266:, the success of African-American businesses gave Durham the title as "Capital of the Black Middle Class." However, the 1960s urban renewal removed much of Hayti and Durham's Black Wall Street. This urban sprawl coupled with a heated Civil Rights movements from the 1940s to 1970s began the first real desegregation of Black and White business districts. By the late 1900s the Census Bureau reported the city's population as 39.8% Black and 59.8% White. North Carolina Mutual remained the largest and oldest African-American life insurance company. The legacy of these original businesses is still prevalent in current Durham institutions. Durham's downtown, once neglected for sprawl, is quickly becoming the city's most popular destination. Today, historic Parrish Street, is at the center of downtown revitalization. The Parrish Street Project was recently formed as an initiative of the City of Durham to honor the history of Black Wall Street and spur economic revitalization along a central downtown corridor.
228:
38% of the total. It is clear that Whites were not impeding the development of this population, in light of their own endeavors. The numbers based on wealth were even more staggering. The total valuation of Black property in the county was $ 8,696 in 1890. By 1920, this valuation skyrocketed to an astounding $ 4,298,067. Even after accounting for inflation, the level of growth for Black Wall Street was incredible. Booker T. Washington, mentioned in his commentary of Durham the level of vocational diversity. He wrote that he had "never seen in a city of this size so many prosperous blacksmiths, wheelwrights, cotton-mill operatives, and tobacco factory owners among the Negros." It is important to acknowledge the fact that these aforementioned statistics reflect gross numbers, and realistically much of the wealth was shared among a select few Black business elite, not the entire population. Most Blacks in Durham, due to financial limitations, were still working in the
169:
advantages for Durham's Black business sphere, the positive relationship between this White elite family and Black entrepreneurs allowed direct capital to flow from the White economic sphere to the
African-American sphere. This openly positive attitude towards the Black community stemmed from Washington Duke's original opposition to slavery during the Civil War. Frequently characterized by local historians, as “philanthropic, accommodating, and welcoming," Washington Duke believed that economic progress should not be marred by skin color. Often found directly giving personal advice to Merrick and Spaulding, the Dukes did not isolate themselves from the Black half of the city unlike other contemporary industrial moguls. James B. Duke once stated about the status of Durham:
24:
90:. During the late 1800s, most of these southern regions were rebuilding infrastructure damaged by war. Racial tensions were at an all-time high, due to the recent emancipation of all Black slaves, and the new economic and social competition they represented in many Whites' eyes. But though these slaves had been freed, their quality of life saw little improvement. Estimates from government officials say almost 85% of Black people were living below the poverty line during the late 1800s. Automatically placed at the bottom of the social ladder, Blacks were denied virtually all rights afforded to Whites.
219:, established the first African-American bank. M&F Bank grew to be more than simply a depository for African-American wealth, but became a major source of loans for Blacks. M&F allowed Black Wall Street to become self-reliant in terms of funding and allowed for a direct increase in the number of institutions and organizations. Within twenty years of the bank's founding in 1907, the number of Black-owned businesses in Durham tripled and the bank itself has been a profitable institution every year since its opening, even during the depressions.
233:
African-American business owners realistically operated small stores specialized in certain goods that frequently did not result in huge successes. In an official business census in 1905, it was estimated that over 75% of revenue from Black Wall Street came from North
Carolina Mutual and M&F Bank. Therefore, Durham represented a unique setting for its select few Black business owners, but this was not the case for the average African American.
74:
196:
leadership of the community under John
Merrick. He once addressed the Hayti region, "I do think we have done well and I think we could have done better. Now let us make better use of the years we have left, as we have the past to look back over and see mistakes." The positivity in terms of leadership allowed Black Wall Street to surpass most expectations.
250:
rise of a Black business class. This threatened to reorder the
African-American status system that had been determined by antebellum forces. Fortunately for Durham, the lack of an entrenched antebellum social order, allowed this social change to come about with little upheaval. Higher-ranking Blacks like Merrick were considered upper-class and "new rich."
187:
increased employment of Black workers as a threat to their own job security. The Dukes tripled Black employment in their tobacco factories during the turn of the century, which angered a number of White workers who occasionally were even seen protesting against this increase in Black employment. Though both Booker T. Washington and
152:. This key factor is what differentiated Durham's racial community from a number of other prominent southern cities. This help from the White populace came in two forms: direct capital investment and racial tolerance. That said, Julian Carr was a known White supremacist who encouraged violence against Black people, supporting the
249:
Black social strata in Durham was shifting rapidly during the late 1800s. The self-made
African-American businessman yielded high status and "suffered little condescension" from the older, White-oriented business class. By the start of the 1900s increasing segregation and urbanization encouraged the
227:
The area saw a steady increase of population, wealth, and diversity of occupation. By 1890 the number of colored people in Durham was 1,858 or 33.8% of the total population. The year 1910 exhibited an increase of over 200% in the total population and the
African-American population was approximately
135:
Clashes between White and Black communities throughout the south during this time period were practically routine occurrences, but this was generally not the case in Durham. In his visit to Durham, Booker T. Washington said: "Of all the southern cities I have visited I found here the sanest attitude
109:
Serving as the president of North
Carolina Mutual starting in 1923, Spaulding enjoyed the reputation as America's leading Black businessman. In 1900, when Spaulding became general manager, NC Mutual was on the brink of failure. By 1910 the company was titled as "the world's largest Negro business."
191:
said that Durham's White population was highly tolerant, this was not always the case. Envious of the rapid economic development, lower-class Whites occasionally attacked stores on Black Wall Street. The most famous of these attacks was cited on March 2, 1902, when a group of Whites burned down an
122:
Black Wall Street was a four-block district on
Parrish Street nicknamed in reference to the district of New York City. Although the term "Black Wall Street" did not become prevalent until the late fifties, its identity as an economic powerhouse for Blacks was apparent since the late 1800s. Numerous
54:
During a time period when disenfranchising Blacks and openly violating their rights was common, the Black populations of Durham were making strides in business that challenged the legitimacy of White supremacy. Black-owned business in Durham can be traced back to the efforts of two
African-American
168:
The Duke family was actively involved in funding a number of the enterprises on Black Wall Street. Seen as the quintessential southern businessmen, the Dukes were a highly revered family who made a fortune from establishing Durham as the tobacco capital of the world. Often cited as one of the key
159:
The first form, investment, was the key reason as to how Black Wall Street came to be. Merrick's original insurance company was partially funded by his long standing friend
Washington Duke and White capitalist, Julian Carr. At the time, these ventures were recorded as the largest investment by a
232:
or as agricultural laborers after emancipation. The few that were able to enter business had personal connections such as in the case of Merrick. Even within the business owners' sector of the Black population, few reached the economic status of Merrick, Spaulding, or Fitzgerald. A majority of
195:
Blacks in southern communities including Durham did not see independent business as a solution to rising in the ranks of the social hierarchy. However, a few Blacks in Durham took the route of free enterprise instead of manual labor. This deterministic attitude was partially due to the strong
253:
However, as previously mentioned this social change did not involve the desegregation of Whites and Blacks. Instead two distinct social structures were apparent due to the presence of Black Wall Street. The presence of an expanding urban area that offered industrial opportunity allowed for the
186:
Though racial tolerance and direct capital investment were prevalent amongst the highest ranking Whites of Durham, the typical White citizen exhibited the stereotypical distaste for African Americans and provided little help in the progression of Black Wall Street. Labor working Whites saw the
160:
White man in a Black enterprise. White bankers even aided in the organization of the first Negro bank. By bridging the gap between post-Civil War to current African Americans, White industrialists paved a path for Blacks to continue expanding Black Wall Street.
245:
were established, which mandated racial segregation in all public facilities in Southern United States. By 1890 the "separate but equal" clause had become quite common throughout the south. Black Wall Street indirectly maintained this concept.
177:
It was also evident that the level of business on Black Wall Street was insignificant in comparison to the Duke Tobacco industry. Therefore, the Dukes saw the aid to Black Wall Street as no threat to their industrial dominance of Durham.
210:
Few options were available for Blacks to safely place money deposits and earn interest, considering Whites often barred Blacks from using their banks. Taking the initiative to solve this predicament, the founders of M&F Bank,
254:
formation of a Black middle class. The only true interaction that occurred between the two distinct social hierarchies occurred at the highest ranks, such as in the case of Merrick with the Dukes and Julian Carr.
106:. Originally a barber by profession, Merrick gained enough money through income and loans to open North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance, which was later expanded with the efforts of Charles Spaulding.
127:. Parrish Street, in downtown Durham, was very close to the Hayti community, Durham's main African-American residential region. The two areas together served as the center of Black life in Durham.
114:'s "black captains of industry." By channeling their success to providing employment for fellow African Americans, these pioneering figures of Black Wall Street stimulated its economic expansion.
1150:
110:
Spaulding and two of the original founders, John Merrick and Dr. Aaron M. Moore (Spaulding's uncle), were heralded in the Afro-American community as the "Triumvirate," the epitome of
1155:
1145:
1140:
66:
Though able to increase African-American wealth, Black Wall Street did not distribute this new-found wealth equally within Durham's Black community,
173:
Durham, as a city, must be holistically judged for its economic merit. This means we musn't let our colored neighbors fall into economic depression.
23:
17:
1160:
144:
The progress of the Black business sphere was directly linked to the tolerance and helpfulness of certain elite Whites in the area, namely
102:
changed the identity of Black businessmen. Merrick was able to reach prominence in his community through his longstanding friendship with
67:
145:
35:
70:. The region also promoted basic social restructuring for Blacks, but did not contribute to desegregation efforts.
205:
43:
60:
229:
99:
56:
1108:
807:
Upbuilding of Black Durham: the success of Negroes and their value to a tolerant and helpful southern city
39:
212:
111:
63:. This duo provided the leadership and initiative necessary for the beginnings of Black Wall Street.
241:
Black Wall Street had a considerable effect on social progression. During the late 1800s the first
153:
149:
86:
The southern United States were left in tumult in the few decades of Reconstruction following the
87:
647:
27:
Former North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company and Mechanics and Farmers Bank building
188:
103:
73:
42:, during the late 1800s and early 1900s. It is located on Parrish Street. It was home to
1134:
1121:
640:
242:
216:
263:
275:
46:
and [[North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company|North Carolina Mutually
123:
other cities in the south had similar Black economic centers, including
124:
72:
22:
1084:. Office of Durham Economic and Workforce Development. 2013.
582:
580:
578:
1076:
1074:
392:
Durham County: a history of Durham County, North Carolina
493:
491:
569:
Mirror to AmericaL the autobiography of John Franklin
358:
356:
77:
Memorial sign of Black Wall Street in Durham Downtown
500:
Durham, North Carolina, a city of Negro Enterprises
1151:African-American history in Durham, North Carolina
639:
407:North Carolina Mutual Story: a Symbol of Progress
171:
182:Tension with White middle and working classes
8:
544:. College and University Press. p. 56.
482:Durham County: a history of Durham County
299:
297:
295:
293:
291:
192:office owned by North Carolina Mutual.
136:of the white people toward the blacks."
287:
610:
598:
586:
554:
512:
424:. Duke University History. p. 12.
990:
978:
705:
362:
7:
1052:. Duke University Press. p. 39.
908:. Duke University Press. p. 45.
846:
819:
792:
718:Pipkin, Jefferson (April 19, 1902).
540:Burgess, Elaine (December 9, 1962).
405:Kennedy, William (21 January 1970).
394:. Duke University Press. p. 69.
317:
1156:Streets of African American history
1146:Geography of Durham, North Carolina
891:Negro Leadership in a southern City
750:Negro Leadership in a Southern City
735:Negro Leadership in a Southern City
542:Negro Leadership in a Southern City
349:. Arcadia Publishing. p. 100.
140:Relationship with White population
14:
1141:History of Durham, North Carolina
878:. Arcadia Publishing. p. 43.
767:. Arcadia Publishing. p. 89.
691:Franklin, John (4 October 2005).
680:. Arcadia Publishing. p. 41.
638:Franklin, John (4 October 2005).
567:Franklin, John (4 October 2005).
334:. Arcadia Publishing. p. 34.
469:. Arcadia Publishing. p. 3.
375:Dula, W. C. (13 November 1951).
1123:Milestones along the color line
1020:Black Business in the New South
1005:Black Business in the New South
921:Black Business in the New South
906:Black Business in the New South
861:Black Business in the New South
625:Black Business in the New South
437:Black Business in the New South
422:Black Business in the New South
379:. Citizens Press. p. 103.
1:
1099:Boyd, William (3 June 1927).
1161:African-American upper class
889:Burgess (December 9, 1962).
748:Burgess (December 9, 1962).
733:Burgess (December 9, 1962).
571:. Farrar Straus. p. 72.
525:Kennedy (January 21, 1970).
695:. Farrar Straus. p. 7.
527:North Carolina Mutual story
498:Washington, Booker (1911).
36:African-American businesses
1177:
966:The Story of a Rising Race
936:The Story of a Rising Race
834:Upbuilding of black Durham
720:The Story of a Rising Race
676:Wise, Jim (June 5, 2002).
661:Dula (November 13, 1951).
206:Mechanics and Farmers Bank
203:
200:Mechanics and Farmers Bank
44:Mechanics and Farmers Bank
38:and financial services in
15:
964:Pipkin (April 19, 1902).
934:Pipkin (April 19, 1902).
805:DuBois, W. E. B. (1912).
765:Durham: A Bull City Story
763:Wise, Jim (5 June 2002).
678:Durham: A Bull City Story
646:. Farrar Straus. p.
450:Dula (13 November 1951).
347:Durham: A Bull City Story
345:Wise, Jim (5 June 2002).
1115:. Duke University Press.
1103:. Duke University Press.
949:Anderson (May 2, 1990).
778:Anderson (May 2, 1990).
722:. Thompson. p. 56.
390:Anderson, Jean (2011).
148:, Washington Duke, and
1120:Quick, Oliver (1922).
1082:Parrish Street Project
1063:Anderson, Jea (2011).
420:Weare, Walter (1993).
230:Duke Tobacco factories
175:
78:
40:Durham, North Carolina
28:
663:Durham and her People
452:Durham and her People
377:Durham and her People
204:Further information:
76:
26:
18:The Black Wall Street
874:Vann, Andre (1999).
465:Vann, Andre (1999).
330:Vann, Andre (1999).
112:Booker T. Washington
16:For other uses, see
1113:The Dukes of Durham
1101:The Story of Durham
693:A Mirror to America
154:Wilmington massacre
213:Richard Fitzgerald
82:Historical context
79:
29:
1048:Anderson (2011).
1033:Anderson (1990).
642:Mirror to America
589:, pp. 24–27.
480:Anderson (2011).
306:Black Wall Street
98:The emergence of
61:Charles Spaulding
32:Black Wall Street
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1111:(5 July 1987).
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832:DuBois (1912).
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467:Durham's Hatyti
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304:Repass, Jerre,
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260:
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225:
223:Economic growth
208:
202:
189:W. E. B. DuBois
184:
166:
142:
133:
120:
104:Washington Duke
96:
84:
55:entrepreneurs:
52:
34:was the hub of
21:
12:
11:
5:
1174:
1172:
1164:
1163:
1158:
1153:
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1133:
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1129:
1128:
1117:
1109:Durden, Robert
1105:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1087:
1070:
1055:
1040:
1025:
1018:Weare (1993).
1010:
1003:Weare (1993).
995:
983:
971:
956:
941:
926:
919:Weare (1993).
911:
904:Weare (1993).
896:
881:
876:Durham's Hayti
866:
859:Weare (1993).
851:
839:
824:
812:
797:
785:
770:
755:
740:
725:
710:
698:
683:
668:
653:
630:
623:Weare (1993).
615:
603:
591:
574:
559:
547:
532:
517:
505:
487:
472:
457:
442:
435:Weare (1993).
427:
412:
397:
382:
367:
352:
337:
332:Durham's Hayti
322:
310:
286:
285:
283:
280:
279:
278:
271:
268:
262:By the end of
259:
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238:
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1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1097:
1096:
1092:
1083:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1067:. p. 38.
1066:
1065:Durham County
1059:
1056:
1051:
1050:Durham County
1044:
1041:
1037:. p. 54.
1036:
1035:Durham County
1029:
1026:
1022:. p. 39.
1021:
1014:
1011:
1007:. p. 76.
1006:
999:
996:
993:, p. 35.
992:
987:
984:
981:, p. 34.
980:
975:
972:
968:. p. 18.
967:
960:
957:
952:
951:Durham County
945:
942:
938:. p. 19.
937:
930:
927:
923:. p. 36.
922:
915:
912:
907:
900:
897:
893:. p. 38.
892:
885:
882:
877:
870:
867:
863:. p. 54.
862:
855:
852:
849:, p. 70.
848:
843:
840:
835:
828:
825:
822:, p. 24.
821:
816:
813:
808:
801:
798:
795:, p. 18.
794:
789:
786:
782:. p. 54.
781:
780:Durham County
774:
771:
766:
759:
756:
752:. p. 65.
751:
744:
741:
736:
729:
726:
721:
714:
711:
708:, p. 14.
707:
702:
699:
694:
687:
684:
679:
672:
669:
665:. p. 90.
664:
657:
654:
649:
644:
643:
634:
631:
627:. p. 27.
626:
619:
616:
613:, p. 78.
612:
607:
604:
601:, p. 28.
600:
595:
592:
588:
583:
581:
579:
575:
570:
563:
560:
557:, p. 56.
556:
551:
548:
543:
536:
533:
529:. p. 90.
528:
521:
518:
515:, p. 15.
514:
509:
506:
501:
494:
492:
488:
484:. p. 12.
483:
476:
473:
468:
461:
458:
454:. p. 13.
453:
446:
443:
439:. p. 13.
438:
431:
428:
423:
416:
413:
409:. p. 12.
408:
401:
398:
393:
386:
383:
378:
371:
368:
365:, p. 89.
364:
359:
357:
353:
348:
341:
338:
333:
326:
323:
320:, p. 45.
319:
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288:
281:
277:
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251:
247:
244:
243:Jim Crow laws
237:Social strata
236:
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222:
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217:James Shepard
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94:Major figures
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81:
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58:
49:
47:
45:
41:
37:
33:
25:
19:
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1100:
1093:Bibliography
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1064:
1058:
1049:
1043:
1034:
1028:
1019:
1013:
1004:
998:
986:
974:
965:
959:
953:. p. 6.
950:
944:
935:
929:
920:
914:
905:
899:
890:
884:
875:
869:
860:
854:
842:
836:. p. 1.
833:
827:
815:
809:. p. 1.
806:
800:
788:
779:
773:
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737:. p. 6.
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264:World War II
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100:John Merrick
97:
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57:John Merrick
53:
31:
30:
611:Durden 1987
599:Durden 1987
587:Durden 1987
555:Durden 1987
513:Durden 1987
276:Black mecca
164:Duke family
146:Julian Carr
1135:Categories
991:Quick 1922
979:Quick 1922
706:Quick 1922
363:Quick 1922
282:References
150:James Duke
847:Boyd 1927
820:Boyd 1927
793:Boyd 1927
318:Boyd 1927
156:of 1898.
131:Emergence
88:Civil War
270:See also
118:Location
50:History
1126:. O.B.
258:Legacy
125:Tulsa
68:Hayti
215:and
59:and
1137::
1073:^
648:12
577:^
490:^
355:^
290:^
650:.
20:.
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