: 1451: 1442: 1441: 1431: 1424: 1423: 1422: 1417: 1416: 1415: 1409: 1408: 1404: 1402: 1401: 1400: 1394: 1393: 1389: 1387: 1386: 1385: 1378: 1372: 1371: 1370: 1364: 1359: 1357: 1356: 1355: 1346: 1338: 1330: 1329: 1322: 1316: 1315: 1314: 1305: 1297: 1296: 1289: 1283: 1282: 1281: 1272: 1264: 1256: 1255: 1248: 1242: 1241: 1240: 1231: 1227: 1226: 1225: 1216: 1212: 1211: 1210: 1203: 1197: 1196: 1195: 1186: 1178: 1174: 1173: 1172: 1166: 1161: 1160: 1159: 1153: 1148: 1147: 1146: 1140: 1135: 1134: 1133: 1127: 1122: 1121: 1120: 1114: 1109: 1108: 1107: 1103:Chororapithecus 1101: 1096: 1095: 1094: 1085: 1077: 1076: 1070: 1065: 1064: 1063: 1059:Samburupithecus 1057: 1052: 1051: 1050: 1044: 1039: 1038: 1037: 1030: 1026: 1025: 1024: 1018: 1013: 1012: 1011: 1005: 1000: 999: 998: 992: 990: 983: 980: 978: 975: 973: 970: 968: 965: 963: 960: 958: 955: 953: 950: 948: 945: 943: 940: 938: 935: 933: 930: 928: 925: 923: 920: 918: 915: 913: 910: 908: 905: 903: 900: 898: 895: 893: 890: 888: 885: 883: 880: 874: 848: 842: 838: 831: 807:basilisk lizard 803:monitor lizards 780: 708: 703: 695:knuckle-walking 609: 589:ground pangolin 542: 505:Middle Triassic 486:common ancestor 436: 413: 408: 387: 369: 367:Extant reptiles 353: 351:Bipedal animals 319: 297: 249: 225: 88: 84: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8109: 8107: 8099: 8098: 8093: 8091:Animal anatomy 8088: 8078: 8077: 8073: 8072: 8060: 8037: 8036: 8034: 8033: 8021: 8009: 7996: 7993: 7992: 7990: 7989: 7984: 7983: 7982: 7972: 7967: 7962: 7956: 7954: 7950: 7949: 7947: 7946: 7944:Human timeline 7941: 7936: 7930: 7928: 7924: 7923: 7920: 7919: 7917: 7916: 7911: 7906: 7901: 7896: 7891: 7885: 7883: 7877: 7876: 7874: 7873: 7868: 7863: 7858: 7853: 7848: 7843: 7838: 7833: 7828: 7822: 7820: 7815: 7814: 7812: 7811: 7810: 7809: 7804: 7796: 7795: 7794: 7789: 7781: 7780: 7779: 7774: 7769: 7767:Drunken monkey 7761: 7760: 7759: 7754: 7749: 7740: 7738: 7734: 7733: 7731: 7730: 7725: 7720: 7715: 7710: 7705: 7699: 7697: 7696:General models 7690: 7686: 7685: 7683: 7682: 7640: 7638: 7632: 7631: 7628: 7627: 7624: 7623: 7620: 7619: 7617: 7616: 7611: 7606: 7601: 7596: 7589: 7584: 7575: 7573: 7562: 7556: 7555: 7553: 7552: 7544: 7537: 7530: 7522: 7515: 7508: 7500: 7495: 7487: 7485: 7483:Archaic humans 7479: 7478: 7475: 7474: 7472: 7471: 7464: 7457: 7450: 7443: 7436: 7429: 7422: 7414: 7412: 7404: 7403: 7401: 7400: 7392: 7388:H. rudolfensis 7384: 7377: 7370: 7361: 7355: 7348: 7334: 7333: 7330: 7329: 7327: 7326: 7319: 7312: 7309:P. aethiopicus 7304: 7302: 7294: 7293: 7291: 7290: 7283: 7276: 7269: 7262: 7255: 7248: 7240: 7238: 7230: 7229: 7227: 7226: 7219: 7211: 7209: 7201: 7200: 7198: 7197: 7190: 7187:Sahelanthropus 7183: 7176: 7173:Nakalipithecus 7168: 7162: 7156: 7155: 7153: 7152: 7147: 7142: 7137: 7131: 7129: 7120: 7108: 7107: 7102: 7100: 7099: 7092: 7085: 7077: 7068: 7067: 7065: 7064: 7062:Volant animals 7059: 7054: 7048: 7045: 7044: 7042: 7041: 7036: 7031: 7025: 7023: 7019: 7018: 7016: 7015: 7010: 7005: 6995: 6990: 6985: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6964: 6962: 6956: 6955: 6952: 6951: 6949: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6917: 6915: 6911: 6910: 6908: 6907: 6902: 6897: 6892: 6887: 6882: 6871: 6869: 6862: 6855: 6854: 6849: 6847: 6846: 6839: 6832: 6824: 6818: 6817: 6803: 6796: 6795:External links 6793: 6792: 6791: 6775: 6768: 6747: 6744: 6726:(4): 259–280. 6715: 6709: 6702: 6695: 6692: 6682: 6672: 6660: 6657: 6654: 6653: 6624: 6570: 6552: 6539:10.1086/667402 6523:10.1086/667402 6492: 6483:|journal= 6447: 6416: 6409: 6380: 6315: 6288:(3): 581–590. 6272: 6237:(2): 287–290. 6217: 6211:978-0062938497 6210: 6192: 6181:(5): 212–217. 6165: 6118: 6111: 6089: 6082: 6061: 6054: 6030: 6023: 6011:Morgan, Elaine 6002: 5964: 5945: 5924: 5867: 5848:(2): 117–136. 5832: 5797: 5762: 5746: 5687: 5628: 5613: 5570: 5509: 5454: 5427:(6): 551–559. 5411: 5362: 5311: 5242: 5184: 5177: 5153: 5126:(2): 225–231. 5106: 5075: 5054: 5033: 5012: 4991: 4961: 4918: 4911: 4891: 4872:(5): 389–397. 4856: 4805: 4740: 4737:on 2017-09-28. 4712: 4677: 4665: 4614: 4577:(6): 929–934. 4561: 4546: 4501:(6): 929–934. 4485: 4470: 4433:(6): 929–934. 4417: 4382: 4345:(3): 241–263. 4325: 4254: 4213: 4186:(3): 581–590. 4170: 4166:on 2008-09-11. 4146: 4095:on 2007-12-15. 4075: 4052: 4045: 4019: 3976: 3949:(5717): 1927. 3933: 3908: 3879: 3856: 3827: 3800:(5853): 1066. 3784: 3757: 3738:(4): 913–921. 3722: 3692:(2): 184–190. 3672: 3640: 3564: 3557: 3539: 3514: 3489: 3486:on 2013-01-05. 3466:(2): 247–261. 3446: 3419:(5): 552–567. 3399: 3374: 3344:(2): 463–478. 3324: 3303:(3): 457–474. 3283: 3251: 3208: 3204:Dinosaur Cards 3195: 3173: 3150: 3108: 3063: 3034: 3009: 2983:(4): 765–772. 2956: 2929:(2): 195–202. 2913: 2847: 2836:(3): 493–494. 2812: 2787:(2): 157–170. 2761: 2699: 2664: 2657: 2637: 2630: 2612: 2575: 2574: 2572: 2569: 2566: 2565: 2551: 2550: 2548: 2545: 2544: 2543: 2541:Quadrupedalism 2538: 2533: 2526: 2523: 2482:Chicken walker 2478:Humanoid robot 2473: 2472:Bipedal robots 2470: 2441: 2438: 2414: 2411: 2377: 2374: 2373: 2372: 2369: 2366: 2363: 2360: 2312: 2309: 2303: 2300: 2296:overcorrection 2291: 2288: 2286: 2283: 2278: 2275: 2253: 2250: 2200: 2197: 2191: 2188: 2170:environmental 2154: 2151: 2145: 2142: 2117: 2114: 2061: 2058: 1997: 1994: 1958: 1955: 1949: 1946: 1905:Elizabeth Vrba 1863:Main article: 1860: 1857: 1846: 1843: 1797:foramen magnum 1779:Human timeline 1773: 1772: 1764: 1763: 1760: 1759: 1744: 1743: 1742: 1729: 1728: 1727: 1724: 1723: 1715: 1714: 1712: 1702: 1701: 1693: 1692: 1690: 1680: 1679: 1671: 1670: 1668: 1658: 1657: 1647: 1646: 1644: 1634: 1633: 1627: 1626: 1624: 1614: 1613: 1607: 1606: 1604: 1594: 1593: 1583: 1582: 1580: 1570: 1569: 1563: 1562: 1560: 1550: 1549: 1540: 1539: 1537: 1527: 1526: 1517: 1516: 1514: 1504: 1503: 1497: 1496: 1494: 1484: 1483: 1477: 1476: 1474: 1464: 1463: 1457: 1456: 1454: 1444: 1443: 1437: 1436: 1434: 1425: 1420: 1419: 1418: 1407: 1406: 1405: 1403: 1392: 1391: 1390: 1388: 1375: 1374: 1373: 1362: 1361: 1360: 1358: 1319: 1318: 1317: 1301:H. rudolfensis 1286: 1285: 1284: 1245: 1244: 1243: 1230: 1229: 1228: 1215: 1214: 1213: 1200: 1199: 1198: 1177: 1176: 1175: 1164: 1163: 1162: 1155:Graecopithecus 1151: 1150: 1149: 1142:Sahelanthropus 1138: 1137: 1136: 1125: 1124: 1123: 1112: 1111: 1110: 1099: 1098: 1097: 1072:Ouranopithecus 1068: 1067: 1066: 1055: 1054: 1053: 1046:Nakalipithecus 1042: 1041: 1040: 1029: 1028: 1027: 1016: 1015: 1014: 1003: 1002: 1001: 988: 987: 986: 984: 981:0 — 979: 974: 969: 964: 959: 954: 949: 944: 939: 934: 929: 924: 919: 914: 909: 904: 899: 894: 889: 884: 879: 876: 875: 873: 872: 865: 858: 847: 844: 843: 836: 830: 827: 779: 776: 748:quadrupedalism 707: 704: 702: 699: 680: 679: 665:Sahelanthropus 643:move like all 635:, gibbons and 608: 605: 548:, the extinct 541: 538: 484:resembles the 435: 432: 412: 409: 407: 404: 386: 383: 368: 365: 361:Tree kangaroos 352: 349: 348: 347: 341: 335: 329: 318: 315: 296: 293: 266:monitor lizard 264:and the large 258:giant pangolin 248: 245: 224: 221: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8108: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8087: 8084: 8083: 8081: 8071: 8066: 8061: 8059: 8054: 8049: 8045: 8032: 8031: 8026: 8022: 8020: 8019: 8010: 8008: 8007: 7998: 7997: 7994: 7988: 7985: 7981: 7978: 7977: 7976: 7973: 7971: 7968: 7966: 7963: 7961: 7958: 7957: 7955: 7951: 7945: 7942: 7940: 7937: 7935: 7932: 7931: 7929: 7925: 7915: 7912: 7910: 7907: 7905: 7902: 7900: 7897: 7895: 7892: 7890: 7887: 7886: 7884: 7882: 7878: 7872: 7869: 7867: 7864: 7862: 7859: 7857: 7854: 7852: 7849: 7847: 7844: 7842: 7839: 7837: 7834: 7832: 7829: 7827: 7824: 7823: 7821: 7816: 7808: 7805: 7803: 7800: 7799: 7798:Life history 7797: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7784: 7782: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7768: 7765: 7764: 7762: 7758: 7755: 7753: 7750: 7748: 7745: 7744: 7742: 7741: 7739: 7735: 7729: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7700: 7698: 7694: 7691: 7687: 7681: 7680: 7675: 7671: 7670: 7665: 7664: 7659: 7658: 7653: 7652: 7651:Homo ergaster 7647: 7646: 7642: 7641: 7639: 7637: 7633: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7594: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7581: 7580:H. s. sapiens 7577: 7576: 7574: 7572: 7571: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7560:Modern humans 7557: 7550: 7549: 7545: 7543: 7542: 7538: 7536: 7535: 7534:H. luzonensis 7531: 7528: 7527: 7523: 7521: 7520: 7516: 7514: 7513: 7509: 7506: 7505: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7493: 7492:H. antecessor 7489: 7488: 7486: 7484: 7480: 7470: 7469: 7465: 7463: 7462: 7458: 7456: 7455: 7451: 7449: 7448: 7444: 7442: 7441: 7437: 7435: 7434: 7430: 7428: 7427: 7423: 7421: 7420: 7419:H. e. erectus 7416: 7415: 7413: 7411: 7410: 7405: 7398: 7397: 7393: 7390: 7389: 7385: 7383: 7382: 7378: 7376: 7375: 7371: 7368: 7367: 7363: 7362: 7359: 7356: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7345: 7335: 7325: 7324: 7320: 7318: 7317: 7313: 7311: 7310: 7306: 7305: 7303: 7301: 7300: 7295: 7289: 7288: 7284: 7282: 7281: 7277: 7275: 7274: 7273:A. deyiremeda 7270: 7268: 7267: 7263: 7261: 7260: 7256: 7254: 7253: 7249: 7247: 7246: 7242: 7241: 7239: 7237: 7236: 7231: 7225: 7224: 7220: 7218: 7217: 7213: 7212: 7210: 7208: 7207: 7202: 7196: 7195: 7194:Kenyanthropus 7191: 7189: 7188: 7184: 7182: 7181: 7177: 7175: 7174: 7170: 7169: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7157: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7140:Gorilla–human 7138: 7136: 7133: 7132: 7130: 7128: 7124: 7121: 7118: 7113: 7109: 7105: 7098: 7093: 7091: 7086: 7084: 7079: 7078: 7075: 7063: 7060: 7058: 7055: 7053: 7050: 7049: 7046: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7026: 7024: 7020: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7003: 6999: 6996: 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6973:Arthropod leg 6971: 6969: 6966: 6965: 6963: 6961: 6957: 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Logos, 2011 5759: 5755: 5750: 5747: 5742: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5691: 5688: 5683: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5632: 5629: 5624: 5617: 5614: 5609: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5574: 5571: 5566: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5523: 5516: 5514: 5510: 5505: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5467: 5458: 5455: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5415: 5412: 5407: 5403: 5398: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5366: 5363: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5315: 5312: 5304: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5257: 5255: 5246: 5243: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5195: 5188: 5185: 5180: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5165: 5157: 5154: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5110: 5107: 5099: 5095: 5094: 5086: 5079: 5076: 5071: 5070: 5065: 5058: 5055: 5050: 5049: 5044: 5037: 5034: 5029: 5028: 5023: 5016: 5013: 5008: 5007: 5002: 4995: 4992: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4968: 4966: 4962: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4922: 4919: 4914: 4908: 4904: 4903: 4895: 4892: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4860: 4857: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4809: 4806: 4801: 4795: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4744: 4741: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4721: 4719: 4717: 4713: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4681: 4678: 4672: 4670: 4666: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4618: 4615: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4565: 4562: 4557: 4550: 4547: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4489: 4486: 4481: 4474: 4471: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4441: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4421: 4418: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4386: 4383: 4378: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4329: 4326: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4258: 4255: 4250: 4246: 4241: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4217: 4214: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4174: 4171: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4150: 4147: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4079: 4076: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4056: 4053: 4048: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4023: 4020: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3980: 3977: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3937: 3934: 3922: 3918: 3912: 3909: 3898:on 2007-10-30 3894: 3890: 3883: 3880: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3860: 3857: 3846:on 2012-12-15 3845: 3841: 3837: 3831: 3828: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3788: 3785: 3774: 3773: 3768: 3761: 3758: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3726: 3723: 3712:on 2013-01-05 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3676: 3673: 3660: 3656: 3655: 3650: 3644: 3641: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3578: 3571: 3569: 3565: 3560: 3554: 3550: 3543: 3540: 3528: 3524: 3518: 3515: 3504:on 2013-09-23 3503: 3499: 3493: 3490: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3450: 3447: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3403: 3400: 3388: 3384: 3378: 3375: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3328: 3325: 3320: 3316: 3311: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3287: 3284: 3273:on 2007-10-31 3272: 3268: 3267: 3262: 3255: 3252: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3212: 3209: 3205: 3199: 3196: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3177: 3174: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3154: 3151: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3119: 3112: 3109: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3075: 3067: 3064: 3053:on 2007-10-31 3052: 3048: 3044: 3038: 3035: 3027: 3020: 3013: 3010: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2971: 2967: 2964:Djawdan, M.; 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I. 6705: 6698: 6678: 6645:. Retrieved 6636: 6627: 6615:. Retrieved 6587: 6583: 6573: 6564: 6514: 6510: 6429: 6399: 6332: 6328: 6318: 6285: 6281: 6275: 6234: 6230: 6220: 6201: 6195: 6178: 6174: 6168: 6135: 6131: 6121: 6098: 6092: 6073: 6064: 6040: 6033: 6014: 6005: 5994:the original 5989: 5983: 5967: 5958: 5954: 5948: 5934: 5927: 5884: 5881:J. Hum. Evol 5880: 5870: 5845: 5842:J. Hum. Evol 5841: 5835: 5810: 5806: 5800: 5778:(1): 91–98. 5775: 5772:J. Hum. Evol 5771: 5765: 5749: 5704: 5700: 5690: 5645: 5641: 5631: 5622: 5616: 5583: 5579: 5573: 5532: 5528: 5475: 5471: 5465: 5457: 5424: 5420: 5414: 5379: 5375: 5365: 5324: 5320: 5314: 5266: 5262: 5253: 5245: 5204: 5200: 5187: 5163: 5156: 5123: 5119: 5109: 5091: 5078: 5067: 5057: 5046: 5036: 5025: 5015: 5004: 4994: 4981: 4977: 4931: 4927: 4921: 4901: 4894: 4869: 4865: 4859: 4818: 4814: 4808: 4794:cite journal 4753: 4749: 4743: 4735:the original 4730: 4693:(1): 91–98. 4690: 4686: 4680: 4627: 4623: 4617: 4574: 4570: 4564: 4555: 4549: 4498: 4494: 4488: 4479: 4473: 4430: 4426: 4420: 4398:(1): 55–60. 4395: 4391: 4385: 4342: 4338: 4328: 4271: 4267: 4257: 4230: 4226: 4216: 4183: 4179: 4173: 4164:the original 4159: 4149: 4108: 4104: 4093:the original 4088: 4078: 4065: 4055: 4032: 4022: 3992:(5): 82–89. 3989: 3985: 3979: 3946: 3942: 3936: 3925:. Retrieved 3911: 3900:. Retrieved 3893:the original 3882: 3874:the original 3869: 3859: 3848:. 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Retrieved 2600:the original 2589: 2579: 2561:red kangaroo 2555: 2496: 2462: 2451: 2419:domesticated 2416: 2403:plantar arch 2400: 2387: 2354: 2349:Force plates 2330: 2325: 2322: 2305: 2293: 2285:Biomechanics 2280: 2263: 2255: 2252:Consequences 2246: 2202: 2193: 2160:Ardipithecus 2156: 2147: 2133:intimidation 2119: 2102: 2094:Paranthropus 2092: 2086: 2075: 2065: 2063: 2052: 2045: 2039: 2030: 2027:Ardipithecus 2026: 2020: 2014: 1999: 1983: 1972: 1966: 1960: 1951: 1939: 1929: 1923: 1914: 1899: 1895: 1892:synapomorphy 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1868: 1850: 1848: 1819: 1808: 1805:lumbar spine 1789: 1786: 1746: 1731: 1587: 1543: 1521:Ardipithecus 1520: 1439:Earlier apes 1396:Neanderthals 1380:Homo sapiens 1377: 1376: 1363: 1347: 1339: 1331: 1321: 1320: 1306: 1298: 1288: 1287: 1273: 1265: 1257: 1247: 1246: 1232: 1217: 1205:Ardipithecus 1202: 1201: 1187: 1179: 1165: 1152: 1139: 1129:Sivapithecus 1126: 1116:Oreopithecus 1113: 1100: 1086: 1078: 1069: 1056: 1043: 1031: 1017: 1004: 989: 781: 709: 684: 681: 669: 663: 653: 621: 581:hopping mice 562: 543: 527: 520:Pseudosuchia 509: 495: 489: 481: 475: 454: 447: 444:crocodilians 437: 414: 393: 388: 376: 370: 354: 320: 310: 298: 277:red kangaroo 270: 250: 236: 232: 226: 202:, including 188:hopping mice 141: 133:bipedal gait 132: 120: 116: 81: 77: 53: 52: 47:red kangaroo 7802:Grandmother 7757:Shore-based 7718:Aquatic ape 7609:Tam Pa Ling 7504:H. ergaster 7323:P. robustus 7029:Canine gait 7002:Facultative 6988:Unguligrade 6983:Plantigrade 6978:Digitigrade 6946:Other modes 6941:Sidewinding 6879:Brachiation 6810:Smithsonian 6789:(5): 47–51. 6685:Dawkins, R. 6675:Dart, R. A. 4233:(1): 1–12. 2440:Respiration 2413:Musculature 2271:birth canal 2125:aposematism 1936:Little Foot 1342:H. ergaster 1235:Ar. ramidus 1220:Ar. kadabba 1182:O. praegens 1020:Pleistocene 849:This box: 815:cockroaches 772:anal glands 625:Chimpanzees 569:quadrupedal 516:iguanodonts 502:Argentinian 426:. However, 8096:2 (number) 8080:Categories 7841:Skin color 7826:Bipedalism 7787:Killer ape 7599:Cro-Magnon 7498:Denisovans 7374:H. habilis 7338:Humans and 7223:A. ramidus 7216:A. kadabba 7039:Human gait 7034:Horse gait 6758:(6): 738. 6665:Darwin, C. 6647:2013-04-30 5813:(2): 366. 5648:: e44433. 5421:J Hum Evol 5256:dentition" 4584:1508.02739 4508:1508.02739 4440:1508.02739 3927:2013-04-30 3902:2007-10-29 3850:2013-04-30 3778:2007-10-29 3716:2013-04-30 3665:August 14, 3533:2012-07-23 3508:2009-06-15 3393:2023-01-06 3368:2011-10-18 3277:2007-10-29 3057:2007-10-17 2806:2010-04-11 2606:2014-05-30 2571:References 2453:Quadrupeds 2426:quadriceps 2277:Physiology 1411:Denisovans 1350:Au. sediba 1324:H. erectus 1291:H. habilis 1081:Ou. turkae 811:arthropods 784:amphibians 660:bipedalism 601:Derbyshire 585:springhare 534:Pterosaurs 497:Lagerpeton 491:Marasuchus 440:archosaurs 391:bolosaurid 378:Ctenosaura 247:Advantages 235:'two' and 184:springhare 152:crocodiles 148:archosaurs 54:Bipedalism 7960:Theorists 7927:Timelines 7807:Patriarch 7783:Behavior 7708:Gathering 7636:Ancestors 7381:H. naledi 7316:P. boisei 7287:A. sediba 7013:Quadruped 6617:28 August 6531:0011-3204 6485:ignored ( 6475:cite book 6349:0962-8436 6251:0745-5194 5887:: 72–82. 5827:147314740 5664:2050-084X 5140:0002-9483 4984:: 77–90. 4934:: 64–82. 4786:206543814 4296:0036-8075 4249:132162687 3822:0036-8075 3628:234630242 3612:0028-0836 2892:1476-4687 2738:1742-5689 2680:: 41–56. 2531:Allometry 2430:hamstring 2396:endurance 2234:‹See Tfd› 2099:hominines 2072:homininae 2006:evolution 1990:orangutan 1871:hominines 1815:pregnancy 1309:Au. garhi 788:archosaur 573:macropods 558:macropods 457:archosaur 424:dinosaurs 395:Eudibamus 241:quadruped 223:Etymology 192:pangolins 176:macropods 170:. Within 168:theropods 160:dinosaurs 156:dinosaurs 8006:Category 7861:Language 7831:Skeleton 7526:H. longi 7280:A. garhi 7117:Hominins 7112:Taxonomy 7022:Specific 6779:Vrba, E. 6641:Archived 6547:31461168 6467:20410030 6375:20855303 6357:20778968 6310:16782133 6160:36325131 6152:19890871 6076:. 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