1150:, emphasizes the role of culturally accepted norms of conduct in the formation of cultural groups and the conflicts which arise through their interaction. Culture conflict theory argues that the group with the most power in any society ensures that their values, traditions and behaviors, which Sellin referred to as "conduct norms", are those to which all other members of society are forced to conform, and any actions which conflict with the interests of the dominant group are identified as deviant and/or criminal in nature. Sellin's original ideas continued to be developed throughout the 20th century, most notably by George Vold in the 1950s and Austin Turk in the 1960s, and continue to influence the contemporary debate. The recent work of Gregory J. Howard, Joshua D. Freilich and Graeme R. Newman applies culture conflict theory to the issue of immigrant and minority crime around the world. According to their research, while culturally homogeneous groups experience little to no cultural conflict, as all the members share the same set of "conduct norms", culturally heterogeneous groups, such as modern industrial nations with large immigrant populations, display heightened competition between sets of cultural norms which, in turn, leads to an increase in violence and crime. Societies which have high levels of cultural diversity in their population, it is claimed, are more likely to have higher rates of violent crime.
711:(CDC) keeps data on non-fatal injury emergency department visits and the race of victims. While non-Hispanic white victims account for approximately half of total non-fatal assault injuries, most of which did not involve any weapon, black and Hispanic victims account for the vast majority of non-fatal firearm injuries. There was a total of 17.3 million emergency department visits or hospitalizations for non-fatal assaults in the United States in the 10-year period between 2007–2016. For non-fatal assaults with recorded race, 6.5 million victims were white non-Hispanic, 4.3 million black, 2.3 million Hispanic and 0.4 million other (non-Hispanic) and for 3.8 million, the race was not recorded. There were a total of 603,000 emergency department visits in the US for non-fatal firearm assaults in the 10-year period between 2007–2016. For non-fatal firearm assaults with recorded race, 77,000 victims were white non-Hispanic, 261,000 were black and 94,000 were Hispanic, 8,500 were other non-Hispanic and for 162,000 the race was not recorded. Despite gun injuries only accounting for about 3.5% of serious assault injuries between 2007 and 2016, they accounted for nearly 70% of overall homicides.
874:
North
Carolina showed that blacks were more than twice as likely as whites to be pulled over by police for traffic stops, and that blacks were more likely to be searched following the stop. There were no significant difference in the likelihood that Hispanics would be pulled over, but Hispanics were much more likely to be searched following a traffic stop than whites. When the study controlled for searches in high-crime areas, it still found that police disproportionately targeted black individuals. These racial disparities were particularly pronounced for young men. The study found that whites who were searched were more likely to carry contraband than blacks and Hispanics. In-group bias by voters has also been suggested as possibly causing disparities, as voters discount criminal acts done by their in-group and thus will vote for higher enforcement in areas where the minority population is higher due to the lack of in-group leniency, allowing for racial disparities in the justice system even if the authorities are unbiased.
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Children exposed to high levels of violence were more likely to be black and/or Latino.” Using ANOVA to observe differences in child outcomes, it was found that exposure to violence is associated with willingness to use physical aggression, diminished perception of risk, lowered expectations of the future, substance use, and low academic achievement. The Los
Angeles Family and Neighborhood Study (LA FANS) studied a representative sample of all neighborhoods in Los Angeles and evaluated the conditions and circumstances in which each family was living under. Families were randomly selected within each neighborhood and interviews were conducted with adults, caregivers, and children. 21% of children reported having violent peers who were a part of gangs, 11% reported being robbed, and 8% reported witnessing a shooting within the past year.
826:, a positive correlation exists between the percentage of black males in a neighborhood and perceptions of neighborhood crime rates, even after controlling other correlating factors and neighborhood characteristics. The study was conducted amongst the perceptions of residents in neighborhoods in Chicago, Seattle, and Baltimore in comparison with census data and police department crime statistics. Survey respondents consistently rated African Americans as more prone to violence than the data and statistics stated leading to the conclusion that the stereotype of blacks as more likely criminals is deeply embedded in the collective consciousness and societal norms of Americans. Such data may reveal a possible connection, but is functionally inconclusive due to a variety of other correlating factors which overlap with race and ethnicity.
1316:(1969), social bonding theory pioneered the notion that criminologists can gain useful insight into the motives behind criminal behavior by examining what normally motivates individuals to refrain from crime. From this, it is argued that, in those segments of the population where such motivation is lacking, crime will be more prevalent. Hirschi was explicit in mentioning that he believed his theory held true across all racial boundaries, and subsequent research—both in the US and abroad—seems to confirm this belief. The core idea of social control theory is elaborated upon in several other theories of causation, particularly social disorganization theory.
1360:, who suggested that black Americans had inherited a subculture of violence from white Southern American honor culture (who themselves had developed that culture from the brutal and lawless border region of northern Britain) and that difference in crime rates could be partially explained by this contemporary manifestation of Southern honor culture. Latzer's argument was criticized by German Lopez for not adequately demonstrating the alleged causality between culture and crime, and for not accounting for the decrease in crime rates in the 20th century or clearly defining the limits of what would constitute "culture" for the purposes of Latzer's argument.
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communities" and that the increased prevalence of such families in turn results in family disruption that significantly increases black murder and robbery rates. Sampson et al. (2005) and
Phillips (2002) have reported that at least half of the black-white homicide offending differential is attributable to structural factors such as parental marital status and social context. Other studies linked black crime and arrest rates to structural factors such as family instability, single parenting, pre-existing neighborhood crime rates, concentrated poverty, low educational attainment, low local collective efficacy, and local
839:
jails have since declined modestly in recent decades between both blacks and whites and
Hispanics and whites. Between 2000 and 2019, the ratio of disparity amongst male state and federal prisoners per capita declined between blacks and non-Hispanic whites from 7.7 to 5.7 and between Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites from 2.7 to 2.5. Declines in disparities were more pronounced when considering jail inmates of both sexes between 2005 and 2018 with the ratio of disparity per capita declining from 4.8 to 3.2 between blacks and non-Hispanic whites and 1.6 to 1.0 between Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites.
779:, conducted annual surveys of law enforcement agencies between 1996–2012 to assess the extent of gang problems in the United States. The latest available data, from 2011, found that 46.2% of gang members are Hispanic/Latino, 35.3% are black, 11.5% are white, and 7% are of other races/ethnicities. Larger cities, suburban counties, and smaller cities are more likely to report Hispanic or Latino-Americans as the dominant racial/ethnic group among gang members. Rural counties are more likely to report Black or African-Americans as the dominant racial/ethnic group among gang members.
667:
1293:
model helps explain why black murderers almost always choose black victims. There are disparities in rates of reporting rape where victims of some races are statistically less likely or more likely to report their rape, especially depending on the race of the offender. Black women in
America are more likely to report sexual assault that has been perpetrated by a stranger. Black women are more likely to under-report rapes overall as they are more likely to blame themselves, feel they will be blamed or feel they will not be believed.
675:
1161:. This line of argumentation is generally seen as part of a wider approach to race-related issues referred to as the Discrimination Thesis, which assumes that differences in the treatment received by people of minority racial background in a number of public institutions, including the criminal justice, education and health care systems, is the result of overt racial discrimination. Opposed to this view is the Non-Discrimination Thesis, which seeks to defend these institutions from such accusations.
1172:. Barbara D. Warner, associate professor of criminal justice and police studies at Eastern Kentucky University, notes that conflict theory has been the subject of increasing criticism in recent years. Recent studies claim that, while there may have been real sentencing differences related to non-legal characteristics such as race in the 1960s, sentencing discrimination as described by the conflict theorists at that time no longer exists. Criticism has also pointed to the lack of
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uninterested in maintaining positive community relationships. This has been observed to increase the likelihood of crime in certain urban areas, which can lead to increased policing and a further breakdown of familial structures as a result of arrests, which, in turn, precipitates more crime. Social disorganization theory has been instrumental in establishing the notion that stable, culturally homogeneous communities have lower rates of delinquency and crime regardless of race.
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1356:
the assumptions upon which the subculture of violence theory depends. More recently, scholars have criticized the theory as potentially racist in nature in its implication of one given ethnicity or culture supposedly being less fit for or less worthy of being qualified as "civilized", the built-in implication of which in turn would denote stereotypically "white" behavior as an objective norm for all societies to follow. The hypothesis was reconsidered recently by
601:
NCVS program is to gather information on crimes that were not reported to police, though information is also collected on reported crimes. The survey collects data on rape, assault, robbery, burglary, personal and household larceny and motor vehicle theft. The NCVS also includes supplemental questions which allow information to be gathered on tangentially relevant issues such as school violence, attitudes towards law enforcement or perceptions regarding crime.
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1286:. She notes that this theory predicts that, if residential areas were more racially integrated, intraracial crime would decrease and interracial crime would increase correspondingly. However, she also notes that not all researchers on the topic of intraracial crime agree with this result, with some pointing to other macrostructural factors, such as income and education, which may negate the effect of race on inter- and intraracial crime.
1386:
1123:
behavior, conflict theory proposes that crime is an inevitable consequence of the conflict which arises between competing groups within society. Such groups can be defined through a number of factors, including class, economic status, religion, language, ethnicity, race or any combination thereof. Further, conflict theory proposes that crime could be largely eliminated if the structure of society were to be changed.
1134:, views crime as a natural response to the inequality arising from the competition inherent in capitalist society. Sociologists and criminologists emphasizing this aspect of social conflict argue that, in a competitive society in which there is an inequality in the distribution of goods, those groups with limited or restricted access to goods will be more likely to turn to crime. Dutch criminologist
1013:, arrests, prosecutions, convictions, and incarceration. Regardless of their views regarding causation, scholars acknowledge that some racial and ethnic minorities are disproportionately represented in the arrest and victimization reports which are used to compile crime rate statistics. There is, however, a great deal of debate regarding the causes of that disproportionality. Sociologist
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751:, both from 1974. He found that NCS data generally agreed with UCR data in regards to the percent of perpetrators of rape, robbery, and assault who were black. For instance, Hindelang's analysis found that both the NCS and UCR estimated that 62% of robbery offenders were black in the United States in 1974. A 2004 National Crime Victimization Survey report which analyzed
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long sentences, while whites still continue to escape the penalty of many crimes even among themselves. And yet allowing for all this, there can be no reasonable doubt but that there has arisen in the South since the war a class of black criminals, loafers, and ne'er-do-wells who are a menace to their fellows, both black and white.
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over-represented in terms of arrests made in virtually all types of crime, with the exceptions of "driving under the influence," "liquor laws," and hate crime. Overall, black
Americans are arrested at 2.6 times the per-capita rate of all other Americans, and this ratio is even higher for murder (6.3 times) and robbery (8.1 times).
1157:, the disproportionate representation of racial minorities in crime statistics and in the prison population is the result of race- and class-motivated disparities in arrests, prosecutions and sentencing rather than differences in actual participation in criminal activity, an approach which has also been taken by proponents of
788:
became a growing priority in response to undocumented immigration. By 2007, among
Hispanic offenders sentenced in federal courts, 48% were immigration offenses, 37% drug offenses, and 15% for other offenses. One reason for the large increase in immigration offenses is that they exclusively fall under federal jurisdiction.
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between blacks and non-Hispanic whites from 9.9 to 8.3. When considering non-firearm homicide victimization rates racial disparities the ratio of decline is very significant between 1990 and 2019, falling between blacks and non-Hispanic whites from 7.0 to 3.3 and between
Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites from 3.4 to 1.3.
623:
Serious violent crime and aggravated assault against blacks (58% and 61%) and indigenous
Americans (55% and 59%) was reported more often than against whites (51% and 54%) or Asians (50% and 51%). indigenous Americans were unusually unlikely to report a robbery (45%), as with Asians and a simple assault (31%).
801:
Native
Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islanders. Including offenders of unknown race, 52.5% were White, 23.9% were Black, 6.6% were groups of individuals of varying races, 1.1% were American Indian or Alaska Natives, 0.9% were Asian, 0.3% were Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islanders, and 14.6% were unknown.
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The empirical basis for the subculture of violence theory, however, has been described as "extremely limited and unpersuasive". Very little has been done to attempt an adequate assessment of supposedly criminogenic subcultural values, and several studies conducted in the late 1970s claimed to falsify
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Phillippia Simmons reports that many of the studies which have investigated intra- and interracial crime seek to explain this through a theory of macrostructural opportunity which states that interracial violence is primarily a function of opportunity and access. According to this theory, intraracial
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has explained these controversies as disputes between liberal and conservative criminologists in which each camp focuses on mutually exclusive aspects of the causal net, with liberals focusing on factors external to the groups in question and conservatives focusing on internal cultural and behavioral
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evaluating arraignments in New York City, "Higher pretrial detention rates among minority defendants explain 40 percent of the black-white gap in rates of being sentenced to prison and 28 percent of the Hispanic-white gap." The majority of individuals held in pretrial detention are being held because
905:
found that tall young black men are especially likely to receive unjustified attention by law enforcement. The authors furthermore found a "causal link between perceptions of height and perceptions of threat for Black men, particularly for perceivers who endorse stereotypes that Black people are more
800:
statistics as part of the FBI Uniform Crime Report. According to the 2019 Uniform Crime Report, of hate crime offenders identifiable by race, 61.5% were White, 28% were Black, 7.8% were groups of individuals of varying races, 1.2% were American Indian or Alaska Natives, 1.1% were Asian, and 0.4% were
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offending rate for African-Americans was roughly eight times higher than that of whites, and their victim rate was similar. About half of homicides are known to be single-offender/single-victim, and most of those were intraracial; in those where the perpetrator's and victim's races were known, 81% of
690:
Among homicide victims in 2019 where the race was known, 54.7% were black or African-American, 42.3% were white, and 3.1% were of other races. Homicides with white victims and black offenders were more than 2.3 times more common than the opposite (566 vs 246). Including homicide victims in 2019 where
626:
Despite the differences in the amount of crime reported, comparisons of the UCR and NCVS data sets show there to be a high degree of correspondence between the two systems. This correspondence extends to the racial demography of both perpetrators and victims of violent crime reported in both systems.
608:
Reliability: NCVS statistics do not represent verified or evidenced instances of victimization. As it depends upon the recollection of the individuals surveyed, the NCVS cannot distinguish between true and fabricated claims of victimization, nor can it verify the truth of the severity of the reported
468:
The Uniform Crime Reports represent the primary source of data used in the calculation of official statistics regarding serious crimes such as murder and homicide, which is supplemented by the information provided through the NCVS and self-report studies, the latter being the best indicator of actual
374:
Research also indicates that there is extensive racial and ethnic discrimination by police and the judicial system. A substantial academic literature has compared police searches (showing that contraband is found at higher rates in whites who are stopped), bail decisions (showing that whites with the
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examines the disadvantages children face when they are exposed to frequent neighborhood violence. In a survey of 2,248 sixth, eighth, and tenth graders in an urban public school system, “Schwab-Stone et al (1995) found that 40% of youth reported exposure to a shooting or a stabbing in the past year.
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According to a 2009 report by the Pew Hispanic Center, in 2007 Latinos "accounted for 40% of all sentenced federal offenders ‒ more than triple their share (13%) of the total U.S. adult population". This was an increase from 24% in 1991. Between 1991 and 2007, enforcement of federal immigration laws
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criticizes the attempt to use the macrostructural opportunity model to explain interracial rape as has been done in studies conducted in the past few decades, pointing out that such a defense is directly contradicted by the data related to homicide. Walsh argues that the macrostructural opportunity
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in the 1930s and 1940s, argues that social structures within society which lead to inequality and deprivation in segments of its population indirectly encourage those segments to commit crime. According to strain theory, differences in crime rates between races are the result of real differences in
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to the issue of crime, argued that such inequality as found in capitalism was ultimately responsible for the manifestation of crime at all levels of society, particularly among the poor. Though this line of thinking has been criticized for requiring the establishment of a utopian socialist society,
1077:
There are no reliable statistics to which one can safely appeal to measure exactly the growth of crime among the emancipated slaves. About seventy percent of all prisoners in the South are black; this, however, is in part explained by the fact that accused Negroes are still easily convicted and get
914:
Research shows that childhood exposure to violence significantly increases the likelihood to engage in violent behavior. When studies control for childhood exposure to violence, black and white males are equally likely to engage in violent behavior. White and black families have no major difference
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A 2019 study, which made use of a dataset of the racial makeup of every U.S. sheriff over a 25-year period, found that "ratio of Black‐to‐White arrests is significantly higher under White sheriffs" and that the effects appear to be "driven by arrests for less‐serious offenses and by targeting Black
834:
Some studies have argued for smaller racial disparities in violent crime in recent times. However, a study of government data from 1980–2008 found that the reduction in black violent crime relative to white violent crime may have been an artifact of those previous studies, which was due to Hispanic
821:
Studies examining the relationship between percentages of different races in an area and crime rates have generally either found similar relationships as for nationwide crime rates or no significant relationships. Most often studied are correlations between black and Hispanic populations in a given
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In the same 2019 report, when ethnicity of offenders was known, 73.5% were not Hispanic or Latino, 22.3% were Hispanic or Latino, and 4.2% were groups of individuals of varying ethnicities. However, the majority of offenders' ethnic backgrounds are unknown. Including offenders of unknown ethnicity,
718:
According to the FBI Uniform Crime Reports, in 2008, black youths, who make up 16% of the youth population, accounted for 52% of juvenile violent crime arrests, including 58.5% of youth arrests for homicide and 67% for robbery. Black youths were overrepresented in all offense categories except DUI,
600:
The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) program, established in 1972, is a national survey of a representative sample of households in the United States which covers the frequency of crime victimization and the characteristics and consequences of victimization. The primary purpose behind the
577:
Race and ethnicity: The UCR tracks crime for the racial category of "White" to include both Hispanic and non-Hispanic ethnicities. According to the ACLU, with over 50 million Latinos residing in the United States, this hides the incarceration rates for Latinos vis-à-vis marijuana-related offenses,
551:
Bias in sampling: UCR statistics do not represent the actual amount of criminal activity occurring in the United States. As it relies upon local law enforcement agency crime reports, the UCR program can only measure crime known to police and cannot provide an accurate representation of actual crime
1008:
Historically, crime statistics have played a central role in the discussion of the relationship between race and crime in the United States. As they have been designed to record information not only on the kinds of crimes committed, but also on the individuals involved in crime, criminologists and
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in homeownership, median income, college graduation, and employment better explain racial homicide rate differences than do black disadvantages. Wright and Younts (2009) found that some social variables, such as higher religiosity, stronger family ties, and lower alcohol consumption, reduced black
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found that black drivers were stopped more often than white drivers, and that the threshold by which police decided to search black and Hispanic drivers was lower than that for whites (judging by the rate at which contraband was found in searches). Analysis of more than 20 million traffic stops in
838:
Other data suggests a genuine decline in racial disparities in recent years. In the 1980s and early 1990s black/white (including Hispanics) imprisonment disparities increased peaking in the early 1990s when a slim majority of new admissions were blacks. Relative to 2000, disparities in prisons and
808:
The report also states that 55.8% of all hate crime offenders were motivated by race, ethnicity, or ancestry. By comparison, the next highest categories are religion (19.3%) and sexual orientation (16.3%). Among hate crime offenses motivated by race, ethnicity, and ancestry, 48.4% were composed of
714:
While African Americans are highly overrepresented in murders and gun assaults, the disparity in arrests is smaller for the most common form of assault not involving any weapon or serious injury; blacks are arrested for non-aggravated assault at 2.7 times the white rate. Hispanics and non-Hispanic
686:
2019 Uniform Crime Report, African-Americans accounted for 55.9% of all homicide offenders in 2019, with whites 41.1%, and "Other" 3% in cases where the race was known. Including homicide offenders where the race was unknown, African-Americans accounted for 39.6% of all homicide offenders in 2019,
1351:
heritage. As noted in several studies conducted throughout the 1960s and 1970s, there is a traditional north–south discrepancy in the distribution of homicide in the US, regardless of race, and this, it was argued, indicates that lower-class Southern blacks and Whites share the same subculture of
1330:
As a theory of criminal behavior, subculture of violence theory claims that certain groups or subcultures exist in society in which violence is viewed as an appropriate response to what, in the context of that subculture, are perceived as threatening situations. Building upon the work of cultural
1235:
argue that strain theory "misconstrue(s) the nature of the criminal act, supplying it with virtues it does not possess." They further point out that, while strain theory suggests that criminals should tend to target people in a more advantageous economic situation than themselves, they more often
1122:
Conflict theory is considered "one of the most popular theoretical frameworks among race and crime scholars". Rather than one monolithic theory, conflict theory represents a group of closely related theories which operate on a common set of fundamental assumptions. As a general theory of criminal
638:
According to a report by the National Council of La Raza, research obstacles undermine the census of Latinos in prison, and "Latinos in the criminal justice system are seriously undercounted. The true extent of the overrepresentation of Latinos in the system probably is significantly greater than
1223:
weakens the effectiveness of informal social control mechanisms and support processes, which encourages economic gain by any means, legal or illegal. In those segments of the population which experience the greatest relative deprivation, therefore, there is readiness to turn to crime to overcome
955:
has reported that most of the reason violent crime rates are so high among blacks originates mainly from unemployment, economic deprivation, and family disorganization. Specifically, he found that "the scarcity of employed black men increases the prevalence of families headed by females in black
919:
in the United States). A study in Australia showed a direct correlation to poverty in later life from childhood abuse. While poverty in the United States and Australia are not the same, a general understanding of the negative effects of childhood abuse later in life has been found, many of these
842:
Similarly, declines in the racial disparity of homicide victimization can be seen although to a much greater extent between Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites. Using CDC data between 1990 and 2019, the ratio of the murder rate between Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites declined from 4.5 to 2.0 and
491:
Established in 1927, the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) program is a summary-based reporting system that collects data on crime reported to local and state law enforcement agencies across the US. The UCR system indexes crimes under two headings: Part I and Part II offenses. Part I offenses include:
1272:
as a major contributing factor to the breakdown of healthy urban communities which would normally curb the spread of many forms of criminal behavior. The diversity of minority cultures present in poverty-stricken neighborhoods prevents the formation of strong social bonds and leaves inhabitants
981:
A 1996 study found a strong association between black-white spatial isolation and rates of black violence, consistent with the hypothesis that segregation is responsible for higher rates of black crime. Multiple other studies have reached similar conclusions. However, correlation does not equal
1343:
and Franco Ferracuti proposed that the disproportionally high rate of crime among African Americans could be explained by their possessing a unique racial subculture in which violence is experienced and perceived in a manner different from that commonly observed in mainstream American culture.
622:
According to the NCVS for 1992–2000, 43% of violent criminal acts, and 53% of serious violent crime (not verbal threats, or cuts and bruises) were reported to the police. Overall, black (49%) and indigenous Americans (48%) victims reported most often, higher than whites (42%) and Asians (40%).
1061:, who argued that other circumstances, such as social and economic conditions, were the central factors which led to criminal behavior, regardless of race. Du Bois traced the causes of the disproportional representation of blacks in the criminal justice system back to the improperly handled
967:
alone to exert little influence on adult criminality. Finding that social class was related to criminal involvement for people who are not white, they suggest that class may interact with race in relation to crime. Vélez et al. (2003) concluded that, within residentially segregated cities,
419:
Researchers note that there are socioeconomic factors underlying these crime statistics, and that crime is often higher in low-income neighborhoods. Media coverage of "Black on Black" violence has been criticized for perpetuating racial stereotypes of violent Black people. Researchers have
329:
has been a topic of public controversy and scholarly debate for more than a century. Crime rates vary significantly between racial groups; however, academic research indicates that the over-representation of some racial minorities in the criminal justice system can in part be explained by
657:
Scholars have found that some racial and ethnic minorities, particularly African-Americans, are disproportionately represented in the arrest and victimization reports which are used to compile crime rate statistics in the United States. The data from 2008 reveals that black Americans are
1049:, argued that criminal behavior was the product of biological factors, including race. He was among the first criminologists to claim a direct link between race and crime. This biological perspective, sometimes seen as racist, was criticized by early 20th century scholars, including
2544:
For a detailed discussion of the limitations and weaknesses of the UCR program, see Mosher, Miethe & Phillips (2002). Regardless of the limitations, one must consider that these are facts reported by law enforcement agencies and are typically more accurate than independent
3455:
Steffensmeier, D.; Feldmeyer, B.; Harris, C. T.; Ulmer, J. T. (2011). "Reassessing Trends in Black Violent Crime, 1980-2008: Sorting Out the "Hispanic Effect" in Uniform Crime Reports Arrests, National Crime Victimization Survey Offender Estimates, and U.s. Prisoner Counts*".
817:
Studies have examined that ethnic/racially heterogeneous areas, most often neighborhoods in large cities, have higher crime rates than more homogeneous areas. Most studies find that the more ethnically/racially heterogeneous an area is, the higher its crime rates tend to be.
715:
whites are arrested for non-aggravated assault in a similar ratio to their share of the US population. Of the 9,468 murder arrests in the US in 2017, 53.5% were black and 20.8% Hispanic. Of the 822,671 arrests for non-aggravated assault, 31.4% were black and 18.4% Hispanic.
985:
Additionally, "Hagan and Peterson (1995) further propose that the segregation of racial minorities in sections of concentrated poverty contributes to inferior educational and employment opportunities, which, in turn, enhance the likelihood of crime and delinquency."
642:
The FBI did not include a "Latino" or "Hispanic" category until the Uniform Crime Report for 2013, and 93% of Hispanics are classified as "white" by law enforcement officers (irrespective of their ancestry), often inflating the amount of crimes attributed to whites.
477:. These crime data collection programs provide most of the statistical information utilized by criminologists and sociologists in their analysis of crime and the extent of its relationship to race. Another form of data is that regarding the prison population.
895:
found that facial-recognition systems were substantially more likely to misidentify the faces of racial minorities. Some ethnic groups, such as Asian-Americans and African-American, were up to 100 times more likely to be misidentified than white men.
379:
of racial discrimination. Studies have documented patterns of racial discrimination, as well as patterns of police brutality and disregard for the constitutional rights of African-Americans, by police departments in various American cities, including
1143:
the notion that the disproportionality observed in minority representation in crime rate statistics could be understood as the result of systematic economic disadvantage found its way into many of the theories developed in subsequent generations.
375:
same bail decision as blacks commit more pre-trial violations), and sentencing (showing that blacks are more harshly sentenced by juries and judges than whites when the underlying facts and circumstances of the cases are similar), providing valid
1082:
The debate that ensued remained largely academic until the late 20th century, when the relationship between race and crime became a recognized field of specialized study in criminology. Helen T. Greene, professor of justice administration at
2266:
883:
found that law enforcement officers in Texas who could charge shoplifters with two types of crimes (one more serious, one less so) due to a vaguely worded statute were more likely to charge blacks and Hispanics with the more serious crime.
863:
In-group bias has been observed when it comes to traffic citations following accidents, as black and white police in one state were found to be more lenient to suspects of their own race, resulting in a 3% discrepancy. A 2013 report by the
901:
612:
Misrepresentation: The NCVS program is focused upon metropolitan and urban areas, and does not adequately cover suburban and rural regions. This can lead to misrepresentations regarding the nature and extent of victimization in the United
586:(NIBRS) is an incident-based reporting system that will collect more comprehensive and detailed data on crime from local, state and federal law enforcement agencies. As it is still under development, NIBRS coverage is not yet nationwide.
571:. Further, law enforcement agencies can provide inadvertently misleading data as a result of local policing practices. These factors can lead to misrepresentations regarding the nature and extent of criminal activity in the United States.
639:
researchers have been able to document. The lack of empirical data on Latinos is partially due to prisons' failures to document ethnic details at intake, or recording practices that historically have classified Latinos as white.
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they cannot afford to post bail. The individuals in pretrial detention face higher incentives to plead guilty (even if they are innocent) for a number of reasons, which leads to a higher sentencing rates for these individuals.
1307:
Social control theory, which is among the most popular theories in criminology, proposes that crime is most commonly perpetrated by individuals who lack strong bonds or connections with their social environment. Based upon
1218:
in the 1990s. In their version of the theory, which they refer to as institutional anomie theory, Messner and Rosenfeld argue that the dominance of materialistic concerns and measurements of success manifested in the
342:
has also been linked to racial disparities in crime rates, as black Americans have historically and to the present been prevented from moving into prosperous low-crime areas through actions of the government (such as
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found that blacks were "3.73 times more likely than whites to be arrested for marijuana possession," even though "blacks and whites use drugs, including marijuana, at similar rates." A 2020 study in the journal
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Pierson, Emma; Simoiu, Camelia; Overgoor, Jan; Corbett-Davies, Sam; Jenson, Daniel; Shoemaker, Amy; Ramachandran, Vignesh; Barghouty, Phoebe; Phillips, Cheryl; Shroff, Ravi; Goel, Sharad (May 4, 2020).
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Manipulation: UCR data are capable of being manipulated by local law enforcement agencies. Information is supplied voluntarily to the UCR program, and manipulation of data can occur at the local level.
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835:
offenders being counted as White in the comparison. The Hispanic population has been increasing rapidly and Hispanics have violence rates higher than that of whites but lower than that of blacks.
635:
The UCR classifies most Hispanics into the "white" category. The NCVS classifies some Hispanic criminals as "white" and some as "other race". The victim categories for the NCVS are more distinct.
609:
incidents. Further, the NCVS cannot detect cases of victimization where the victim is too traumatized to report. These factors can contribute to deficits in the reliability of NCVS statistics.
1268:
Social disorganization theory proposes that high rates of crime are largely the result of a heterogeneous and impoverished social ecology. Proponents of the theory point to the process of
3948:
2582:
3332:
6858:
4529:
McNulty, Thomas L.; Bellair, Paul E. (March 2003). "Explaining racial and ethnic differences in adolescent violence: Structural disadvantage, family well-being, and social capital".
5406:
by Wolfgang & Ferracuti (1967). See also Hawkins (1983:247-248), Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:75-78). For a general review, see Gabbidon (2007:91–100), Clevenger (2009:780-783).
982:
causation, and the disproportionately higher crime rates seen in black communities—as well as the reason for their segregation—can be attributed to a number of underlying symptoms.
768:
420:
highlighted media language drawing connections between intracommunity violence in Black neighborhoods and supposed "moral bankruptcy" in Black family structures and communities.
4632:
Wright, B. R. E.; Younts, C. W. (May 26, 2009). "Reconsidering the Relationship between Race and Crime: Positive and Negative Predictors of Crime among African American Youth".
4405:
Wright, B. R. E.; Younts, C. W. (May 26, 2009). "Reconsidering the Relationship between Race and Crime: Positive and Negative Predictors of Crime among African American Youth".
3784:
1419:
1184:. Thus, conflict theory encounters difficulties in attempting to account for the high levels of violent crime such as murder, homicide and rape, in minority populations.
6825:
6810:
4140:
1454:
6815:
3640:
1180:, typically of less serious criminal behavior such as theft or larceny, research has shown there to be no significant correlation between race, income level and crime
159:
2495:
544:, simple assault, sex offenses, offenses against the family, drug and liquor offenses, weapons offenses and other non-violent offenses excluding traffic violations.
7030:
5315:"Rape and Sexual Assault Statistics. Extracted from Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1994 Report Summarized by Betty Caponera, Ph.D. Director, NMCSAAS"
6874:
6790:
892:
652:
3759:
1095:, note that many criminology and criminal justice programs now either require or offer elective courses on the topic of the relationship between race and crime.
4597:
Vélez, María B.; Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. (August 1, 2003). "Structural Inequality and Homicide: An Assessment of the Black-White Gap in Killings*".
4440:
Vélez, María B.; Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. (August 1, 2003). "Structural Inequality and Homicide: An Assessment of the Black-White Gap in Killings*".
5341:
4754:
Peterson, Ruth D.; Krivo, Lauren J. (September 1, 1999). "Racial Segregation, the Concentration of Disadvantage, and Black and White Homicide Victimization".
7015:
6969:
4106:
Frederick, John; Goddard, Chris (2007). "Exploring the relationship between poverty, childhood adversity and child abuse from the perspective of adulthood".
1283:
5905:
Hawkins, Darnell F. (2005). "Black and White Homicide Differentials: Alternatives to an Inadequate Theory". In Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (eds.).
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Warren, Patricia Y.; Tomaskovic-Devey, Donald (May 1, 2009). "Racial profiling and searches: Did the politics of racial profiling change police behavior?".
1009:
sociologists have and continue to use crime rate statistics to make general statements regarding the racial demographics of crime-related phenomena such as
994:
Among American teens, black-white differences in violence are accounted for by differences in family income and socialization with deviant peers in school.
960:. Krivo and Peterson (1996) and McNulty and Bellair (2003a, 2003b) found neighborhood disadvantage to explain black and white differences in violent crime.
860:, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects.
805:
33.1% were not Hispanic or Latino, 10% were Hispanic or Latino, 1.9% were groups of individuals of varying ethnicities, and 55% were of unknown ethnicity.
428:. Researchers have noted these arguments but say that the term Black-on-Black crime is "inaccurate and vague" and "generally offensive to Black Americans".
3859:
Braun, Michael; Rosenthal, Jeremy; Therrian, Kyle (2018). "Police Discretion and Racial Disparity in Organized Retail Theft Arrests: Evidence from Texas".
3515:
708:
452:
6428:
Sampson, Robert J.; Wilson, William J. (2005b). "Towards a Theory of Race, Crime and Urban Inequality". In Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (eds.).
2621:
For a detailed discussion of the limitations and weaknesses of the NCVS program, see Mosher, Miethe & Phillips (2002). See also Mann (1993:30–32).
6387:. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin: Special Report NCJ 225619. United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. Archived from
5161:
Jang, Sung Joon; Johnson, Byron R. (2003). "Strain, Negative Emotions, and Deviant Coping Among African Americans: A Test of General Strain Theory".
6848:
6767:
2469:
1439:
583:
339:
1607:
Brown, Elizabeth; Males, Mike A. (2011). "Does Age or Poverty Level Best Predict Criminal Arrest and Homicide Rates? A Preliminary Investigation".
1207:
behavior, but to be understood as an attempt to alleviate either absolute or relative deprivation and adapt to the existing opportunity structure.
582:
As a response to these and other limitations, a new system of crime data collection was established in 1988 as an outgrowth of the UCR system. The
2782:
2760:
322:
221:
334:
factors, such as poverty, exposure to poor neighborhoods, poor access to public and early education, and exposure to harmful chemicals (such as
5231:
Piquero, Nicole Leeper; Sealock, Miriam D. (August 22, 2006). "Generalizing general strain theory: An examination of an offending population".
4667:
Shihadeh, E. S.; Flynn, N. (June 1, 1996). "Segregation and Crime: The Effect of Black Social Isolation on the Rates of Black Urban Violence".
3603:"Neighborhood-level differences in police discrimination and subcultural violence: A multilevel examination of adopting the code of the street"
2952:
105:
1164:
At the time it was first proposed, conflict theory was considered outside the mainstream of more established criminological theories, such as
6671:
6655:
6551:
6517:
6493:
6474:
6437:
6373:
6340:
6319:
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6139:
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6083:
6041:
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5932:
5914:
5865:
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5796:
5769:
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5723:
5704:
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5629:
5596:
5569:
5520:
5497:
2926:
2900:
2856:
2403:
1464:
6979:
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6800:
797:
404:
The term "Black-on-Black" violence has been criticized for being misleading and racially charged. One columnist writing in the wake of the
278:
144:
125:
5636:
Du Bois, W. E. B. (2005). "The Spawn of Slavery: The Convict-Lease System in the South". In Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (eds.).
5037:
Gabbidon (2007:171). For an overview of conflict theory in race and crime studies, see Gabbidon (2007:141–177), Henderson (2009:174–175).
5007:
755:
over 10 years found that carjacking victims identified 56% of offenders as black, 21% as white, and 16% as indigenous American or Asian.
7025:
6223:
1788:
Boutwell, Brian B.; Nelson, Erik J.; Emo, Brett; Vaughn, Michael G.; Schootman, Mario; Rosenfeld, Richard; Lewis, Roger (July 1, 2016).
744:
728:
595:
456:
216:
4502:
McNULTY, THOMAS L.; BELLAIR, PAUL E. (August 2003). "Explaining Racial and Ethnic Differences in Serious Adolescent Violent Behavior".
2735:
1347:
As to the origins of this subculture of violence among African Americans, sociologists promoting the theory have pointed towards their
691:
the race was unknown, 53.7% were black or African-American, 41.6% were white, 3% were of other races, and 1.7% were of unknown races.
6688:. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin: Special Report NCJ 144525. United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
6269:. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin: Special Report NCJ 176354. United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
6236:. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin: Special Report NCJ 227777. United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
5879:. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin: Special Report NCJ 195710. United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
3244:
3213:
3047:
1424:
879:
7020:
6843:
6640:
6592:
6573:
6535:
6455:
6358:
6303:
6177:
6105:
6063:
6025:
6006:
5992:
5981:
5966:
5823:
5614:
5553:
5538:
5443:
5351:
3826:
2670:
SpearIt (April 2, 2015). "How Mass Incarceration Underdevelops Latino Communities". Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network.
2444:
2362:
2057:
2024:
1062:
2531:
Holms, Maahs & Vito (2007:35-36). See also Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:35–38). For more information on the UCR program, see: "
6381:
2804:
1743:"Explaining the Gaps in White, Black, and Hispanic Violence since 1990: Accounting for Immigration, Incarceration, and Inequality"
6853:
6310:
Russell, Katheryn K. (2002). "The Racial Hoax as Crime: The Law as Affirmation". In Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (eds.).
2882:
273:
4849:
5455:
3362:
2714:
683:
441:
385:
3483:
2532:
809:
anti-Black bias, 15.8% were of anti-White bias, 14.1% were of anti-Hispanic or Latino bias, and 4.3% were of anti-Asian bias.
6964:
865:
699:
white victims were killed by whites and 91% of black or African-American victims were killed by blacks or African-Americans.
393:
304:
211:
201:
5304:
Furtado, C., Perceptions of Rape: Cultural, Gender, and Ethnic Differences. Sex Crimes and Paraphilia. Hickey, E.W., 385–395
3529:
6218:
Petit, Becky; Western, Bruce. "Mass Imprisonment and the Life Course: Race and Class Inequality in U.S. Incarceration" in
2739:
1289:
1092:
1046:
719:
liquor laws, and drunkenness. Racial disparities in arrest have consistently been far less among older population groups.
381:
54:
2122:
6760:
3120:
2660:
Walsh (2004:29). For a survey of data from 1973–1992, see Zawitz et al. (1993:23); for 1993–1998, see Rennison (2001:10)
1459:
1066:
938:
776:
206:
5471:
951:
Evidence supporting the role of structural factors in high black crime rates comes from multiple studies. For example,
6994:
6989:
1038:
35:
6662:
Wright, John P. (2009). "Inconvenient Truths: Science, Race and Crime". In Beaver, Kevin M.; Walsh, Anthony (eds.).
5314:
3020:
2554:
Holms, Maahs & Vito (2007:37). See also Myrdal (1988:88-89), Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:39), Free (2009:164).
2297:
1399:
1263:
772:
326:
70:
3849:
Bose, Amartya. "Racial disparities in law enforcement: The role of in-group bias and electoral pressures." (2020).
2927:"Expanded Homicide Data Table 6: Race, Sex, and Ethnicity of Victim by Race, Sex, and Ethnicity of Offender, 2019"
335:
6820:
4475:
Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. (December 1, 1996). "Extremely Disadvantaged Neighborhoods and Urban Crime".
1449:
1444:
1193:
1165:
1084:
731:
in 2002, robberies with white victims and black offenders were more than 12 times more common than the opposite.
389:
356:
242:
2710:
6927:
6795:
6721:
5814:
2040:
Drakulich, Kevin; Rodriguez-Whitney, Eric (June 22, 2018), "Intentional Inequalities and Compounding Effects",
1169:
666:
49:
4797:
Feldmeyer, Ben (September 1, 2010). "The Effects of Racial/Ethnic Segregation on Latino and Black Homicide".
4694:
Eitle, David (January 2009). "Dimensions of racial segregation, hypersegregation, and Black homicide rates".
1843:
Feldmeyer, Ben (September 1, 2010). "The Effects of Racial/Ethnic Segregation on Latino and Black Homicide".
1552:"Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Structural Disadvantage and Crime: White, Black, and Hispanic Comparisons*"
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6032:
LaFree, Gary (1995). "Race and Crime Trends in the United States, 1946–1990". In Hawkins, Darnell F. (ed.).
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Haggerty, Kevin P.; Skinner, Martie L.; McGlynn, Anne; Catalano, Richard F.; Crutchfield, Robert D. (2013).
2783:"Estimates and Projections by Age, Sex, Race/Ethnicity - The 2012 Statistical Abstract - U.S. Census Bureau"
1469:
1126:
The form of conflict theory which emphasizes the role of economics, being heavily influenced by the work of
1037:
The relationship between race and crime has been an area of study for criminologists since the emergence of
5830:
Guerrero, Georgen (2009). "Social Disorganization Theory". In Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (eds.).
5579:
Clevenger, Shelly (2009). "Subculture of Violence Theory". In Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (eds.).
3949:"Federal study confirms racial bias of many facial-recognition systems, casts doubt on their expanding use"
6948:
6500:
Tubman-Carbone, Heather R. (2009). "Biological Theories". In Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (eds.).
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Jensen, Arthur R.; Rushton, J. P. "Thirty Years of Research on Race Differences in Cognitive Ability" in:
5805:
4045:
3715:
2995:
1404:
1348:
1228:
674:
424:
has noted that African-Americans are disproportionately murdered, accounting for 80% of murder victims in
405:
6683:"Highlights from 20 Years of Surveying Crime Victims: The National Crime Victimization Survey, 1973-1992"
3706:
Donohue III, John J.; Levitt, Steven D. (January 1, 2001). "The Impact of Race on Policing and Arrests".
6879:
6693:
6407:
6274:
6241:
5884:
4185:"The Unintended Impact of Pretrial Detention on Case Outcomes: Evidence from New York City Arraignments"
3634:
3072:
2683:
1620:
1434:
1336:
1302:
1251:
1245:
748:
486:
445:
364:
360:
257:
165:
155:
6185:
1227:
Critics of strain theory point to its weaknesses when compared with actual criminal behavior patterns.
3414:
1789:
6906:
3982:
3685:
3376:
2267:"Black men sentenced to more time for committing the exact same crime as a white person, study finds"
1895:
1801:
1377:
1158:
1139:
1113:
764:
185:
150:
4050:
3720:
3415:"Black Neighbors, Higher Crime? The Role of Racial Stereotypes in Evaluations of Neighborhood Crime"
5839:
5761:
3602:
2436:
2354:
1176:
of the general theory. While much research has been done to correlate race, income level and crime
1135:
1131:
1117:
521:
6509:
4329:
Phillips, Julie A. (August 2002). "White, Black, and Latino Homicide Rates: Why the Difference?".
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1935:"Segregation and Crime: The Effect of Black Social Isolation on the Rates of Black Urban Violence"
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5213:
5178:
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3622:
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1876:
1770:
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Myrdal, Gunnar (1988). "Inequality of Justice". In Myers, Samuel L.; Simms, Margaret C. (eds.).
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Leeper Piquero, N.; Sealock, M. D. (April 22, 2010). "Race, Crime, and General Strain Theory".
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United States Department of Justice. Office of Justice Programs. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
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6002:
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5534:
5516:
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5347:
4941:
4923:
4822:
4814:
4771:
4614:
4457:
4387:
4311:
4207:
4123:
4063:
4018:
4000:
3919:
3876:
3822:
3509:
3240:
3236:
3230:
3209:
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3043:
2953:"Black-on-Black Homicide - A Psychological-Political Perspective | Office of Justice Programs"
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2020:
1995:
1954:
1915:
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1825:
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1715:
1589:
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1524:
1215:
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4566:"The Myth of Social Class and Crime Revisited: An Examination of Class and Adult Criminality"
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Hindelang, Michael J. (February 1978). "Race and Involvement in Common Law Personal Crimes".
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4931:
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4806:
4763:
4734:
4703:
4676:
4641:
4606:
4577:
4538:
4511:
4484:
4449:
4414:
4377:
4369:
4338:
4301:
4293:
4246:
4199:
4115:
4055:
4008:
3990:
3911:
3868:
3814:
3725:
3663:
3614:
3465:
3429:
3170:
3129:
2432:
2391:
2350:
2230:
2177:
2134:
2093:
2045:
1985:
1946:
1907:
1852:
1809:
1754:
1707:
1660:
1579:
1563:
1516:
1332:
1203:
1058:
1030:
857:
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376:
252:
175:
6018:
Evolutionary Psychology and Violence: A Primer for Policymakers and Public Policy Advocates
2098:
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1973:
6706:
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6287:
6254:
5897:
4865:"Growing Up Poor: Examining the Link Between Persistent Childhood Poverty and Delinquency"
4092:
Race, Class, Network Embeddedness and Family Violence: A Search for Potent Support Systems
3785:"Analysis | What data on 20 million traffic stops can tell us about 'driving while black'"
3085:
3064:
2696:
1633:
1340:
1147:
1109:
1054:
1042:
969:
564:
560:
421:
352:
262:
180:
140:
100:
95:
6502:
5832:
5754:
3354:
3100:
2857:"Expanded Homicide Data Table 3: Murder Offenders by Age, Sex, Race, and Ethnicity, 2019"
1339:, which focused on the social mechanisms behind delinquency in adolescents, sociologists
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4281:
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2901:"Expanded Homicide Data Table 2: Murder Victims by Age, Sex, Race, and Ethnicity, 2019"
2209:"A large-scale analysis of racial disparities in police stops across the United States"
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Arnold, David; Dobbie, Will; Yang, Crystal S. (2018). "Racial Bias in Bail Decisions".
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Confronting the myth that "black culture" is responsible for violent crime in America
5438:
Latzer, Barry, The Rise and Fall of Violent Crime in America, Encounter Books, 2016,
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5217:
4888:
4864:
4810:
4783:
4739:
4722:
4653:
4550:
4426:
4266:
4234:
4219:
3888:
3836:
3667:
3626:
3583:
3469:
3277:
3190:
3156:
2977:
2454:
2413:
2372:
2067:
1856:
1727:
1680:
1648:
1567:
1414:
1409:
1070:
1010:
568:
331:
290:
80:
5182:
4834:
4075:
3441:
2612:
Holmes, Maahs & Vito (2007:39–43). See also Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:38–39).
2189:
1880:
1774:
1612:
17:
4967:
See Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:31-33); Walsh (2004:19–36); Wright (2009:143–144).
4707:
3931:
3745:
3490:
2603:
Holms, Maahs & Vito (2007:37–39). See also Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:37–38).
2154:
1357:
964:
556:
541:
247:
6739:
6263:
5873:
3157:"Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Crime and Criminal Justice in the United States"
1505:"The Structural Context of Homicide: Accounting for Racial Differences in Process"
915:
in child abuse except in the $ 6,000-$ 11,999 income range (which falls under the
6682:
6230:
5402:
3618:
2014:
1813:
6889:
6884:
1385:
1269:
1173:
1003:
537:
348:
237:
5858:
The Many Colors of Crime: Inequalities of Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America
4919:
4280:
Sampson, Robert J.; Morenoff, Jeffrey D.; Raudenbush, Stephen (February 2005).
3571:
2563:
Holms, Maahs & Vito (2007:37). See also Mann (1993:27;34), Free (2009:164).
1911:
6896:
5343:
Race, culture, psychology, and law By Kimberly Barrett, William George pg. 396
5244:
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4767:
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4059:
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Aliprantis, Dionissi (September 14, 2016). "Human capital in the inner city".
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movement of using "Blacks killing Blacks" rhetoric to avoid discussions about
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Gasper, Philip (2009). "IQ". In Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (eds.).
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4211:
4127:
4067:
4004:
3923:
3880:
2244:
2146:
2107:
1999:
1958:
1919:
1864:
1821:
1766:
1758:
1719:
1575:
1528:
6911:
4235:"Urban Black Violence: The Effect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption"
3995:
2331:
1695:
1649:"Urban Black Violence: The Effect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption"
1153:
According to conflict theorists such as Marvin Wolfgang, Hubert Blalock and
1127:
425:
344:
4945:
4826:
4680:
4391:
4315:
4022:
2252:
1950:
1872:
1829:
1742:
1593:
5490:
Class, Race, Gender, and Crime: The Social Realities of Justice in America
4850:"GETTING AWAY WITH MURDER: SEGREGATION AND VIOLENT CRIME IN URBAN AMERICA"
4723:"Institutional Access, Residential Segregation, and Urban Black Homicide*"
4488:
4373:
3971:"For Black men, being tall increases threat stereotyping and police stops"
3818:
5622:
The Color of Justice: Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America (4th Edition)
4904:"Parent and Peer Predictors of Violent Behavior of Black and White Teens"
4157:
2470:"Stop using 'Black-on-Black' crime to deflect away from police brutality"
2347:
Occupied Territory: Policing Black Chicago from Red Summer to Black Power
2181:
1146:
Culture conflict theory, derived from the pioneering work of sociologist
1033:, one of the pioneers in the study of race and crime in the United States
513:
497:
436:
In the United States, crime data are collected from three major sources:
6599:
Welch, Kelly (2007). "Black Criminal Stereotypes and Racial Profiling".
6014:
Psychopathy as an Adaptation: Implications for Society and Social Policy
5318:
559:, and does not record information on many other types of crime, such as
6629:
Crime and Racial Profiling by U.S. Police: Is There an Empirical Basis?
5403:
The Subculture of Violence: Towards an Integrated Theory in Criminology
4258:
3915:
3872:
3182:
3141:
1672:
1536:
1504:
533:
517:
509:
501:
4358:"The Neighborhood Context of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Arrest"
3809:
Baumgartner, Frank R.; Epp, Derek A.; Shoub, Kelsey (July 10, 2018).
1493:
Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:ix-x); Gabbidon & Greene (2005b:37).
1197:
493:
363:, social disorganization theory, macrostructural opportunity theory,
85:
6166:
The Structural-Cultural Perspective: A Theory of Black Male Violence
6112:
Mosher, Clayton J.; Miethe, Terance D.; Phillips, Dretha M. (2002).
4119:
3133:
2082:"The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview"
1974:"The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview"
1550:
Ulmer, Jeffery T.; Harris, Casey T.; Steffensmeier, Darrell (2012).
1520:
1254:
explains much of the difference in crime between blacks and whites.
351:
have been proposed for racial disparities in crime rates, including
4250:
4203:
3729:
3433:
3174:
2225:
2138:
1664:
1236:
victimize individuals who live in the same economic circumstances.
747:(then known as the National Crime Survey, or NCS) to data from the
5546:
The Lineaments of Wrath: Race, Violent Crime, and American Culture
2629:
2627:
1025:
673:
665:
604:
There are fundamental limitations to the NCVS program, including:
529:
525:
474:
6745:
5133:
Oliver (2000:283). See also Gottfredson & Hirschi (1990:152).
3760:"Gary Johnson's bungled claims about racial disparities in crime"
2429:
Policing Los Angeles: Race, Resistance, and the Rise of the LAPD
547:
There are fundamental limitations of the UCR system, including:
505:
6749:
3403:; Lee Ellis, Kevin M. Beaver, John Wright; 2009; Academic Press
3040:
A Theory of African American Offending: Race, Racism, and Crime
1696:"Serious Crime in Urban Neighborhoods: Is There a Race Effect?"
440:
Law enforcement agency crime reports, collected monthly by the
6034:
Ethnicity, Race, and Crime: Perspectives Across Time and Place
5939:
Holms, Ronald M.; Maahs, Jeffery R.; Vito, Gennaro F. (2007).
5925:
Ethnicity, Race, and Crime: Perspectives Across Time and Place
5106:
For a brief overview, see Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:83–84).
2572:
Holms, Maahs & Vito (2007:37). See also Mann (1993:28–29).
2496:"The Police and Public Discourse on "Black-on-Black" Violence"
6312:
African American Classics in Criminology and Criminal Justice
4282:"Social Anatomy of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Violence"
2736:"Demographics cloud optimism on black violent crime decrease"
1790:"The intersection of aggregate-level lead exposure and crime"
6664:
Biosocial Criminology: New Directions in Theory and Research
6566:
Biosocial Criminology: New Directions in Theory and Research
4958:
See Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:31-53), Gabbidon (2007:4).
3101:"National Crime Victimization Survey: Unbounded Data, 2002"
3206:
Encyclopedia of Victimology and Crime Prevention, Volume 1
6581:
The Reporting of Crime: A Missing Link in Conflict Theory
5856:
Hagan, John; Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. (2006).
5503:
Bonger, Willem Adriaan; Hordyk, Margaret Mathews (1943).
5456:
Subcultures of violence and African American crime rates.
5084:
5082:
1202:
Strain theory, which is largely derived from the work of
6508:(Citations). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. pp.
2016:
The Oxford Handbook of Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration
1282:
crime rates remain relatively high due to the fact that
1210:
A more recent approach to strain theory was proposed by
6733:
2324:
Police brutality : case study of Philadelphia/Move
1138:, one of the first scholars to apply the principles of
578:
as they are considered "White" with respect to the UCR.
6366:
Protecting Our Own: Race, Crime, and African Americans
6332:
Race, Evolution, and Behavior: A Life History Approach
6314:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. pp. 351–376.
6100:. pp. 632–637. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
5620:
DeLone, Miriam; Spohn, Cassia; Walker, Samuel (2007).
5488:
Barak, Gregg; Flavin, Jeanne; Leighton, Paul (2007).
1894:
O’Flaherty, Brendan; Sethi, Rajiv (November 1, 2007).
1741:
Light, Michael T.; Ulmer, Jeffery T. (April 1, 2016).
687:
with whites 29.1%, "Other" 2.1%, and "Unknown" 29.3%
6382:"Prison Inmates at Midyear 2008 – Statistical Tables"
5072:
5070:
3063:
Flaherty, Brendan; Sethi, Rajiv (December 23, 2004).
769:
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention
6170:
Violent Crime: Assessing Race and Ethnic Differences
5714:
Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T., eds. (2005b).
5416:
5414:
5412:
5282:
5280:
3601:
J Intravia, KT Wolff, EA Stewart, RL Simons (2014).
6957:
6941:
6920:
6867:
6836:
6783:
5733:Gabiddon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T., eds. (2009).
4721:Lee, Matthew R.; Ousey, Graham C. (February 2005).
3299:"National Youth Gang Survey Analysis: Demographics"
2042:
The Handbook of Race, Ethnicity, Crime, and Justice
1933:Shihadeh, Edward S.; Flynn, Nicole (June 1, 1996).
1694:Shihadeh, Edward S.; Shrum, Wesley (July 1, 2004).
796:The federal government publishes an annual list of
555:Misrepresentation: The UCR program is focused upon
451:victimization surveys, collected biannually by the
6193:African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies
6186:"Ethnicity and Crime: Criminal Behavior Redefined"
6071:
5562:2001 Race Odyssey: African Americans and Sociology
5515:(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
5400:Covington (1995:182-183). The work referred to is
2651:Holmes, Maahs & Vito (2007:39), Rand (2009:1).
1420:Illegal immigration to the United States and crime
1250:Multiple studies have found evidence that Agnew's
347:) and private actors. Various explanations within
6631:in: Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (2005).
6484:in: Gabiddon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (2009).
6465:in: Gabiddon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (2009).
6351:Underground Codes: Race, Crime, and Related Fires
6224:American Sociological Association: Page Not Found
5658:in: Gabiddon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (2009).
3530:"Racial disparities in US prisons decline: study"
3413:Quillian, Lillian; Pager, Devah (November 2001).
3355:"Known Offender's Race, Ethnicity, and Age, 2019"
2711:"About the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program"
2080:Hinton, Elizabeth; Cook, DeAnza (June 29, 2020).
1455:Race in the United States criminal justice system
856:Research suggests that police practices, such as
4183:Leslie, Emily; Pope, Nolan G. (August 1, 2017).
3155:Sampson, Robert J.; Lauritsen, Janet L. (1997).
2805:"Data Finder - Health, United States - Products"
2583:"The War on Marijuana Has a Latino Data Problem"
2296:Hanna, Jason; Park, Madison (January 13, 2017).
2123:"Racial Disparity in Federal Criminal Sentences"
2013:Engel, Robin S. (2014). Bucerius, Sandra (ed.).
5959:Hate Crimes: Criminal Law and Identity Politics
3975:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2585:. American Civil Liberties Union. June 14, 2013
2298:"Chicago police use excessive force, DOJ finds"
2044:, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 17–38,
1900:Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization
1284:much of the US remains residentially segregated
1224:inequality and eliminate relative deprivation.
920:effects being contributing factors to poverty.
902:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
6875:Statistical correlations of criminal behaviour
6016:in: Bloom, Richard W.; Dess, Nancy K. (2003).
5693:Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (2005a).
5340:Barrett, Kimberly; George, William H. (2005).
4989:See Gabbidon & Greene (2009:xxvii-xxviii).
3969:Hester, Neil; Gray, Kurt (February 21, 2018).
893:National Institute of Standards and Technology
653:Statistical correlations of criminal behaviour
6761:
6564:in: Beaver, Kevin M.; Walsh, Anthony (2009).
6184:Otu, Noel; Horton, Nancy A. (November 2005).
6130:Myers, Samuel L.; Simms, Margaret C. (1988).
5838:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. pp.
5787:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. pp.
5760:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. pp.
5676:Criminological Perspectives on Race and Crime
5587:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. pp.
5529:Bowling, Benjamin; Phillips, Coretta (2002).
5046:For an overview, see Gabbidon (2007:141–177).
4089:Cazenave, Noel A.; Straus, Murray A. (2019).
298:
27:Relationship between race and crime in the US
8:
6970:British Columbia Civil Liberties Association
6530:. Westport: Praeger Publishers (Greenwood).
6380:Sabol, William J.; West, Heather C. (2009).
6098:Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment, Vol. I
6054:in: Jewkes, Yvonne; Letherby, Gayle (2002).
6020:. Westport: Praeger Publishers (Greenwood).
5943:. Sudbury: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
5382:For an overview, see Higgins (2009:759–762).
4634:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
4407:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
3639:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3572:https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/ji18.pdf
3396:
3394:
2832:"Crosstabulations of Known Murder Offenders"
2437:10.5149/northcarolina/9781469646831.001.0001
2355:10.5149/northcarolina/9781469649597.001.0001
1503:Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. (2000).
822:area and crime. According to a study in the
6730:(Bureau of Justice Statistics Publications)
6264:"Violent Victimization and Race, 1993–1998"
6001:. New York: Pantheon Books (Random House).
5991:, Vol. 11, No. 2 (2005), pp. 235–294.
5957:Jacobs, James B.; Potter, Kimberly (1998).
5872:Hart, Timothy C.; Rennison, Callie (2003).
3561:https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/p09.pdf
3550:https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/p19.pdf
6768:
6754:
6746:
5874:"Reporting Crime to the Police, 1992-2000"
5605:Delgado, Richard; Stafancic, Jean (2001).
4095:. EBSCO Industries, Inc. pp. 281–300.
2121:Rehavi, M. Marit; Starr, Sonja B. (2014).
1073:program in particular. In 1901, he wrote:
709:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
590:National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
305:
291:
31:
6728:National Archive of Criminal Justice Data
6560:Walsh, Anthony; Beaver, Kevin M. (2009).
6335:. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
6172:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5941:Criminology: Theory, Research, and Policy
5008:and Race - Conceptions and Misconceptions
4935:
4738:
4581:
4381:
4305:
4049:
4012:
3994:
3719:
2996:"Supplementary Homicide Report 1976-2018"
2234:
2224:
2097:
1989:
1583:
6849:Criminal stereotype of African Americans
6601:Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice
6036:. Albany: State University of New York.
5373:Higgins (2009:761), Gabbidon (2007:187).
4980:(1998:ix) as quoted in Walsh (2004:vii).
4165:The National Bureau of Economic Research
4151:
4149:
3545:
3543:
2019:. Oxford University Press. p. 147.
1972:Hinton, Elizabeth; Cook, DeAnza (2021).
1440:Race and inequality in the United States
678:US homicide offenders by race, 1980–2017
584:National Incident-Based Reporting System
6627:Whitney, Glayde; Taylor, Jared (1999).
6353:. New York: New York University Press.
5860:. New York: New York University Press.
5818:. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
5609:. New York: New York University Press.
5564:. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press.
5507:. New York: Columbia University Press.
5492:. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield,
5097:Delgado & Stafancic (2001:113–114).
4158:"Neighborhood Violence and Urban Youth"
3377:"Offense Type by Bias Motivation, 2019"
2830:Justice, National Center for Juvenile.
1486:
500:; non-lethal violent crimes comprising
469:crime rates for minor offenses such as
229:
193:
113:
62:
41:
34:
7031:Politics and race in the United States
6844:Black male incarceration and mortality
6724:(John Jay College of Criminal Justice)
6702:
6691:
6546:. Hauppauge: Nova Science Publishers.
6416:
6405:
6368:. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.
6283:
6272:
6250:
6239:
6150:. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.
6134:. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.
5893:
5882:
5548:. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.
3964:
3962:
3943:
3941:
3686:"Racial Bias in Police Investigations"
3679:
3677:
3632:
3514:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
3507:
3081:
3070:
2692:
2681:
2431:. University of North Carolina Press.
2396:10.7208/chicago/9780226650128.001.0001
2349:. University of North Carolina Press.
2099:10.1146/annurev-criminol-060520-033306
1991:10.1146/annurev-criminol-060520-033306
1629:
1618:
813:Racial composition of geographic areas
670:US homicide victims by race, 1980–2017
6722:The Center on Race, Crime and Justice
6562:Introduction to Biosocial Criminology
6450:. Belmont: Thomson Higher Education.
5961:. New York: Oxford University Press.
5607:Critical Race Theory: An Introduction
5533:. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
5151:Gottfredson & Hirschi (1990:152).
4233:Sampson, Robert J. (September 1987).
4178:
4176:
4174:
2201:
2199:
1984:(1): annurev–criminol–060520-033306.
1647:Sampson, Robert J. (September 1987).
1465:Racial profiling in the United States
847:Explanations for racial discrepancies
7:
6980:National Council for Civil Liberties
6975:Canadian Civil Liberties Association
6650:, Broomall: Mason Crest Publishers.
6544:Race and Crime: A Biosocial Analysis
6116:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
6074:Unequal Justice: A Question of Color
6058:. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
5737:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
5699:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
5662:. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
5624:. Belmont: Thomson & Wadsworth.
1168:, social disorganization theory and
998:Criminological theories of causation
7016:Race and crime in the United States
6078:. Bloomington: Indiana University.
5198:Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
5163:Journal of Quantitative Criminology
5028:Gabbidon & Greene (2009:xxvii).
4869:Journal of Quantitative Criminology
1091:, professor of criminal justice at
745:National Crime Victimization Survey
729:National Crime Victimization Survey
596:National Crime Victimization Survey
457:National Crime Victimization Survey
6528:Biosociology: An Emerging Paradigm
5513:The SAGE Dictionary of Criminology
4611:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb01000.x
4583:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00900.x
4516:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb01002.x
4454:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb01000.x
3861:Journal of Empirical Legal Studies
3708:The Journal of Law & Economics
2633:Holms, Maahs & Vito (2007:43).
2170:The Quarterly Journal of Economics
1425:Incarceration in the United States
1277:Macrostructural opportunity theory
880:Journal of Empirical Legal Studies
25:
6736:(Federal Bureau of Investigation)
6633:Race, Crime and Justice: A Reader
6430:Race, Crime and Justice: A Reader
5989:Psychology, Public Policy and Law
5907:Race, Crime and Justice: A Reader
5716:Race, Crime and Justice: A Reader
5638:Race, Crime and Justice: A Reader
4998:Bowling & Phillips (2002:57).
4286:American Journal of Public Health
2978:"WISQARS Nonfatal Injury Reports"
2522:Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:42).
936:According to a 2017 study in the
852:Discrimination by law enforcement
512:; and property crimes comprising
6585:Social Threat and Social Control
6364:Russell-Brown, Katheryn (2006).
6349:Russell-Brown, Katheryn (2004).
6222:, 2004, Vol. 69 (April:151–169).
6168:in: Hawkins, Darnell F. (2003).
4811:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2010.01185.x
4740:10.1111/j.1475-682X.2005.00111.x
4192:The Journal of Law and Economics
3668:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2009.00556.x
3470:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2010.00222.x
3065:"Racial Stereotypes and Robbery"
1857:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2010.01185.x
1568:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2012.00868.x
1384:
1370:
906:threatening than White people."
444:(FBI) and processed annually as
6298:. Portland: Willan Publishing.
6148:The Economics of Race and Crime
6132:The Economics of Race and Crime
6050:Lea, John; Young, Jock (1993).
3656:Criminology & Public Policy
2715:Federal Bureau of Investigation
2390:. University of Chicago Press.
1170:differential association theory
618:Comparison of UCR and NCVS data
442:Federal Bureau of Investigation
6965:American Civil Liberties Union
6504:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime
6486:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime
6467:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime
6231:"Criminal Victimization, 2008"
5834:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime
5783:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime
5756:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime
5735:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime
5660:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime
5656:Crime Statistics and Reporting
5583:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime
4708:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2008.12.005
3813:. Cambridge University Press.
3684:West, Jeremy (February 2018).
3584:"WISQARS Fatal Injury Reports"
910:Childhood exposure to violence
866:American Civil Liberties Union
455:and processed annually in the
202:Race and ethnicity in censuses
1:
6488:. London: SAGE Publications.
6469:. London: SAGE Publications.
6329:Rushton, J. Philippe (1995).
4863:Jarjoura, Roger (June 2002).
4239:American Journal of Sociology
4156:Aizer, Anna (February 2008).
3422:American Journal of Sociology
3000:Murder Accountability Project
2883:"Expanded Homicide Data 2019"
2763:. Fbi.gov. September 19, 2011
1653:American Journal of Sociology
1320:Subculture of violence theory
1264:Social disorganization theory
1258:Social disorganization theory
1130:and sometimes referred to as
1093:Pennsylvania State University
1047:Italian school of criminology
824:American Journal of Sociology
792:Racially motivated hate crime
408:has accused opponents of the
55:Biblical terminology for race
6826:Racial bias in criminal news
6740:Bureau of Justice Statistics
6681:Zawitz, Marianna W. (1993).
6583:in: Liska, Allen E. (1992).
6220:American Sociological Review
6096:in: Levinson, David (2002).
5923:Hawkins, Darnell F. (1995).
5317:. Nmcsap.org. Archived from
5055:See Gabbidon (2007:155;171).
3619:10.1080/0735648X.2013.832480
3607:Journal of Crime and Justice
3401:Handbook of Crime Correlates
3235:. Cengage Learning. p.
3121:American Sociological Review
2642:Hart & Rennison (2003:3)
2127:Journal of Political Economy
2086:Annual Review of Criminology
1978:Annual Review of Criminology
1814:10.1016/j.envres.2016.03.023
1747:American Sociological Review
1509:American Sociological Review
1460:Racial bias in criminal news
1099:Modern theories of causation
963:Dunaway et al. (2000) found
939:Journal of Law and Economics
899:A 2018 study in the journal
777:Bureau of Justice Assistance
453:Bureau of Justice Statistics
6995:Southern Poverty Law Center
6990:Coalition for Public Safety
6816:Race and capital punishment
6579:Warner, Barbara D. (1989).
6461:Simmons, Phllippia (2009).
6092:Marshall, Ineke H. (2002).
5674:Gabbidon, Shaun L. (2007).
5459:Journal of Criminal Justice
4696:Journal of Criminal Justice
3067:. Columbia University: 2–3.
2533:UCR Data Quality Guidelines
2427:Felker-Kantor, Max (2018).
1039:anthropological criminology
923:A meta-analysis written by
631:Classification of Hispanics
528:. Part II offenses include
481:Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)
7047:
7026:Crime in the United States
6742:(US Department of Justice)
6448:Criminology (10th Edition)
5972:Jensen, Arthur R. (1998).
5010:Retrieved 14 October 2023
4920:10.1891/0886-6708.28.1.145
4143:Retrieved 11 October 2023
1912:10.1016/j.jebo.2006.07.005
1845:The Sociological Quarterly
1400:Crime in the United States
1323:
1300:
1261:
1243:
1191:
1107:
1041:in the late 19th century.
1001:
773:Office of Justice Programs
650:
593:
484:
6821:Race and the war on drugs
6446:Siegel, Larry J. (2009).
6296:Policing, Race and Racism
6262:Rennison, Callie (2001).
6229:Rand, Michael R. (2009).
6070:Mann, Coramae R. (1993).
6052:The Race and Crime Debate
5997:Kennedy, Randall (1998).
5815:A General Theory of Crime
5544:Clarke, James W. (2001).
5531:Racism, Crime and Justice
5245:10.1080/07418820000094631
4543:10.1080/07418820300095441
4060:10.1007/s00181-016-1160-y
2236:10.1038/s41562-020-0858-1
2050:10.1002/9781119113799.ch1
1712:10.1080/02732170490459502
1450:Race in the United States
1445:Race and the War on Drugs
1194:Strain theory (sociology)
1085:Texas Southern University
243:Nakedness and colonialism
7021:African-American society
6928:Innocence Protection Act
6791:Homicide rate by country
6646:Wright, John D. (2002).
6613:10.1177/1043986207306870
6164:Oliver, William (2000).
5999:Race, Crime, and the Law
5927:. New York: SUNY Press.
5654:Free, Marvin D. (2009).
5474:, Vox, September 1, 2016
5210:10.1177/1541204009361174
5088:Gabbidon (2007:148-151).
4646:10.1177/0022427809335170
4419:10.1177/0022427809335170
4343:10.1525/sp.2002.49.3.349
4298:10.2105/AJPH.2004.037705
3042:. Routledge. p. 2.
2386:Ralph, Laurence (2020).
1759:10.1177/0003122416635667
1556:Social Science Quarterly
338:) and pollution. Racial
6666:. New York: Routledge.
6635:. New York: Routledge.
6568:. New York: Routledge.
6542:Walsh, Anthony (2004).
6526:Walsh, Anthony (1995).
6432:. New York: Routledge.
6114:The Mismeasure of Crime
6012:Kinner, Stuart (2003).
5909:. New York: Routledge.
5806:Gottfredson, Michael R.
5718:. New York: Routledge.
5678:. New York: Routledge.
5640:. New York: Routledge.
5429:See Gabbidon (2007:99).
5391:Gabbidon 2007:187–192).
5175:10.1023/A:1022570729068
4881:10.1023/A:1015206715838
4768:10.1023/A:1021451703612
4356:Kirk, David S. (2008).
3996:10.1073/pnas.1714454115
3333:"Hate Crime Statistics"
3261:"Carjacking, 1993-2002"
3229:Bennett, Wayne (2006).
3204:Fisher, Bonnie (2010).
3038:Unnever, James (2011).
2322:Williams, Suzanne Ife.
1896:"Crime and segregation"
1470:Racial formation theory
743:compared data from the
471:illegal substance abuse
6949:Katheryn Russell-Brown
6854:Indigenous Australians
6701:Cite journal requires
6587:. Albany: SUNY Press.
6480:Sims, Barbara (2009).
6415:Cite journal requires
6294:Rowe, Michael (2004).
6282:Cite journal requires
6249:Cite journal requires
5892:Cite journal requires
4799:Sociological Quarterly
3278:"National Gang Center"
3232:Criminal Investigation
3080:Cite journal requires
2691:Cite journal requires
2503:Harvard Kennedy School
2213:Nature Human Behaviour
1794:Environmental Research
1628:Cite journal requires
1405:Dog whistle (politics)
1229:Michael R. Gottfredson
1188:Strain (anomie) theory
1080:
1034:
932:Inability to post bail
679:
671:
406:murder of George Floyd
317:In the United States,
6880:Immigration and crime
6734:Uniform Crime Reports
6056:Criminology: A Reader
4374:10.1353/dem.2008.0011
3819:10.1017/9781108553599
2345:Balto, Simon (2019).
1700:Sociological Spectrum
1435:Race and intelligence
1337:focal concerns theory
1324:Further information:
1314:Causes of Delinquency
1303:Social control theory
1301:Further information:
1297:Social control theory
1262:Further information:
1252:general strain theory
1246:General strain theory
1240:General strain theory
1192:Further information:
1136:Willem Adriaan Bonger
1108:Further information:
1075:
1055:Johan Thorsten Sellin
1029:
1002:Further information:
990:Sociocultural factors
947:Socioeconomic factors
749:Uniform Crime Reports
677:
669:
594:Further information:
487:Uniform Crime Reports
485:Further information:
446:Uniform Crime Reports
365:social control theory
361:general strain theory
258:Social stratification
6907:Institutional racism
6394:on February 24, 2013
5274:Guerrero (2009:763).
5265:Guerrero (2009:762).
5124:Warner (1989:71–72).
5076:Gabbidon (2007:171).
5064:Gabbidon (2007:141).
4908:Violence and Victims
4727:Sociological Inquiry
4681:10.1093/sf/74.4.1325
2277:on November 16, 2017
1951:10.1093/sf/74.4.1325
1378:United States portal
1159:critical race theory
1140:economic determinism
1114:Conflict criminology
891:A 2019 study by the
877:A 2018 study in the
765:National Gang Center
18:Black-on-Black crime
5976:. London: Preager.
5420:Hawkins (1983:248).
5321:on October 11, 2014
5295:Walsh (2004:24–25).
4489:10.1093/sf/75.2.619
4141:Exposed to Violence
4038:Empirical Economics
3987:2018PNAS..115.2711H
3953:The Washington Post
3590:. December 2, 2021.
2984:. December 2, 2021.
2388:The Torture Letters
1806:2016ER....148...79B
1132:Marxist criminology
1118:Marxist criminology
1069:in general and the
977:Housing segregation
767:, a project of the
522:motor vehicle theft
463:self-report surveys
340:housing segregation
50:Historical concepts
6985:Sentencing Project
6902:Crime of Apartheid
6094:Ethnicity and Race
5286:Simmons (2009:398)
5142:Oliver (2000:283).
4756:Sociological Forum
4108:Child Abuse Review
3916:10.1111/ecin.12800
3873:10.1111/jels.12201
2271:washingtonpost.com
2182:10.1093/qje/qjy012
1326:Subcultural theory
1035:
680:
672:
510:aggravated assault
496:and non-negligent
432:Crime data sources
410:Black Lives Matter
369:subcultural theory
7003:
7002:
6673:978-0-415-98943-5
6656:978-1-59084-378-9
6553:978-1-59033-970-1
6519:978-1-4129-5085-5
6494:978-1-4129-5085-5
6475:978-1-4129-5085-5
6463:Intraracial Crime
6439:978-0-415-94707-7
6374:978-0-7425-4571-7
6342:978-1-56000-146-1
6321:978-0-7619-2432-6
6157:978-0-88738-755-5
6140:978-0-88738-755-5
6123:978-0-7619-8711-6
6085:978-0-253-33676-7
6043:978-0-7914-2195-6
5950:978-0-7637-3001-7
5933:978-0-7914-2195-6
5916:978-0-415-94707-7
5866:978-0-8147-6719-1
5849:978-1-4129-5085-5
5798:978-1-4129-5085-5
5771:978-1-4129-5085-5
5744:978-1-4129-5085-5
5725:978-0-415-94707-7
5706:978-0-7619-2948-2
5685:978-0-415-95314-6
5668:978-1-4129-5085-5
5647:978-0-415-94707-7
5630:978-0-534-62446-0
5598:978-1-4129-5085-5
5571:978-0-8156-2938-2
5522:978-1-4129-1086-6
5498:978-0-7425-4688-2
5461:54 (2018): 41–49.
5233:Justice Quarterly
5019:Du Bois (2005:5).
4848:Massey, Douglas.
4531:Justice Quarterly
3981:(11): 2711–2715.
3162:Crime and Justice
2761:"FBI — Table 43a"
2535:" at www.fbi.gov.
2405:978-0-226-65012-8
1216:Richard Rosenfeld
1212:Steven F. Messner
1155:William Chambliss
1089:Shaun L. Gabbidon
1045:, founder of the
1015:Orlando Patterson
958:social inequality
953:Robert J. Sampson
917:Poverty Threshold
741:Michael Hindelang
727:According to the
682:According to the
377:causal inferences
315:
314:
106:Sociology of race
90:scientific racism
71:Color terminology
16:(Redirected from
7038:
6933:Racial profiling
6859:Native Americans
6811:Criminal justice
6770:
6763:
6756:
6747:
6710:
6704:
6699:
6697:
6689:
6687:
6677:
6624:
6557:
6523:
6507:
6443:
6424:
6418:
6413:
6411:
6403:
6401:
6399:
6393:
6386:
6346:
6325:
6291:
6285:
6280:
6278:
6270:
6268:
6258:
6252:
6247:
6245:
6237:
6235:
6215:
6213:
6211:
6190:
6161:
6127:
6089:
6077:
6047:
5954:
5920:
5901:
5895:
5890:
5888:
5880:
5878:
5853:
5837:
5802:
5786:
5775:
5759:
5748:
5729:
5710:
5689:
5651:
5602:
5586:
5575:
5526:
5475:
5468:
5462:
5452:
5446:
5436:
5430:
5427:
5421:
5418:
5407:
5398:
5392:
5389:
5383:
5380:
5374:
5371:
5365:
5364:
5362:
5360:
5337:
5331:
5330:
5328:
5326:
5311:
5305:
5302:
5296:
5293:
5287:
5284:
5275:
5272:
5266:
5263:
5257:
5256:
5228:
5222:
5221:
5193:
5187:
5186:
5158:
5152:
5149:
5143:
5140:
5134:
5131:
5125:
5122:
5116:
5115:Sims (2009:142).
5113:
5107:
5104:
5098:
5095:
5089:
5086:
5077:
5074:
5065:
5062:
5056:
5053:
5047:
5044:
5038:
5035:
5029:
5026:
5020:
5017:
5011:
5005:
4999:
4996:
4990:
4987:
4981:
4978:Rituals of Blood
4974:
4968:
4965:
4959:
4956:
4950:
4949:
4939:
4899:
4893:
4892:
4860:
4854:
4853:
4845:
4839:
4838:
4794:
4788:
4787:
4751:
4745:
4744:
4742:
4718:
4712:
4711:
4691:
4685:
4684:
4675:(4): 1325–1352.
4664:
4658:
4657:
4629:
4623:
4622:
4594:
4588:
4587:
4585:
4561:
4555:
4554:
4526:
4520:
4519:
4499:
4493:
4492:
4472:
4466:
4465:
4437:
4431:
4430:
4402:
4396:
4395:
4385:
4353:
4347:
4346:
4326:
4320:
4319:
4309:
4277:
4271:
4270:
4230:
4224:
4223:
4189:
4180:
4169:
4168:
4162:
4153:
4144:
4138:
4132:
4131:
4103:
4097:
4096:
4086:
4080:
4079:
4053:
4044:(3): 1125–1169.
4033:
4027:
4026:
4016:
3998:
3966:
3957:
3956:
3945:
3936:
3935:
3910:(4): 1842–1858.
3904:Economic Inquiry
3899:
3893:
3892:
3856:
3850:
3847:
3841:
3840:
3811:Suspect Citizens
3806:
3800:
3799:
3797:
3795:
3781:
3775:
3774:
3772:
3770:
3756:
3750:
3749:
3723:
3703:
3697:
3696:
3690:
3681:
3672:
3671:
3651:
3645:
3644:
3638:
3630:
3598:
3592:
3591:
3580:
3574:
3569:
3563:
3558:
3552:
3547:
3538:
3537:
3526:
3520:
3519:
3513:
3505:
3503:
3501:
3496:on June 10, 2021
3495:
3489:. Archived from
3488:
3480:
3474:
3473:
3452:
3446:
3445:
3419:
3410:
3404:
3398:
3389:
3388:
3386:
3384:
3373:
3367:
3366:
3351:
3345:
3344:
3342:
3340:
3329:
3323:
3320:
3314:
3313:
3311:
3309:
3295:
3289:
3288:
3286:
3284:
3274:
3268:
3267:
3265:
3257:
3251:
3250:
3226:
3220:
3219:
3201:
3195:
3194:
3152:
3146:
3145:
3115:
3109:
3108:
3096:
3090:
3089:
3083:
3078:
3076:
3068:
3060:
3054:
3053:
3035:
3029:
3028:
3017:
3011:
3010:
3008:
3006:
2992:
2986:
2985:
2974:
2968:
2967:
2965:
2963:
2949:
2943:
2942:
2940:
2938:
2923:
2917:
2916:
2914:
2912:
2897:
2891:
2890:
2879:
2873:
2872:
2870:
2868:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2842:
2827:
2821:
2820:
2818:
2816:
2811:. March 31, 2020
2801:
2795:
2794:
2792:
2790:
2779:
2773:
2772:
2770:
2768:
2757:
2751:
2750:
2748:
2746:
2732:
2726:
2725:
2723:
2721:
2707:
2701:
2700:
2694:
2689:
2687:
2679:
2667:
2661:
2658:
2652:
2649:
2643:
2640:
2634:
2631:
2622:
2619:
2613:
2610:
2604:
2601:
2595:
2594:
2592:
2590:
2579:
2573:
2570:
2564:
2561:
2555:
2552:
2546:
2542:
2536:
2529:
2523:
2520:
2514:
2513:
2511:
2509:
2500:
2491:
2485:
2484:
2482:
2480:
2465:
2459:
2458:
2424:
2418:
2417:
2383:
2377:
2376:
2342:
2336:
2335:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2293:
2287:
2286:
2284:
2282:
2273:. Archived from
2263:
2257:
2256:
2238:
2228:
2203:
2194:
2193:
2176:(4): 1885–1932.
2165:
2159:
2158:
2133:(6): 1320–1354.
2118:
2112:
2111:
2101:
2077:
2071:
2070:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2010:
2004:
2003:
1993:
1969:
1963:
1962:
1945:(4): 1325–1352.
1930:
1924:
1923:
1891:
1885:
1884:
1840:
1834:
1833:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1631:
1626:
1624:
1616:
1604:
1598:
1597:
1587:
1547:
1541:
1540:
1500:
1494:
1491:
1394:
1389:
1388:
1380:
1375:
1374:
1373:
1333:Walter B. Miller
1204:Robert K. Merton
1031:W. E. B. Du Bois
970:white advantages
858:racial profiling
647:Crime statistics
414:police brutality
319:the relationship
307:
300:
293:
253:Human skin color
32:
21:
7046:
7045:
7041:
7040:
7039:
7037:
7036:
7035:
7006:
7005:
7004:
6999:
6953:
6937:
6916:
6863:
6832:
6779:
6774:
6718:
6713:
6700:
6690:
6685:
6680:
6674:
6661:
6598:
6554:
6541:
6520:
6499:
6482:Conflict Theory
6440:
6427:
6414:
6404:
6397:
6395:
6391:
6384:
6379:
6343:
6328:
6322:
6309:
6281:
6271:
6266:
6261:
6248:
6238:
6233:
6228:
6209:
6207:
6188:
6183:
6158:
6145:
6124:
6111:
6086:
6069:
6044:
6031:
5993:Wayback Machine
5951:
5938:
5917:
5904:
5891:
5881:
5876:
5871:
5850:
5829:
5810:Hirschi, Travis
5799:
5778:
5772:
5751:
5745:
5732:
5726:
5713:
5707:
5692:
5686:
5673:
5648:
5635:
5599:
5578:
5572:
5559:
5523:
5510:
5484:
5479:
5478:
5469:
5465:
5454:Latzer, Barry.
5453:
5449:
5437:
5433:
5428:
5424:
5419:
5410:
5399:
5395:
5390:
5386:
5381:
5377:
5372:
5368:
5358:
5356:
5354:
5339:
5338:
5334:
5324:
5322:
5313:
5312:
5308:
5303:
5299:
5294:
5290:
5285:
5278:
5273:
5269:
5264:
5260:
5230:
5229:
5225:
5195:
5194:
5190:
5160:
5159:
5155:
5150:
5146:
5141:
5137:
5132:
5128:
5123:
5119:
5114:
5110:
5105:
5101:
5096:
5092:
5087:
5080:
5075:
5068:
5063:
5059:
5054:
5050:
5045:
5041:
5036:
5032:
5027:
5023:
5018:
5014:
5006:
5002:
4997:
4993:
4988:
4984:
4975:
4971:
4966:
4962:
4957:
4953:
4901:
4900:
4896:
4862:
4861:
4857:
4847:
4846:
4842:
4796:
4795:
4791:
4753:
4752:
4748:
4720:
4719:
4715:
4693:
4692:
4688:
4666:
4665:
4661:
4631:
4630:
4626:
4596:
4595:
4591:
4563:
4562:
4558:
4528:
4527:
4523:
4501:
4500:
4496:
4474:
4473:
4469:
4439:
4438:
4434:
4404:
4403:
4399:
4355:
4354:
4350:
4331:Social Problems
4328:
4327:
4323:
4279:
4278:
4274:
4232:
4231:
4227:
4187:
4182:
4181:
4172:
4160:
4155:
4154:
4147:
4139:
4135:
4120:10.1002/car.971
4105:
4104:
4100:
4088:
4087:
4083:
4051:10.1.1.309.2417
4035:
4034:
4030:
3968:
3967:
3960:
3947:
3946:
3939:
3901:
3900:
3896:
3858:
3857:
3853:
3848:
3844:
3829:
3808:
3807:
3803:
3793:
3791:
3789:Washington Post
3783:
3782:
3778:
3768:
3766:
3764:Washington Post
3758:
3757:
3753:
3721:10.1.1.381.8047
3705:
3704:
3700:
3688:
3683:
3682:
3675:
3653:
3652:
3648:
3631:
3600:
3599:
3595:
3588:webappa.cdc.gov
3582:
3581:
3577:
3570:
3566:
3559:
3555:
3548:
3541:
3528:
3527:
3523:
3506:
3499:
3497:
3493:
3486:
3484:"Archived copy"
3482:
3481:
3477:
3454:
3453:
3449:
3417:
3412:
3411:
3407:
3399:
3392:
3382:
3380:
3375:
3374:
3370:
3353:
3352:
3348:
3338:
3336:
3331:
3330:
3326:
3321:
3317:
3307:
3305:
3297:
3296:
3292:
3282:
3280:
3276:
3275:
3271:
3263:
3259:
3258:
3254:
3247:
3228:
3227:
3223:
3216:
3203:
3202:
3198:
3154:
3153:
3149:
3134:10.2307/2094764
3117:
3116:
3112:
3098:
3097:
3093:
3079:
3069:
3062:
3061:
3057:
3050:
3037:
3036:
3032:
3019:
3018:
3014:
3004:
3002:
2994:
2993:
2989:
2982:webappa.cdc.gov
2976:
2975:
2971:
2961:
2959:
2951:
2950:
2946:
2936:
2934:
2925:
2924:
2920:
2910:
2908:
2899:
2898:
2894:
2881:
2880:
2876:
2866:
2864:
2855:
2854:
2850:
2840:
2838:
2829:
2828:
2824:
2814:
2812:
2803:
2802:
2798:
2788:
2786:
2781:
2780:
2776:
2766:
2764:
2759:
2758:
2754:
2744:
2742:
2740:Penn State News
2734:
2733:
2729:
2719:
2717:
2709:
2708:
2704:
2690:
2680:
2669:
2668:
2664:
2659:
2655:
2650:
2646:
2641:
2637:
2632:
2625:
2620:
2616:
2611:
2607:
2602:
2598:
2588:
2586:
2581:
2580:
2576:
2571:
2567:
2562:
2558:
2553:
2549:
2543:
2539:
2530:
2526:
2521:
2517:
2507:
2505:
2498:
2494:Smith, Troy L.
2493:
2492:
2488:
2478:
2476:
2468:Smith, Troy L.
2467:
2466:
2462:
2447:
2426:
2425:
2421:
2406:
2385:
2384:
2380:
2365:
2344:
2343:
2339:
2321:
2320:
2316:
2306:
2304:
2295:
2294:
2290:
2280:
2278:
2265:
2264:
2260:
2205:
2204:
2197:
2167:
2166:
2162:
2120:
2119:
2115:
2079:
2078:
2074:
2060:
2039:
2038:
2034:
2027:
2012:
2011:
2007:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1932:
1931:
1927:
1893:
1892:
1888:
1842:
1841:
1837:
1787:
1786:
1782:
1740:
1739:
1735:
1693:
1692:
1688:
1646:
1645:
1641:
1627:
1617:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1549:
1548:
1544:
1521:10.2307/2657382
1502:
1501:
1497:
1492:
1488:
1483:
1390:
1383:
1376:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1341:Marvin Wolfgang
1331:anthropologist
1328:
1322:
1305:
1299:
1279:
1266:
1260:
1248:
1242:
1200:
1190:
1148:Thorsten Sellin
1120:
1110:Conflict theory
1106:
1104:Conflict theory
1101:
1071:convict leasing
1059:William Du Bois
1043:Cesare Lombroso
1024:
1006:
1000:
992:
979:
949:
934:
912:
854:
849:
832:
815:
794:
785:
761:
759:Gang membership
737:
725:
705:
664:
655:
649:
633:
620:
598:
592:
565:corporate crime
561:organized crime
489:
483:
434:
422:Edward A. Flynn
402:
353:conflict theory
311:
263:White supremacy
101:Racial politics
96:Racial equality
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7044:
7042:
7034:
7033:
7028:
7023:
7018:
7008:
7007:
7001:
7000:
6998:
6997:
6992:
6987:
6982:
6977:
6972:
6967:
6961:
6959:
6955:
6954:
6952:
6951:
6945:
6943:
6939:
6938:
6936:
6935:
6930:
6924:
6922:
6918:
6917:
6915:
6914:
6909:
6904:
6899:
6894:
6893:
6892:
6882:
6877:
6871:
6869:
6865:
6864:
6862:
6861:
6856:
6851:
6846:
6840:
6838:
6834:
6833:
6831:
6830:
6829:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6803:
6801:United Kingdom
6798:
6793:
6787:
6785:
6781:
6780:
6777:Race and crime
6775:
6773:
6772:
6765:
6758:
6750:
6744:
6743:
6737:
6731:
6725:
6717:
6716:External links
6714:
6712:
6711:
6703:|journal=
6678:
6672:
6659:
6648:Race and Crime
6644:
6625:
6607:(3): 276–288.
6596:
6577:
6558:
6552:
6539:
6524:
6518:
6497:
6478:
6459:
6444:
6438:
6425:
6417:|journal=
6377:
6362:
6347:
6341:
6326:
6320:
6307:
6292:
6284:|journal=
6259:
6251:|journal=
6226:
6216:
6181:
6162:
6156:
6143:
6128:
6122:
6109:
6090:
6084:
6067:
6048:
6042:
6029:
6010:
5995:
5985:
5970:
5955:
5949:
5936:
5921:
5915:
5902:
5894:|journal=
5869:
5854:
5848:
5827:
5803:
5797:
5776:
5770:
5749:
5743:
5730:
5724:
5711:
5705:
5696:Race and Crime
5690:
5684:
5671:
5652:
5646:
5633:
5618:
5603:
5597:
5576:
5570:
5557:
5542:
5527:
5521:
5508:
5505:Race and Crime
5501:
5485:
5483:
5480:
5477:
5476:
5470:Lopez, German
5463:
5447:
5431:
5422:
5408:
5393:
5384:
5375:
5366:
5352:
5332:
5306:
5297:
5288:
5276:
5267:
5258:
5239:(3): 449–484.
5223:
5204:(3): 170–186.
5188:
5153:
5144:
5135:
5126:
5117:
5108:
5099:
5090:
5078:
5066:
5057:
5048:
5039:
5030:
5021:
5012:
5000:
4991:
4982:
4976:O. Patterson,
4969:
4960:
4951:
4914:(1): 145–160.
4894:
4875:(2): 159–187.
4855:
4840:
4805:(4): 600–623.
4789:
4762:(3): 465–493.
4746:
4713:
4686:
4659:
4640:(3): 327–352.
4624:
4605:(3): 645–672.
4589:
4576:(2): 589–632.
4556:
4521:
4510:(3): 709–747.
4494:
4483:(2): 619–648.
4467:
4448:(3): 645–672.
4432:
4413:(3): 327–352.
4397:
4348:
4337:(3): 349–373.
4321:
4292:(2): 224–232.
4272:
4251:10.1086/228748
4245:(2): 348–382.
4225:
4204:10.1086/695285
4198:(3): 529–557.
4170:
4145:
4133:
4114:(5): 323–341.
4098:
4081:
4028:
3958:
3937:
3894:
3867:(4): 916–950.
3851:
3842:
3827:
3801:
3776:
3751:
3738:10.1086/322810
3730:10.1086/322810
3714:(2): 367–394.
3698:
3673:
3662:(2): 343–369.
3646:
3593:
3575:
3564:
3553:
3539:
3521:
3475:
3447:
3434:10.1086/338938
3405:
3390:
3368:
3346:
3324:
3315:
3290:
3269:
3252:
3246:978-0495093404
3245:
3221:
3215:978-1412960472
3214:
3208:. p. 67.
3196:
3175:10.1086/449253
3147:
3110:
3091:
3082:|journal=
3055:
3049:978-1136809217
3048:
3030:
3012:
2987:
2969:
2944:
2918:
2892:
2874:
2848:
2822:
2796:
2774:
2752:
2727:
2702:
2693:|journal=
2662:
2653:
2644:
2635:
2623:
2614:
2605:
2596:
2574:
2565:
2556:
2547:
2537:
2524:
2515:
2486:
2460:
2445:
2419:
2404:
2378:
2363:
2337:
2314:
2288:
2258:
2219:(7): 736–745.
2195:
2160:
2139:10.1086/677255
2113:
2072:
2058:
2032:
2025:
2005:
1964:
1925:
1906:(3): 391–405.
1886:
1851:(4): 600–623.
1835:
1780:
1753:(2): 290–315.
1733:
1706:(4): 507–533.
1686:
1665:10.1086/228748
1659:(2): 348–382.
1639:
1630:|journal=
1599:
1562:(3): 799–819.
1542:
1515:(4): 547–559.
1495:
1485:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1475:Sensationalism
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1430:Race and crime
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1396:
1395:
1381:
1365:
1362:
1321:
1318:
1310:Travis Hirschi
1298:
1295:
1278:
1275:
1259:
1256:
1244:Main article:
1241:
1238:
1233:Travis Hirschi
1221:American Dream
1189:
1186:
1105:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1051:Frances Kellor
1023:
1020:
999:
996:
991:
988:
978:
975:
948:
945:
933:
930:
911:
908:
888:crime types."
853:
850:
848:
845:
831:
828:
814:
811:
793:
790:
784:
781:
760:
757:
736:
735:Victim surveys
733:
724:
721:
704:
701:
663:
660:
648:
645:
632:
629:
619:
616:
615:
614:
610:
591:
588:
580:
579:
575:
572:
553:
538:counterfeiting
482:
479:
466:
465:
460:
449:
433:
430:
401:
398:
313:
312:
310:
309:
302:
295:
287:
284:
283:
282:
281:
276:
268:
267:
266:
265:
260:
255:
250:
245:
240:
232:
231:
230:Related topics
227:
226:
225:
224:
219:
214:
209:
204:
196:
195:
191:
190:
189:
188:
183:
178:
173:
168:
163:
153:
148:
138:
133:
126:United Kingdom
116:
115:
111:
110:
109:
108:
103:
98:
93:
83:
78:
76:Race relations
73:
65:
64:
60:
59:
58:
57:
52:
44:
43:
39:
38:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7043:
7032:
7029:
7027:
7024:
7022:
7019:
7017:
7014:
7013:
7011:
6996:
6993:
6991:
6988:
6986:
6983:
6981:
6978:
6976:
6973:
6971:
6968:
6966:
6963:
6962:
6960:
6958:Organizations
6956:
6950:
6947:
6946:
6944:
6940:
6934:
6931:
6929:
6926:
6925:
6923:
6919:
6913:
6910:
6908:
6905:
6903:
6900:
6898:
6895:
6891:
6888:
6887:
6886:
6883:
6881:
6878:
6876:
6873:
6872:
6870:
6866:
6860:
6857:
6855:
6852:
6850:
6847:
6845:
6842:
6841:
6839:
6835:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6808:
6807:
6806:United States
6804:
6802:
6799:
6797:
6794:
6792:
6789:
6788:
6786:
6782:
6778:
6771:
6766:
6764:
6759:
6757:
6752:
6751:
6748:
6741:
6738:
6735:
6732:
6729:
6726:
6723:
6720:
6719:
6715:
6708:
6695:
6684:
6679:
6675:
6669:
6665:
6660:
6657:
6653:
6649:
6645:
6642:
6641:0-415-94707-3
6638:
6634:
6630:
6626:
6622:
6618:
6614:
6610:
6606:
6602:
6597:
6594:
6593:0-7914-0903-1
6590:
6586:
6582:
6578:
6575:
6574:0-415-98943-4
6571:
6567:
6563:
6559:
6555:
6549:
6545:
6540:
6537:
6536:0-275-95328-9
6533:
6529:
6525:
6521:
6515:
6511:
6506:
6505:
6498:
6495:
6491:
6487:
6483:
6479:
6476:
6472:
6468:
6464:
6460:
6457:
6456:0-495-39102-6
6453:
6449:
6445:
6441:
6435:
6431:
6426:
6422:
6409:
6390:
6383:
6378:
6375:
6371:
6367:
6363:
6360:
6359:0-8147-7540-3
6356:
6352:
6348:
6344:
6338:
6334:
6333:
6327:
6323:
6317:
6313:
6308:
6305:
6304:1-84392-044-1
6301:
6297:
6293:
6289:
6276:
6265:
6260:
6256:
6243:
6232:
6227:
6225:
6221:
6217:
6206:
6202:
6198:
6194:
6187:
6182:
6179:
6178:0-521-62297-2
6175:
6171:
6167:
6163:
6159:
6153:
6149:
6144:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6129:
6125:
6119:
6115:
6110:
6107:
6106:0-7619-2258-X
6103:
6099:
6095:
6091:
6087:
6081:
6076:
6075:
6068:
6065:
6064:0-7619-4711-6
6061:
6057:
6053:
6049:
6045:
6039:
6035:
6030:
6027:
6026:0-275-97467-7
6023:
6019:
6015:
6011:
6008:
6007:0-679-43881-5
6004:
6000:
5996:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5983:
5982:0-275-96103-6
5979:
5975:
5971:
5968:
5967:0-19-511448-5
5964:
5960:
5956:
5952:
5946:
5942:
5937:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5922:
5918:
5912:
5908:
5903:
5899:
5886:
5875:
5870:
5867:
5863:
5859:
5855:
5851:
5845:
5841:
5836:
5835:
5828:
5825:
5824:0-8047-1774-5
5821:
5817:
5816:
5811:
5807:
5804:
5800:
5794:
5790:
5785:
5784:
5777:
5773:
5767:
5763:
5758:
5757:
5750:
5746:
5740:
5736:
5731:
5727:
5721:
5717:
5712:
5708:
5702:
5698:
5697:
5691:
5687:
5681:
5677:
5672:
5669:
5665:
5661:
5657:
5653:
5649:
5643:
5639:
5634:
5631:
5627:
5623:
5619:
5616:
5615:0-8147-1931-7
5612:
5608:
5604:
5600:
5594:
5590:
5585:
5584:
5577:
5573:
5567:
5563:
5558:
5555:
5554:1-56000-358-8
5551:
5547:
5543:
5540:
5539:0-582-29966-7
5536:
5532:
5528:
5524:
5518:
5514:
5509:
5506:
5502:
5499:
5495:
5491:
5487:
5486:
5481:
5473:
5467:
5464:
5460:
5457:
5451:
5448:
5445:
5444:9781594039294
5441:
5435:
5432:
5426:
5423:
5417:
5415:
5413:
5409:
5405:
5404:
5397:
5394:
5388:
5385:
5379:
5376:
5370:
5367:
5355:
5353:9780761926627
5349:
5345:
5344:
5336:
5333:
5320:
5316:
5310:
5307:
5301:
5298:
5292:
5289:
5283:
5281:
5277:
5271:
5268:
5262:
5259:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5242:
5238:
5234:
5227:
5224:
5219:
5215:
5211:
5207:
5203:
5199:
5192:
5189:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5169:(1): 79–105.
5168:
5164:
5157:
5154:
5148:
5145:
5139:
5136:
5130:
5127:
5121:
5118:
5112:
5109:
5103:
5100:
5094:
5091:
5085:
5083:
5079:
5073:
5071:
5067:
5061:
5058:
5052:
5049:
5043:
5040:
5034:
5031:
5025:
5022:
5016:
5013:
5009:
5004:
5001:
4995:
4992:
4986:
4983:
4979:
4973:
4970:
4964:
4961:
4955:
4952:
4947:
4943:
4938:
4933:
4929:
4925:
4921:
4917:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4898:
4895:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4866:
4859:
4856:
4851:
4844:
4841:
4836:
4832:
4828:
4824:
4820:
4816:
4812:
4808:
4804:
4800:
4793:
4790:
4785:
4781:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4750:
4747:
4741:
4736:
4732:
4728:
4724:
4717:
4714:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4690:
4687:
4682:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4669:Social Forces
4663:
4660:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4628:
4625:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4593:
4590:
4584:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4560:
4557:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4540:
4536:
4532:
4525:
4522:
4517:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4498:
4495:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4477:Social Forces
4471:
4468:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4436:
4433:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4401:
4398:
4393:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4359:
4352:
4349:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4325:
4322:
4317:
4313:
4308:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4276:
4273:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4229:
4226:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4186:
4179:
4177:
4175:
4171:
4166:
4159:
4152:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4137:
4134:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4102:
4099:
4094:
4093:
4085:
4082:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4032:
4029:
4024:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3965:
3963:
3959:
3954:
3950:
3944:
3942:
3938:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3898:
3895:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3855:
3852:
3846:
3843:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3828:9781108553599
3824:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3805:
3802:
3790:
3786:
3780:
3777:
3765:
3761:
3755:
3752:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3702:
3699:
3694:
3693:Working Paper
3687:
3680:
3678:
3674:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3650:
3647:
3642:
3636:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3597:
3594:
3589:
3585:
3579:
3576:
3573:
3568:
3565:
3562:
3557:
3554:
3551:
3546:
3544:
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3534:www.aa.com.tr
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3172:
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3163:
3158:
3151:
3148:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3128:(1): 93–109.
3127:
3123:
3122:
3114:
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3095:
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2878:
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2867:September 11,
2862:
2858:
2852:
2849:
2841:September 27,
2837:
2836:www.ojjdp.gov
2833:
2826:
2823:
2815:September 27,
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2475:
2474:cleveland.com
2471:
2464:
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2456:
2452:
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2446:9781469646831
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2059:9781119113799
2055:
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2033:
2028:
2026:9780199859016
2022:
2018:
2017:
2009:
2006:
2001:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1968:
1965:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1939:Social Forces
1936:
1929:
1926:
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1418:
1416:
1415:Fearmongering
1413:
1411:
1410:Fear of crime
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
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1290:Anthony Walsh
1287:
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1234:
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1213:
1208:
1205:
1199:
1195:
1187:
1185:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1166:strain theory
1162:
1160:
1156:
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1144:
1141:
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1133:
1129:
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1032:
1028:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1012:
1011:victimization
1005:
997:
995:
989:
987:
983:
976:
974:
973:crime rates.
971:
966:
961:
959:
954:
946:
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931:
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569:federal crime
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
549:
548:
545:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
518:larceny/theft
515:
511:
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499:
495:
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480:
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464:
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454:
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411:
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387:
383:
378:
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366:
362:
358:
357:strain theory
354:
350:
346:
341:
337:
333:
332:socioeconomic
328:
324:
320:
308:
303:
301:
296:
294:
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222:United States
220:
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217:Latin America
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145:United States
142:
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131:
130:United States
127:
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120:
119:
118:
117:
112:
107:
104:
102:
99:
97:
94:
91:
87:
84:
82:
81:Racialization
79:
77:
74:
72:
69:
68:
67:
66:
61:
56:
53:
51:
48:
47:
46:
45:
40:
37:
33:
30:
19:
6805:
6694:cite journal
6663:
6647:
6632:
6628:
6604:
6600:
6584:
6580:
6565:
6561:
6543:
6527:
6503:
6485:
6481:
6466:
6462:
6447:
6429:
6408:cite journal
6398:February 24,
6396:. Retrieved
6389:the original
6365:
6350:
6331:
6311:
6295:
6275:cite journal
6242:cite journal
6219:
6208:. Retrieved
6196:
6192:
6169:
6165:
6147:
6131:
6113:
6097:
6093:
6073:
6055:
6051:
6033:
6017:
6013:
5998:
5988:
5974:The g Factor
5973:
5958:
5940:
5924:
5906:
5885:cite journal
5857:
5833:
5813:
5782:
5755:
5734:
5715:
5695:
5675:
5659:
5655:
5637:
5621:
5606:
5582:
5561:
5545:
5530:
5512:
5504:
5489:
5482:Bibliography
5466:
5458:
5450:
5434:
5425:
5401:
5396:
5387:
5378:
5369:
5357:. Retrieved
5342:
5335:
5323:. Retrieved
5319:the original
5309:
5300:
5291:
5270:
5261:
5236:
5232:
5226:
5201:
5197:
5191:
5166:
5162:
5156:
5147:
5138:
5129:
5120:
5111:
5102:
5093:
5060:
5051:
5042:
5033:
5024:
5015:
5003:
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4985:
4977:
4972:
4963:
4954:
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4897:
4872:
4868:
4858:
4843:
4802:
4798:
4792:
4759:
4755:
4749:
4733:(1): 31–54.
4730:
4726:
4716:
4702:(1): 28–36.
4699:
4695:
4689:
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4668:
4662:
4637:
4633:
4627:
4602:
4598:
4592:
4573:
4569:
4559:
4534:
4530:
4524:
4507:
4503:
4497:
4480:
4476:
4470:
4445:
4441:
4435:
4410:
4406:
4400:
4368:(1): 55–77.
4365:
4361:
4351:
4334:
4330:
4324:
4289:
4285:
4275:
4242:
4238:
4228:
4195:
4191:
4164:
4136:
4111:
4107:
4101:
4091:
4084:
4041:
4037:
4031:
3978:
3974:
3952:
3907:
3903:
3897:
3864:
3860:
3854:
3845:
3810:
3804:
3792:. Retrieved
3788:
3779:
3767:. Retrieved
3763:
3754:
3711:
3707:
3701:
3692:
3659:
3655:
3649:
3635:cite journal
3613:(1): 42–60.
3610:
3606:
3596:
3587:
3578:
3567:
3556:
3533:
3524:
3498:. Retrieved
3491:the original
3478:
3461:
3457:
3450:
3425:
3421:
3408:
3400:
3381:. Retrieved
3371:
3358:
3349:
3337:. Retrieved
3327:
3318:
3306:. Retrieved
3302:
3293:
3281:. Retrieved
3272:
3266:. p. 2.
3255:
3231:
3224:
3205:
3199:
3166:
3160:
3150:
3125:
3119:
3113:
3104:
3094:
3073:cite journal
3058:
3039:
3033:
3024:
3015:
3003:. Retrieved
2999:
2990:
2981:
2972:
2960:. Retrieved
2956:
2947:
2935:. Retrieved
2930:
2921:
2909:. Retrieved
2904:
2895:
2886:
2877:
2865:. Retrieved
2860:
2851:
2839:. Retrieved
2835:
2825:
2813:. Retrieved
2808:
2799:
2787:. Retrieved
2785:. Census.gov
2777:
2765:. Retrieved
2755:
2743:. Retrieved
2730:
2718:. Retrieved
2705:
2684:cite journal
2665:
2656:
2647:
2638:
2617:
2608:
2599:
2587:. Retrieved
2577:
2568:
2559:
2550:
2540:
2527:
2518:
2506:. Retrieved
2502:
2489:
2477:. Retrieved
2473:
2463:
2428:
2422:
2387:
2381:
2346:
2340:
2323:
2317:
2305:. Retrieved
2301:
2291:
2281:November 23,
2279:. Retrieved
2275:the original
2270:
2261:
2216:
2212:
2173:
2169:
2163:
2130:
2126:
2116:
2089:
2085:
2075:
2041:
2035:
2015:
2008:
1981:
1977:
1967:
1942:
1938:
1928:
1903:
1899:
1889:
1848:
1844:
1838:
1797:
1793:
1783:
1750:
1746:
1736:
1703:
1699:
1689:
1656:
1652:
1642:
1621:cite journal
1602:
1559:
1555:
1545:
1512:
1508:
1498:
1489:
1358:Barry Latzer
1354:
1346:
1329:
1313:
1306:
1288:
1280:
1267:
1249:
1226:
1209:
1201:
1181:
1177:
1163:
1152:
1145:
1125:
1121:
1081:
1076:
1067:black slaves
1063:emancipation
1036:
1007:
993:
984:
980:
965:social class
962:
950:
937:
935:
922:
913:
900:
898:
890:
886:
878:
876:
870:
862:
855:
841:
837:
833:
823:
820:
816:
807:
803:
795:
786:
762:
738:
726:
717:
713:
706:
693:
689:
681:
656:
641:
637:
634:
625:
621:
603:
599:
581:
557:street crime
546:
542:embezzlement
490:
467:
435:
418:
403:
394:Philadelphia
373:
316:
248:Ethnic group
166:Neuroscience
156:Intelligence
151:Horror films
129:
29:
6890:Blood libel
6885:Racial hoax
4599:Criminology
4570:Criminology
4537:(1): 1–31.
4504:Criminology
4442:Criminology
3769:January 21,
3500:February 8,
3464:: 197–251.
3458:Criminology
3383:October 14,
3339:October 14,
3308:October 14,
3283:October 14,
3169:: 311–374.
2957:www.ojp.gov
2809:www.cdc.gov
2720:October 14,
2589:December 6,
2307:January 13,
2092:: 261–286.
1270:urban decay
1182:seriousness
1174:testability
1004:Criminology
504:, forcible
400:Terminology
382:Los Angeles
349:criminology
238:Colonialism
194:By location
186:Video games
114:Race and...
7010:Categories
6897:Hate crime
6784:By country
5359:October 8,
5325:October 8,
4362:Demography
3428:(3): 717.
3335:. .fbi.gov
3021:"Table 43"
2789:August 15,
2767:August 15,
2545:reporting.
2226:1706.05678
1481:References
1392:Law portal
1352:violence.
925:Anna Aizer
798:hate crime
775:, and the
753:carjacking
696:per-capita
651:See also:
473:and petty
6912:Death row
6621:146764775
6205:1554-3897
5253:144477992
5218:144621182
4928:0886-6708
4889:140734860
4819:1533-8525
4784:142664553
4776:0884-8971
4654:145402735
4619:1745-9125
4551:146377723
4462:1745-9125
4427:145402735
4267:144729803
4220:158123897
4212:0022-2186
4128:1099-0852
4068:0377-7332
4046:CiteSeerX
4005:0027-8424
3924:1465-7295
3889:158361514
3881:1740-1461
3837:158379135
3716:CiteSeerX
3627:144926935
3379:. fbi.gov
3191:215513875
3105:umich.edu
2937:March 21,
2911:August 4,
2745:March 28,
2455:239813851
2414:166340526
2373:242994510
2245:2397-3374
2147:0022-3808
2108:2572-4568
2068:158214425
2000:2572-4568
1959:0037-7732
1920:0167-2681
1865:0038-0253
1822:0013-9351
1800:: 79–85.
1767:0003-1224
1728:145654909
1720:0273-2173
1681:144729803
1576:1540-6237
1529:0003-1224
1178:frequency
1128:Karl Marx
1018:factors.
783:Hispanics
739:In 1978,
426:Milwaukee
345:redlining
171:Sexuality
6868:Concepts
6210:June 26,
5812:(1990).
5183:73553646
4946:23520837
4835:19551967
4827:20939127
4392:18390291
4316:15671454
4076:17532623
4023:29483263
3794:July 17,
3510:cite web
3442:19532049
2962:April 8,
2508:June 16,
2479:June 16,
2332:84480572
2253:32367028
2190:13703268
1881:19551967
1873:20939127
1830:27035924
1775:53346960
1613:14751824
1594:25035523
1364:See also
1349:Southern
662:Homicide
514:burglary
498:homicide
386:New York
321:between
279:Category
212:Colombia
136:Genetics
6837:By race
4937:3767568
4383:2831379
4307:1449156
4259:2779588
4014:5856523
3983:Bibcode
3955:. 2019.
3932:3616622
3746:1547854
3359:FBI.gov
3303:ojp.gov
3183:1147634
3142:2094764
3005:May 31,
2931:FBI.gov
2905:FBI.gov
2861:FBI.gov
2676:2589112
2155:3348344
1802:Bibcode
1673:2779588
1585:4097310
1537:2657382
1022:History
723:Robbery
703:Assault
613:States.
534:forgery
502:robbery
390:Chicago
176:Society
160:history
63:Society
42:History
6942:People
6796:Brazil
6670:
6654:
6639:
6619:
6591:
6572:
6550:
6534:
6516:
6492:
6473:
6454:
6436:
6372:
6357:
6339:
6318:
6302:
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