206:. For example, large families are generally lower in socioeconomic status than small families. Hence third-born children are not only third in birth order, but they are also more likely to come from larger, poorer families than firstborn children. If third-born children have a particular trait, it may be due to birth order, or it may be due to family size, or to any number of other variables. Consequently, there are a large number of published studies on birth order that are confounded.
226:
most clearly from studies within families. Results are weak at best, when individuals from different families are compared. The reason is that genetic effects are stronger than birth order effects. Recent studies also support the claim that only children are not markedly different from their peers with siblings. Scientists have found that they share many characteristics with firstborn children including being conscientious as well as parent-oriented.
83:. He argued that birth order can leave an indelible impression on an individual's style of life, which is one's habitual way of dealing with the tasks of friendship, love, and work. According to Adler, firstborns are "dethroned" when a second child comes along, and this loss of perceived privilege and primacy may have a lasting influence on them. Middle children may feel ignored or overlooked, causing them to develop the so-called
314:, Edward M. Miller suggests that the birth order effect on homosexuality may be a by-product of an evolved mechanism that shifts personality away from heterosexuality in laterborn sons. According to Miller, this would have the consequence of reducing the probability of these sons engaging in unproductive competition with each other. Evolution may have favored biological mechanisms prompting human parents to exert
186:
253:
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of being gay by approximately 33%. (One of the largest studies to date, however, suggests a smaller effect, of 15% higher odds.) Even so, the fraternal birth order effect only accounts for a maximum of one seventh of the prevalence of homosexuality in men. There seems to be no effect on sexual orientation in women, and no effect of the number of older sisters.
234:
adult lives in their childhood home. Harris provides evidence that the patterns of behavior acquired in the childhood home don't affect the way people behave outside the home, even during childhood. Harris concludes that birth order effects keep turning up because people keep looking for them, and keep analyzing and reanalyzing their data until they find them.
341:
More recently, this birth order effect on sexuality in males has been attributed to a very specific biological occurrence. As the mother gives birth to more sons, she is thought to develop an immunity to certain male-specific antigens. This immunity then leads to an effect in the brain that has to do
306:
effect is the name given to the theory that the more older brothers a man has, the greater the probability is that he will have a homosexual orientation. The fraternal birth order effect is said to be the strongest known predictor of sexual orientation, with each older brother increasing a man's odds
233:
suggests that birth order effects may exist within the context of the family of origin, but that they are not enduring aspects of personality. When people are with their parents and siblings, firstborns behave differently from laterborns, even during adulthood. However, most people don't spend their
225:
Smaller studies have partially supported
Sulloway's claims. Paulhus and colleagues reported that first borns scored higher on conservatism, conscientiousness and achievement orientation, and later borns higher on rebelliousness, openness, and agreeableness. The authors argued that the effect emerges
212:
that have examined many studies and attempted to control for confounding variables tend to find minimal effects for birth order. Ernst and Angst reviewed all of the research published between 1946 and 1980. They also did their own study on a representative sample of 6,315 young men from
Switzerland.
201:
in the USA concluding that effects are zero or near zero. Such research is a challenge because of the difficulty of controlling all the variables that are statistically related to birth order. Family size, and a number of social and demographic variables are associated with birth order and serve as
162:, dated September, 2000 but not published until 2004 due to legal threats from Sulloway, contains carefully and rigorously researched criticisms of Sulloway's theories and data. Subsequent large independent multi-cohort studies have revealed approximately zero effect of birth order on personality.
468:
In some modern day
Western cultures, it is common for parents to give their children the same name as them. This tradition dates back to the 17th century and is most prevalent in fathers and sons, where the son will receive the same first name, middle name, and surname with either a "Jr.", "II",
469:"III" or "IV", etc. attached after the family surname. This practice started as a symbol of status for 'upper class' citizens, but is now more commonly used as a family tradition, not necessarily implying that they are of a 'higher status' than their peer(s), sibling(s) or other family members.
267:
argued for a "confluence" model in which the lack of siblings experienced by firstborns exposes them to the more intellectual adult family environment. This predicts similar increases in IQ for siblings who next-oldest sibling is at least five years senior. These children are considered to be
44:
and second-born are examples. Birth order is often believed to have a profound and lasting effect on psychological development. This assertion has been repeatedly challenged. Recent research has consistently found that earlier born children score slightly higher on average on measures of
460:
To determine the suitable name for the newborn child, one first finds out the number of the newborn within the family, and only then chooses the male/female name, according to the gender of the newborn. So, for example, if a baby girl is born after three boys, her name would be
350:
Not all studies, including some with large, nationally representative samples, have been able to replicate the fraternal birth order effect. Some did not find any statistically significant difference in the sibling composition of gay and straight men; this includes the
217:
of extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. Contrary to
Sulloway's predictions, they found no significant correlation between birth order and self-reported personality. There was, however, some tendency for people to
95:
living apart from the extended family, without the children being orphaned, with average spacing between births, without twins and other multiples, and with surviving children not having severe physical, intellectual, or psychiatric disabilities.
346:
males. If not right-handed, the number of older brothers has been found to have no prediction on the sexuality of a younger brother. This has led researchers to consider if the genes for sexuality and handedness are somehow related.
45:
intelligence, but has found zero, or almost zero, robust effect of birth order on personality. Nevertheless, the notion that birth-order significantly influences personality continues to have a strong presence in
268:"functional firstborns". The theory further predicts that firstborns will be more intelligent than only children, because the latter will not benefit from the "tutor effect" (i.e. teaching younger siblings).
260:
In a metanalysis, Polit and Falbo (1988) found that firstborns, only children, and children with one sibling all score higher on tests of verbal ability than later-borns and children with multiple siblings.
367:
In some of the world's cultures, birth order is so important that each child within the family is named according to the order in which the child was born. For example, in the
Aboriginal Australian
355:, the largest U.S. study with relevant data on the subject. Furthermore, at least one study, on the familial correlates of joining a same-sex union or marriage in a sample of two million people in
213:
They found no substantial effects of birth order and concluded that birth order research was a "waste of time." More recent research analyzed data from a national sample of 9,664 subjects on the
107:. Among the general public, it is widely believed that personality is strongly influenced by birth order, but many psychologists dispute this. One modern theory of personality states that the
352:
275:
than later borns. Such data is, however, commonly confounded with family size, which is in turn correlated with IQ confounds, such as social status. Likewise, an analysis of data from the
131:
represent most of the important elements of personality that can be measured. Contemporary empirical research shows that birth order does not influence the Big Five personality traits.
1435:
Ray
Blanchard; Richard Lippa (2007). "Birth Order, Sibling Sex Ratio, Handedness, and Sexual Orientation of Male and Female Participants in a BBC Internet Research Project".
476:', while the tradition of a mother naming her daughter after herself or a female relative from an earlier generation (grandmother, great-grandmother) is referred to as '
91:
may be pampered and spoiled, which was suggested to affect their later personalities. All of this assumes what Adler believed to be a typical family situation, e.g., a
1593:
Mariana
Kishida; Qazi Rahman (2015). "Fraternal Birth Order and Extreme Right-Handedness as Predictors of Sexual Orientation and Gender Nonconformity in Men".
322:
heterosexual behavior in earlier-born children: As more children in a family survive infancy and early childhood, the continued existence of the parents'
472:
The tradition of a father naming his son after himself or a male relative from an earlier generation (grandfather, great-grandfather) is referred to as '
1681:
Frisch M; Hviid A (2006). "Childhood family correlates of heterosexual and homosexual marriages: a national cohort study of two million Danes".
334:
on newly-wed
European aristocrats, especially young brides, to produce "an heir and a spare"), and the benefits of encouraging heterosexuality
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716:
680:
558:
Rodgers, JL; Cleveland, HH; Van Den Oord, E; Rowe, DC (2000). "Resolving the debate over birth order, family size, and intelligence".
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and socially dominant, less agreeable, and less open to new ideas compared to laterborns. However, critics such as Fred
Townsend,
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20:
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the risk of psychological damage that a strongly heteronormative environment poses to a child predisposed toward homosexuality.
1802:
283:, which asserts that the apparent birth-order effect on intelligence is wholly an artifact of family size, i.e. an instance of
1492:
Miller EM (2000). "Homosexuality, Birth Order, and
Evolution: Toward an Equilibrium Reproductive Economics of Homosexuality".
817:
Sulloway, F.J. (2001). Birth Order, Sibling Competition, and Human Behavior. In Paul S. Davies and Harmon R. Holcomb, (Eds.),
177:
agents and biological tendencies, any effects of birth order may be eliminated, reinforced, or altered by later experiences.
359:, found that the only sibling correlate of joining a same-sex union among men was having older sisters, not older brothers.
1095:
291:
1638:
Francis AM (2008). "Family and sexual orientation: the family-demographic correlates of homosexuality in men and women".
1171:"One Justified Criticism Plus Three Flawed Analyses Equals Two Unwarranted Conclusions: A Reply to Retherford and Sewell"
1782:
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The claim that firstborns have higher IQ scores to begin with, has, however, also been disputed outright. Data from the
198:
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108:
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Blanchard, Ray. "Review and theory of handedness, birth order, and homosexuality in men." Laterality, 2008, p. 51-70.
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Paulhus D.L.; Trapnell P.D.; Chen D. (1998). "Birth order effects on personality and achievement within families".
247:
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Claims about birth order effects on personality have received much attention in scientific research, with the
100:
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Guang Guo; Leah K. VanWey (1999). "Sibship Size and Intellectual Development: Is the Relationship Causal?"
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1022:"Associations between birth order and personality traits: Evidence from self-reports and observer ratings"
112:
80:
1546:"Do shared etiological factors contribute to the relationship between sexual orientation and depression?"
512:
312:
Homosexuality, Birth Order, and Evolution: Toward an Equilibrium Reproductive Economics of Homosexuality
303:
84:
31:
1726:
1326:
Blanchard R (2001). "Fraternal birth order and the maternal immune hypothesis of male homosexuality".
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Investigating the effects birth order has on personality, self-esteem, satisfaction with life and age
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1225:
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Zajonc, R. B.; Markus, Gregory B.; Berbaum, Michael L.; Bargh, John A.; Moreland, Richard L. (1991).
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1758:
Self-report scale developed empirically to predict first born status. Includes open-access dataset.
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371:, there are nine male birth order names and nine female birth order names, as following:
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1375:"O brother, where art thou? The fraternal birth-order effect on male sexual orientation"
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Belmont, M.; Marolla, F.A. (1973). "Birth order, family size, and intelligence".
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Conceptual Challenges in Evolutionary Psychology: Innovative Research Strategies
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Polit D. F.; Falbo T. (1988). "The intellectual achievement of only children".
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30:. For the belief that middle children develop specific characteristics, see
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Sibling Relationships: Their Nature and Significance across the Lifespan
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356:
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Since Adler's time, the influence of birth order on the development of
61:
823:
925:
Sibling Relationships: Their Nature and Significance of the Lifespan.
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argue that as individuals continually adjust to competing demands of
1186:
1021:
667:
The Birth Order Effect: How to Better Understand Yourself and Others
220:
perceive birth order effects when they were aware of the birth order
857:
Rohrer, Julia M.; Egloff, Boris; Schmukle, Stefan C. (2015-11-17).
751:
Rohrer, Julia M.; Egloff, Boris; Schmukle, Stefan C. (2015-10-19).
596:
Rohrer, Julia M.; Egloff, Boris; Schmukle, Stefan C. (2015-11-17).
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with sexual preference. Yet this biological effect is seen only in
251:
184:
465:(4th born, female) as she is the fourth child within the family.
323:
271:
Several studies have found that firstborns have slightly higher
821:. Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 39-83.
1116:: Why children turn out the way they do. New York: Free Press.
363:
Traditional naming of children according to their birth order
146:
personality traits. He argued that firstborns were much more
294:
show no relationship between birth order and intelligence.
272:
353:
National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health
26:"Middle child" redirects here. For the J. Cole song, see
142:
suggested that birth order had powerful effects on the
1283:(2012). "Intelligence, Birth Order, and Family Size".
940:
Damian, Rodica Ioana; Roberts, Brent W. (2015-11-17).
19:"Younger brother" redirects here. For other uses, see
1479:"BBC - Science & Nature - Sex ID - Study Results"
859:"Examining the effects of birth order on personality"
753:"Examining the effects of birth order on personality"
598:"Examining the effects of birth order on personality"
158:, argue against Sulloway's theories. A full issue of
40:
refers to the order a child is born in their family;
1020:
Jefferson, T.; Herbst, J. H.; McCrae, R. R. (1998).
942:"Settling the debate on birth order and personality"
287:
acing against intelligence under modern conditions.
703:
The Family: A New Way of Creating Solid Self-esteem
845:No Two Alike: Human Nature and Human Individuality
700:
664:
1756:"Development of the Firstborn Personality Scale".
16:Sequence in which children are born into a family
1732:Barngarlidhi Manoo (Speaking Barngarla Together)
1382:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
946:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
863:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
757:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
602:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
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933:
8:
746:
744:
1735:, Barngarla Language Advisory Committee. (
1285:Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
1008:Birth order: Its influence on personality.
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279:has been used in support of an alternate
1270:, 64(2), 169-187. doi:000312249906400202
1722:
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79:to suggest that birth order influences
1094:van der Leun, Justine (October 2009).
923:Lamb, M. E., Sutton-Smith, B. (1982).
292:National Longitudinal Survey of Youth
7:
591:
589:
103:has become a controversial issue in
1544:B. P. Zietsch; et al. (2012).
671:. Adams Media Corporation. p.
1026:Journal of Research in Personality
1006:Ernst, C. & Angst, J. (1983).
707:. Health Communications. pp.
14:
1096:"Does Birth Order Really Matter?"
277:National Child Development Study
21:Younger brother (disambiguation)
229:In her review of the research,
160:Politics and the Life Sciences
1:
1238:10.1126/science.182.4117.1096
663:Isaacson, Clifford E (2002).
256:Three siblings from the 1890s
193:in birth order, oldest at top
1762:Birth order and intelligence
1369:Puts, D. A.; Jordan, C. L.;
1268:American Sociological Review
1175:American Sociological Review
1128:Journal of Biosocial Science
1098:. AOL Health. Archived from
927:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
843:Harris, Judith Rich (2006),
199:National Academy of Sciences
1683:Archives of Sexual Behavior
1596:Archives of Sexual Behavior
1494:Archives of Sexual Behavior
1437:Archives of Sexual Behavior
738:. New York: Harper and Row.
336:weigh less strongly against
326:line becomes more assured (
215:Big Five personality traits
109:Big Five personality traits
1824:
1729:and the Barngarla (2019),
572:10.1037/0003-066X.55.6.599
248:Fertility and intelligence
241:
25:
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1695:10.1007/s10508-006-9062-2
1652:10.1080/00224490802398357
1609:10.1007/s10508-014-0474-0
1562:10.1017/S0033291711001577
1449:10.1007/s10508-006-9159-7
1140:10.1017/S0021932000006611
560:The American Psychologist
1297:10.1177/0146167212445911
67:, and a contemporary of
1506:10.1023/A:1001836320541
1403:10.1073/pnas.0604102103
1065:10.1111/1467-9280.00193
967:10.1073/pnas.1519064112
884:10.1073/pnas.1506451112
778:10.1073/pnas.1506451112
699:Bradshaw, John (1996).
623:10.1073/pnas.1506451112
75:, was one of the first
1803:Psychological theories
1550:Psychological Medicine
1340:10.1006/hbeh.2001.1681
1114:The Nurture Assumption
1112:Harris, J. R. (1998).
1038:10.1006/jrpe.1998.2233
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194:
169:, Michael E. Lamb and
1328:Hormones and Behavior
1053:Psychological Science
513:Individual psychology
304:fraternal birth order
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242:Further information:
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85:middle child syndrome
49:and popular culture.
32:Middle child syndrome
736:Problems of neurosis
497:The Birth Order Book
281:admixture hypothesis
1727:Zuckermann, Ghil'ad
1394:2006PNAS..10310531P
1388:(28): 10531–10532.
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608:(46): 14224–14229.
508:Firstborn (Judaism)
1738:Barngarlidhi Manoo
734:Adler, A. (1964).
369:Barngarla language
298:Sexual orientation
285:selection pressure
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231:Judith Rich Harris
222:of an individual.
210:Literature reviews
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171:Brian Sutton-Smith
156:Judith Rich Harris
1798:Human development
134:In his 1996 book
117:Conscientiousness
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1500:(1): 1–34.
824:"Full text"
687:fourthborn.
450:Wanggoordoo
316:affirmative
181:Personality
129:Neuroticism
101:personality
81:personality
38:Birth order
1792:Categories
1640:J. Sex Res
542:References
518:Only child
478:matronymic
474:patronymic
452:(8th) and
410:(8th) and
408:Wanggooyoo
202:potential
152:Toni Falbo
105:psychology
42:first-born
1776:USA Today
1740:– Part II
1254:148641822
1195:0003-1224
1010:Springer.
976:0027-8424
893:0027-8424
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632:0027-8424
534:Sladdbarn
318:pressure
244:Dysgenics
204:confounds
77:theorists
73:Carl Jung
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491:Adlerian
484:See also
438:Maroogoo
426:Wayooroo
422:Gardanya
332:pressure
144:Big Five
113:Openness
62:Austrian
1808:Sibling
1770:article
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902:4655522
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463:Moonaga
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127:, and
53:Theory
1707:S2CID
1664:S2CID
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1378:(PDF)
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1199:JSTOR
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827:(PDF)
711:–37.
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404:Mili
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380:Biri
376:Male
330:the
324:gene
302:The
246:and
189:The
71:and
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