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1537:, Mexico, was famed for dense black coral beds that have been harvested since the 1960s leading to widespread black coral population declines. Despite improvements in management in Cozumel, including no harvesting permits issued since the mid-1990s, the black coral population had failed to recover when assessed in 2016. Though it is illegal to move black corals across international borders without authorization, as they are listed in
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been closely examined, colonies will grow roughly 6.4 cm (2.52 in) every year. Sexual reproduction occurs after 10 to 12 years of growth; the colony will then reproduce annually for the rest of its life. The male to female polyp ratio is 1:1, with females producing anywhere from 1.2 million to 16.9 million
1295:
in their center which serves as the mouth for the coral. The disk is surrounded by the tentacles, which stings and digests food. The reason many corals are fan-shaped is to catch meiofauna. Many corals only have polyps on the downstream side of the coral, allowing them to catch nearly the same number
1195:
spikes are roughly 0.5 mm (0.0197 in) in size, and vary widely in terms of size, length, proportion, and sharpness. A layer of "bark" forms around the skeleton as the coral grows. The polyps that live inside this bark are less than 2 mm (0.0787 in) and are gelatinous and have six
1448:
into its polyp form and creates skeletal material to attach itself to the seafloor. It will then begin to bud, which will create new polyps and eventually form a colony. In areas with ideal conditions, black coral colonies can grow to be extremely dense, creating beds. In some black corals that have
1330:
gnawing and eating at the polyps of black corals, but even if a polyp is gnawed off, it will not affect the coral as a whole. The skeleton of a black coral is hard and inert, due to its composition of protein and chitin, making it nearly inedible. Though black coral skeletons have been found in the
1464:
were found at depths of nearly 300 to 3,000 m (984 to 9,840 ft), making them some of the oldest living organisms on earth. The researchers showed that the "individual colony longevities are on the order of thousands of years." Rarely, black corals will grow too large to support their own
1206:
Unlike the vast majority of other corals, black corals have no protection against abrasive materials such as sand and rocks and lack muscular development which can help the corals to hide. These factors can lead to sediment tearing the soft tissue, resulting in death. In response, corals live near
1194:
The skeletons of these corals grow in many patterns unique to this order, such as whips, trees, fans, or coils. These range in size from 10 to 300 cm (3.94 to 118 in), though polyps can be as small as 1 mm (0.0394 in) in size. Skeletons are also lined with tiny spikes. These
1199:(the same as hard corals and unlike soft corals, which have eight). These polyps can be nearly any color. Some corals also have "sweeper tentacles", which can grow up to 15 mm (0.591 in) long. Though individual polyps are either male or female, entire colonies are typically
1418:" which can be used to estimate the age of a colony. Asexual reproduction can also occur if a branch breaks off and a replacement is needed. Though light is not required for growth or development, mature colonies will grow towards light. Why they do so is unknown.
1409:
Due to the slow life cycle and deep-water habitats of black coral, little is known about their life cycle and reproduction. As with other cnidarians, the life cycle of these corals involves both asexual and sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction (also known as
1414:), is the first method of reproduction used by a black coral during their lifespan. Once a polyp is anchored, it builds a colony by creating a skeleton, growing new branches and making it thicker, similar to the growth of a tree. This method of growing creates "
1234:
Black corals occur throughout all the oceans from the surface down to the deep-sea, though nearly 75% of species are only found at depths below 50 m (164 ft). The sole oceanic area in which black corals have not been found are
1574:, a number of factors threaten them today. The largest single threat is poaching— though the majority of black coral fisheries are heavily regulated, there is still a black market for the corals. Particularly on tropical islands and
1524:
The best studied and regulated black coral fisheries are in Hawaii, where they have been harvested since the 1960s. In the
Caribbean harvesting is typically done to produce jewelry for sale to tourists, and has followed a
312:
Despite its name, a black coral is rarely black, and depending on the species can be white, red, green, yellow, or brown. The corals derive their name from their black skeletons, which are composed of
1271:. Species distributions of black corals are poorly understood, and while many deep sea black corals have large distributions, more recent work has indicated that shallow black coral species—such as
415:. Black corals can be distinguished from other corals by their black, flexible skeletons and near-total lack of any kind of protection from sediment. All black corals have small or medium-sized
2164:"Widest geographic distribution of a shallow and mesophotic antipatharian coral (Anthozoa: Hexacorallia): Antipathes grandis VERRILL, 1928 – confirmed by morphometric and molecular analyses"
1811:
Pagan Races of the Malay
Peninsula: pt. 3. Religion. pt. 4. Language. Appendix. Comparative vocabulary of aboriginal dialects. Index of subjects. Index of proper names. Index of native words
1578:, the market for illegally-harvested black corals is large. Due to overfishing of mature corals, in some areas nearly 90% of corals are juveniles (less than 50 cm (19.7 in) tall.)
1548:
Though various methods have been proposed for quicker and more efficient rejuvenation of black coral colonies, none have worked to the point where these corals could be commercially farmed.
1584:
is the primary threat to black corals worldwide, as well as all other corals. Though black corals rarely builds reefs (the most threatened areas), threats caused by climate change such as
292:
for medical treatment and in rituals, its only modern use is making jewelry. Black corals have been declining in numbers and are expected to continue declining due to the effects of
1247:
building, but are also often found as solitary colonies on isolated outcroppings. Most individuals require a hard surface for attachment. They will frequently grow where undersea
369:. They have few distinguishing morphological characteristics, and the few that there are vary across species, similar to other corals. When black corals were first documented by
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the polyps that the coral typically feeds on and is taken inside of the coral. They will then consume the polyps from the inside out. Various mollusks, such as
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order, existing in nearly every oceanic location and depth, with the sole exception of brackish waters. However, they are most frequently found on
4024:
3906:
3099:
2355:
Goldberg, Walter M. (1991). "Chemistry and structure of skeletal growth rings in the black coral
Antipathes fiordensis (Cnidaria, Antipatharia)".
1985:
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1255:
that is swept by. Since undersea currents benefit the corals, they will often grow on or by geographic structures that cause currents, such as
384:. From 2001 to 2006, marine biologists Dennis Opresko and Tina Molodtsova helped transform the taxonomic system into what it is today. A 2007
3575:
2372:
2298:
2244:
Boland, Raymond C.; Parrish, Frank A. (1 July 2005). "A Description of Fish
Assemblages in the Black Coral Beds off Lahaina, Maui, Hawai'i".
1440:, which meet in the water to create larvae that use currents to disperse and settle in new areas. The larval stage of the coral, called a
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3498:
1432:
Sexual reproduction in these corals remains largely unstudied. It occurs after the coral colony is established; a colony will produce
611:
2566:
Bruckner, Andrew W. (2016), "Advances in
Management of Precious Corals to Address Unsustainable and Destructive Harvest Techniques",
3513:
2615:
2583:
2127:
Wagner, Daniel; Toonen, R. J. (2012). "The biology and ecology of black corals (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Hexacorallia: Antipatharia)".
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1964:
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inhabit specific coral trees. Due to this abundance of species, nighttime predation around the coral beds has been observed.
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2226:
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2983:"Distribution, standing crop, population structure, and growth rates of black coral in the southern fiords of New Zealand"
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553:
155:
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1658:
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500:
1339:, these incidents are rare; it has thus been suggested that black corals are not a major part of any vertebrate diets.
74:
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3802:
3503:
3463:
2446:
Parker, N. R.; Mladenov, P. V.; Grange, K. R. (November 1997). "Reproductive biology of the antipatharian black coral
2162:
Gress, Erika; Opresko, Dennis M.; Brugler, Mercer R.; Wagner, Daniel; Eeckhaut, Igor; Terrana, Lucas (2020-12-09).
1373:
live solely where various species of black corals are found, suggesting that they prey exclusively on the species.
395:
Antipatharia with 7 families, 44 genera, and 280 distinct species. The families are
Antipathidae, Aphanipathidae,
3937:
2813:"Assessing population changes of historically overexploited black corals (Order: Antipatharia) in Cozumel, Mexico"
2314:
Bo, Marzia; Baker, Andrew C.; Gaino, Elda; Wirsching, Herman H.; Scoccia, Francesca; Bavestrello, Giorgio (2011).
4069:
3590:
3355:
2793:
Padilla, C., & Lara, M. (2003). Banco
Chinchorro: the last shelter for black coral in the Mexican Caribbean.
262:
2716:
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624:
3600:
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3418:
1517:, causing jewelry made with it to dry out and break. If a real black coral is boiled in milk, it will smell of
1363:
650:
316:
and chitin. Black corals are also known as thorn corals due to the microscopic spines lining their skeletons.
207:
1369:
277:
throughout its lifetime. Many black corals provide housing, shelter, food, and protection for other animals.
3443:
1841:(Cnidaria:Anthozoa:Antipatharia) supports classification of antipatharians within the subclass Hexacorallia"
2936:
Illegal harvesting and trading of black corals (Antipatharia) in
Madagascar: the necessity of field studies
3742:
3585:
3438:
2895:
Montgomery, Anthony D. (March 2002). "The feasibility of transplanting black coral (Order
Antipatharia)".
1836:
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1942:
The biology and ecology of
Hawaiian black corals (Cnidaria : Anthozoa: Hexacorallia: Antipatharia)
1038:
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Black corals are carnivorous, with the coral's polyps allowing it to feed mostly on meiofauna such as
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Roark, E. B.; Guilderson, T. P.; Dunbar, R. B.; Fallon, S. J.; Mucciarone, D. A. (10 February 2009).
2459:
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2175:
1602:, which were introduced to Hawaiian waters by humans, may pose a significant threat to black corals.
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2316:"First description of algal mutualistic endosymbiosis in a black coral (Anthozoa: Antipatharia)"
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2193:
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1453:. A large 1.8 m (5.91 ft) tall coral tree is somewhere between 30 and 40 years old.
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330:
289:
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2600:
The Biology and Ecology of Black Corals (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Hexacorallia: Antipatharia)
2463:
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2607:
2521:
2494:
2140:
1775:
1686:
Bo, Marzia (21 April 2012). "Isolation and identification of chitin in the black coral
1598:
1581:
1501:
peoples believed that black coral has curative and anti-evil powers and made them into
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1200:
999:
987:
677:
522:
458:
436:
408:
344:
301:
203:
162:
2933:
Terrana, Lucas; Todinanahary, Gildas Georges Boleslas; Eeckhaut, Igor (24 June 2016).
1444:, will drift along until it finds a surface on which it can grow. Once it settles, it
30:
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3187:
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320:
221:
195:
188:
173:
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2916:
2761:
2479:
2275:
468:
280:
Black corals were originally classified in the subclass Ceriantipatharia along with
3833:
3666:
3483:
3258:
3250:
3202:
3169:
1703:
1498:
1415:
1343:
1299:
1226:
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914:
753:
606:
549:
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442:
400:
385:
381:
285:
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184:
151:
116:
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2982:
357:("root of the sea"), likely named for their tendency to grow at low-light depths.
2575:
2364:
2015:
1190:
A sample of coral next to its skeleton, showing the minuscule spines all along it
3924:
3880:
3774:
3659:
3448:
3383:
3197:
3182:
1856:
1562:
1530:
1514:
1284:
1028:
977:
734:
377:, two French zoologists in 1857, all species of Antipatharia were placed in the
374:
135:
3765:
3241:
2870:
2499:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2188:
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516:
3725:
3710:
3633:
3623:
3613:
3365:
3328:
3306:
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3263:
3161:
2908:
1575:
1510:
1382:
1323:
1316:
1244:
926:
593:
561:
365:
Black corals have historically been difficult to classify due to poor-quality
2838:
2753:
2625:
2197:
3854:
3705:
2511:
1486:
1347:
1319:
1288:
1252:
86:
2856:
2633:
2530:
2148:
2097:
2051:
1864:
1721:
2735:
2471:
2257:
452:
3759:
3393:
3231:
3207:
3126:
1589:
1509:; however, black corals are not ideal for jewelry-making due to it being
1506:
1502:
1351:
1240:
1196:
293:
106:
1712:
1460:
is 70 years. However, in March 2009 around 4,265 years old specimens of
3493:
3278:
2829:
2266:
2043:
1534:
1441:
1411:
1386:
1358:
1355:
1268:
313:
3885:
2744:
2425:
2340:
2315:
1588:, rising sea temperatures, changing underwater currents, and changing
3518:
3225:
2693:
2598:
Wagner, Daniel; Luck, Daniel G.; Toonen, Robert J. (1 January 2012).
1494:
1450:
420:
340:
254:
96:
3736:
2035:
1296:
of animals without wasting energy keeping unnecessary polyps alive.
3872:
3859:
3296:
3157:
2067:"Antipatharia sp (Milne-Edwards & Haime, 1857): "Black Coral""
1555:
1542:
1518:
1497:
culture. More recent harvesting has been for use as jewelry. Many
1490:
1472:
1437:
1420:
1336:
1298:
1260:
1219:
1185:
537:
348:
339:("hard bush growing in the sea"); it is the official state gem of
269:
under 50 m (164 ft) deep. A black coral reproduces both
253:. These corals can be recognized by their jet-black or dark brown
250:
59:
53:
1776:"Precious Coral Fisheries of Hawaii and the U.S. Pacific Islands"
1481:
Black corals have historically been associated with mystical and
1322:
is not a major threat to black corals. There are rare reports of
1243:. Black corals are found on reefs, and may contribute to overall
2357:
Coelenterate Biology: Recent Research on Cnidaria and Ctenophora
1541:
of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (
1264:
3740:
3130:
1381:
Black corals around the world provide a unique environment for
3301:
1456:
The estimated natural lifespan of a black coral colony in the
1433:
3846:
2014:
Goldberg, W. M.; Grange, K. R.; Zuniga, A. L. (August 1990).
1521:; this test can be used to determine if a sample is genuine.
1275:—can be found spanning from the Indian to the Pacific Ocean.
284:(tube-dwelling anemones), but were later reclassified under
1593:
1207:
crevices, which allows much of their body to be protected.
352:
3100:"Research Expedition Aimed at Halting Loss of Black Coral"
2717:"Black Coral: History of a Sustainable Fishery in Hawai'i"
1354:
feed on black corals and similar corals regularly. These
2811:
Gress, Erika; Andradi-Brown, Dominic A. (4 July 2018).
2570:, Springer International Publishing, pp. 747–786,
2016:"The Structure of Sweeper Tentacles in the Black Coral
1837:"The complete mitochondrial genome of the black coral
1596:
also affect deep-sea corals. Invasive species such as
2987:
New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research
16:
Order of soft deep-water corals with chitin skeletons
2928:
2926:
2495:"Extreme longevity in proteinaceous deep-sea corals"
1835:
Brugler, Mercer, R.; France, Scott C. (March 2007).
261:(part of coral that is alive). Antipatharians are a
3749:
3678:
3646:
3599:
3568:
3527:
3364:
3287:
3249:
3168:
2009:
2007:
324:
2948:
2946:
1692:International Journal of Biological Macromolecules
1529:, where new coral populations are discovered and
257:skeletons, which are surrounded by their colored
1428:growing several hundred meters down in the ocean
2546:"Scientists ID living coral as 4,265 years old"
1239:, though they can inhabit areas with decreased
2775:Kenyon, J. (1984). "Black coral off Cozumel".
2122:
2120:
2118:
2096:Bo, Marzia; Wijgerde, Tim (19 November 2014).
1935:
1933:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1917:
334:
3345:The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
3142:
3023:"How does Climate Change Affect Coral Reefs?"
2410:"Ecological Studies of Black Coral in Hawaii"
288:. Though they have historically been used by
8:
3087:"Spotlight on Antipatharians (Black Corals)"
2450:in Doubtful Sound, Fiordland, New Zealand".
1884:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1659:"Spotlight on Antipatharians (Black Corals)"
3737:
3596:
3149:
3135:
3127:
3102:. National Geographic News. Archived from
2939:. 13th International Coral Reef Symposium.
2221:
2219:
2217:
2215:
2213:
2211:
2209:
2207:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1737:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1681:
1679:
1570:Though black corals are not listed on the
388:study confirmed the new taxonomic system.
29:
20:
3006:
2846:
2828:
2743:
2692:
2520:
2510:
2339:
2265:
2187:
1711:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1307:, one of the few predators of black coral
2954:"Case Study for Black Coral from Hawaii"
1622:Tina Molodtsova, Dennis Opresko (2020).
1617:
1615:
1533:leading to rapid declines. For example,
1611:
1251:flow, which allows them to feed on the
3424:Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
2649:
2639:
2568:The Cnidaria, Past, Present and Future
2390:
2380:
1897:
1895:
1877:
3576:Environmental issues with coral reefs
2561:
2559:
2557:
2555:
1944:(PhD). University of Hawaii at Manoa.
1845:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
1545:), it is still possible to buy them.
319:The name Antipatharia comes from the
7:
3948:7cf27806-e5a5-496d-b939-c923d4a6af2a
3049:"Climate Change and Deep-sea Corals"
1230:coral, sometimes known as wire coral
391:Blacks corals are classified in the
423:skeleton, lined with small spines.
2608:10.1016/B978-0-12-394282-1.00002-8
2544:Graczyk, Michael (25 March 2009).
2359:. Vol. 66. pp. 403–409.
2291:Coral Reefs: Cities Under The Seas
2141:10.1016/B978-0-12-394282-1.00002-8
1389:, and fish. Some species, such as
14:
4065:Taxa named by Henri Milne-Edwards
2715:Grigg, Richard W. (1 July 2001).
2602:. Vol. 63. pp. 67–132.
4020:Cnidarians of the Atlantic Ocean
3619:International Coral Reef Society
3459:Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System
3240:
2667:Hickson, Sydney J. (July 1922).
1965:World Register of Marine Species
1940:Wagner, Daniel (December 2011).
1632:World Register of Marine Species
1566:species growing in a brush shape
542:World Register of Marine Species
515:
499:
483:
467:
451:
435:
73:
4035:Cnidarians of the Caribbean Sea
4030:Cnidarians of the Pacific Ocean
3550:Stony coral tissue loss disease
3056:The Journal of Marine Education
1986:"Black Coral: Hawaii State Gem"
4025:Cnidarians of the Indian Ocean
2320:Marine Ecology Progress Series
1808:Skeat, Walter William (1906).
1704:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2012.04.016
1023:Molodtsova & Opresko, 2017
1:
4055:Marine fauna of South America
4050:Marine fauna of North America
3479:Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
3008:10.1080/00288330.1985.9516111
2981:Grange, K. R. (18 Feb 1985).
2408:Grigg, Richard (April 1965).
1749:"Spotlight on antipatharians"
2576:10.1007/978-3-319-31305-4_46
2365:10.1007/978-94-011-3240-4_58
329:("against disease"). In the
3504:Southeast Asian coral reefs
2289:Murphy, Richard C. (2002).
2168:Marine Biodiversity Records
1857:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.08.016
1405:Life cycle and reproduction
361:Taxonomy and classification
325:
4088:
3464:New Caledonia barrier reef
2795:Bulletin of Marine Science
2189:10.1186/s41200-020-00195-0
1774:Grigg, Richard W. (1993).
333:, a black coral is called
4060:Taxa named by Jules Haime
3356:Spur and groove formation
3238:
3098:Mead, Gale (2001-06-08).
2293:. The Darwin Press, Inc.
2065:Milne-Edwards and Haine.
1814:. Macmillen and company.
1426:Antipathes dendrochristos
1123:MacIsaac & Best, 2013
148:
143:
70:Scientific classification
68:
51:
42:
37:
28:
23:
3419:East African coral coast
3118:. ARKive. Archived from
1904:"Black Corals of Hawaii"
1469:Human use and harvesting
1364:Coralliophila kaofitorum
1182:Physical characteristics
530:Families of black corals
4045:Marine fauna of Oceania
3047:Guinotte, John (2005).
2909:10.1023/A:1016573926566
2548:. The Associated Press.
2512:10.1073/pnas.0810875106
2129:Advanced Marine Biology
2024:The Biological Bulletin
1955:Dennis Opresko (2019).
1783:Marine Fisheries Review
1690:(Anthozoa: Cnidaria)".
1370:Phenacovolva carneptica
335:
3586:Coral reef restoration
1908:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
1567:
1478:
1465:weight, and collapse.
1429:
1308:
1231:
1191:
353:
3969:Paleobiology Database
3581:Coral reef protection
3545:Skeletal eroding band
3351:Catlin Seaview Survey
3339:Census of Coral Reefs
3317:mesophotic coral reef
2736:10.1353/psc.2001.0022
2472:10.1007/s002270050220
2448:Antipathes fiordensis
2258:10.1353/psc.2005.0032
2018:Antipathes fiordensis
1559:
1476:
1462:Leiopathes glaberrima
1424:
1302:
1223:
1189:
4040:Marine fauna of Asia
3691:Aquaculture of coral
3474:Non-tropical regions
1839:Chrysopathes formosa
1477:Black coral bracelet
3609:Coral Reef Alliance
3499:Solomon Archipelago
3404:Belize Barrier Reef
3379:African coral reefs
2999:1985NZJMF..19..467G
2685:1922Natur.110..217H
2464:1997MarBi.130...11P
2332:2011MEPS..435....1B
2180:2020MBdR...13...12G
1992:. 21 September 2014
1688:Parantipathes larix
1527:boom-and-bust cycle
1392:Dascyllus albisella
1305:princess parrotfish
371:Henri Milne-Edwards
298:ocean acidification
249:of soft deep-water
45:Conservation status
38:Black coral colony
3555:White band disease
3540:Black band disease
3509:Tuvalu Archipelago
3489:Raja Ampat Islands
3429:Great Barrier Reef
2830:10.7717/peerj.5129
2077:on 30 October 2019
1568:
1479:
1430:
1398:Centropyge potteri
1309:
1273:Antipathes grandis
1257:continental slopes
1232:
1192:
633:Pseudocirrhipathes
267:continental slopes
3997:
3996:
3956:Open Tree of Life
3743:Taxon identifiers
3734:
3733:
3642:
3641:
3560:White pox disease
3409:Coral Sea Islands
3106:on June 16, 2001.
3085:Opresko, Dennis.
2903:(4711): 157–164.
2679:(2754): 207–208.
2505:(13): 5204–5208.
2374:978-94-010-5428-7
2341:10.3354/meps09228
2300:978-0-87850-138-0
1990:State Symbols USA
1657:Opresko, Dennis.
1333:green sea turtles
1175:
1165:
1155:
1145:
1134:
1124:
1114:
1104:
1094:
1084:
1074:
1064:
1054:
1044:
1039:Dendrobathypathes
1034:
1024:
1014:
1004:
993:
983:
973:
963:
953:
943:
932:
922:
906:
896:
885:
875:
865:
854:
844:
834:
824:
815:
799:
789:
779:
769:
759:
749:
738:
721:
711:
701:
691:
682:
671:
661:
641:
628:
615:
602:
589:
557:
540:according to the
331:Hawaiian language
290:Pacific Islanders
232:
231:
226:
218:
200:
192:
181:
170:
159:
139:
63:
4077:
4070:Anthozoan orders
3990:
3989:
3977:
3976:
3964:
3963:
3951:
3950:
3941:
3940:
3928:
3927:
3925:NBNSYS0000159387
3915:
3914:
3902:
3901:
3889:
3888:
3876:
3875:
3863:
3862:
3850:
3849:
3837:
3836:
3824:
3823:
3811:
3810:
3798:
3797:
3785:
3784:
3783:
3770:
3769:
3768:
3738:
3721:Deep-water coral
3696:Coral dermatitis
3597:
3312:Deep-water coral
3244:
3151:
3144:
3137:
3128:
3123:
3107:
3094:
3091:NMNH.typepad.com
3072:
3071:
3069:
3067:
3053:
3044:
3038:
3037:
3035:
3033:
3019:
3013:
3012:
3010:
2978:
2972:
2971:
2969:
2967:
2958:
2950:
2941:
2940:
2930:
2921:
2920:
2892:
2886:
2885:
2883:
2881:
2867:
2861:
2860:
2850:
2832:
2808:
2802:
2791:
2785:
2784:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2747:
2721:
2712:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2696:
2694:10.1038/110217a0
2664:
2658:
2657:
2651:
2647:
2645:
2637:
2595:
2589:
2588:
2563:
2550:
2549:
2541:
2535:
2534:
2524:
2514:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2443:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2405:
2399:
2398:
2392:
2388:
2386:
2378:
2352:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2311:
2305:
2304:
2286:
2280:
2279:
2269:
2241:
2235:
2234:
2231:Waikiki Aquarium
2223:
2202:
2201:
2191:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2124:
2113:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2093:
2087:
2086:
2084:
2082:
2073:. Archived from
2062:
2056:
2055:
2011:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1973:
1971:
1952:
1946:
1945:
1937:
1912:
1911:
1899:
1890:
1889:
1883:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1832:
1826:
1825:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1796:
1794:
1780:
1771:
1765:
1764:
1762:
1760:
1745:
1726:
1725:
1715:
1698:(1–2): 129–137.
1683:
1674:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1654:
1643:
1642:
1640:
1638:
1619:
1287:. The polyps of
1173:
1163:
1153:
1143:
1132:
1122:
1112:
1102:
1092:
1082:
1072:
1062:
1052:
1042:
1032:
1022:
1012:
1002:
991:
981:
971:
961:
951:
941:
930:
917:
904:
894:
883:
873:
863:
852:
842:
832:
822:
810:
797:
787:
777:
767:
757:
747:
729:
719:
709:
699:
689:
680:
669:
659:
649:
636:
623:
610:
597:
587:
565:
552:
519:
503:
487:
471:
455:
439:
356:
338:
328:
237:, also known as
224:
216:
206:
198:
187:
176:
165:
154:
130:
78:
77:
57:
33:
21:
4087:
4086:
4080:
4079:
4078:
4076:
4075:
4074:
4000:
3999:
3998:
3993:
3985:
3980:
3972:
3967:
3959:
3954:
3946:
3944:
3936:
3931:
3923:
3918:
3910:
3905:
3897:
3892:
3884:
3879:
3871:
3866:
3858:
3853:
3845:
3840:
3832:
3827:
3819:
3814:
3806:
3801:
3793:
3788:
3779:
3778:
3773:
3764:
3763:
3758:
3745:
3735:
3730:
3716:Coralline algae
3686:Artificial reef
3674:
3647:Symbiotic algae
3638:
3595:
3591:Reef resilience
3564:
3535:Coral bleaching
3523:
3389:Andros, Bahamas
3360:
3334:Coral reef fish
3283:
3245:
3236:
3164:
3155:
3114:Leiopathes spp.
3112:"Black corals (
3110:
3097:
3084:
3081:
3076:
3075:
3065:
3063:
3051:
3046:
3045:
3041:
3031:
3029:
3021:
3020:
3016:
2980:
2979:
2975:
2965:
2963:
2956:
2952:
2951:
2944:
2932:
2931:
2924:
2894:
2893:
2889:
2879:
2877:
2869:
2868:
2864:
2810:
2809:
2805:
2792:
2788:
2774:
2773:
2769:
2724:Pacific Science
2719:
2714:
2713:
2709:
2699:
2697:
2666:
2665:
2661:
2648:
2638:
2618:
2597:
2596:
2592:
2586:
2565:
2564:
2553:
2543:
2542:
2538:
2492:
2491:
2487:
2445:
2444:
2440:
2430:
2428:
2414:Pacific Studies
2407:
2406:
2402:
2389:
2379:
2375:
2354:
2353:
2349:
2313:
2312:
2308:
2301:
2288:
2287:
2283:
2246:Pacific Science
2243:
2242:
2238:
2225:
2224:
2205:
2161:
2160:
2156:
2126:
2125:
2116:
2106:
2104:
2095:
2094:
2090:
2080:
2078:
2064:
2063:
2059:
2036:10.2307/1541743
2013:
2012:
2005:
1995:
1993:
1984:
1983:
1979:
1969:
1967:
1954:
1953:
1949:
1939:
1938:
1915:
1901:
1900:
1893:
1876:
1869:
1867:
1834:
1833:
1829:
1822:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1792:
1790:
1778:
1773:
1772:
1768:
1758:
1756:
1755:. 18 April 2016
1747:
1746:
1729:
1685:
1684:
1677:
1667:
1665:
1656:
1655:
1646:
1636:
1634:
1621:
1620:
1613:
1608:
1586:coral bleaching
1554:
1513:as opposed to
1471:
1458:epipelagic zone
1407:
1379:
1314:
1281:
1237:brackish waters
1218:
1213:
1184:
1019:Alternatipathes
905:Van Pesch, 1914
884:Kinoshita, 1910
823:Kinoshita, 1910
687:Acanthopathinae
653:
573:
534:
533:
532:
531:
527:
526:
525:
520:
511:
510:
509:
504:
495:
494:
493:
488:
479:
478:
477:
472:
463:
462:
461:
456:
447:
446:
445:
440:
429:
363:
336:ʻēkaha kū moana
310:
210:
129:
72:
64:
47:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4085:
4084:
4081:
4073:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4002:
4001:
3995:
3994:
3992:
3991:
3978:
3965:
3952:
3942:
3929:
3916:
3903:
3890:
3877:
3864:
3851:
3838:
3825:
3812:
3799:
3786:
3771:
3755:
3753:
3747:
3746:
3741:
3732:
3731:
3729:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3701:Precious coral
3698:
3693:
3688:
3682:
3680:
3676:
3675:
3673:
3672:
3671:
3670:
3663:
3650:
3648:
3644:
3643:
3640:
3639:
3637:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3605:
3603:
3594:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3572:
3570:
3566:
3565:
3563:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3531:
3529:
3528:Coral diseases
3525:
3524:
3522:
3521:
3516:
3514:Virgin Islands
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3414:Coral Triangle
3411:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3370:
3368:
3362:
3361:
3359:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3320:
3319:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3293:
3291:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3266:
3261:
3255:
3253:
3247:
3246:
3239:
3237:
3235:
3234:
3228:
3222:
3221:
3220:
3215:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3174:
3172:
3166:
3165:
3156:
3154:
3153:
3146:
3139:
3131:
3125:
3124:
3122:on 2008-12-16.
3108:
3095:
3080:
3079:External links
3077:
3074:
3073:
3039:
3014:
2993:(4): 467–475.
2973:
2942:
2922:
2887:
2862:
2803:
2786:
2767:
2730:(3): 291–299.
2707:
2659:
2650:|journal=
2616:
2590:
2584:
2551:
2536:
2485:
2458:(130): 11–22.
2452:Marine Biology
2438:
2400:
2391:|journal=
2373:
2347:
2306:
2299:
2281:
2252:(3): 411–420.
2236:
2203:
2154:
2135:(132): 63–67.
2114:
2098:"Black corals"
2088:
2057:
2003:
1977:
1957:"Antipatharia"
1947:
1913:
1891:
1851:(3): 776–778.
1827:
1820:
1800:
1766:
1727:
1675:
1644:
1624:"Antipatharia"
1610:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1599:Carijoa riisei
1582:Global warming
1553:
1550:
1485:properties in
1470:
1467:
1406:
1403:
1378:
1375:
1313:
1310:
1280:
1277:
1267:, or undersea
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1201:hermaphroditic
1183:
1180:
1179:
1178:
1177:
1176:
1166:
1156:
1137:
1136:
1135:
1125:
1115:
1105:
1095:
1085:
1075:
1065:
1055:
1045:
1035:
1025:
1015:
1000:Schizopathidae
996:
995:
994:
988:Tanacetipathes
984:
974:
964:
958:Cupressopathes
954:
935:
934:
933:
911:
910:
909:
908:
907:
888:
887:
886:
876:
857:
856:
855:
845:
835:
804:
803:
802:
801:
800:
790:
780:
770:
760:
745:Aphanipathinae
741:
740:
739:
722:
712:
706:Distichopathes
702:
678:Aphanipathidae
674:
673:
672:
662:
642:
629:
616:
603:
590:
529:
528:
523:Schizopathidae
521:
514:
513:
512:
505:
498:
497:
496:
489:
482:
481:
480:
473:
466:
465:
464:
459:Aphanipathidae
457:
450:
449:
448:
441:
434:
433:
432:
431:
430:
428:
425:
409:Schizopathidae
362:
359:
309:
306:
302:climate change
282:ceriantharians
235:Antipatharians
230:
229:
228:
227:
219:
204:Schizopathidae
201:
193:
182:
171:
163:Aphanipathidae
160:
146:
145:
141:
140:
124:
120:
119:
114:
110:
109:
104:
100:
99:
94:
90:
89:
84:
80:
79:
66:
65:
52:
49:
48:
43:
40:
39:
35:
34:
26:
25:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4083:
4082:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4007:
4005:
3988:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3943:
3939:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3791:
3787:
3782:
3776:
3772:
3767:
3761:
3757:
3756:
3754:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3739:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3683:
3681:
3677:
3669:
3668:
3664:
3662:
3661:
3657:
3656:
3655:
3654:Zooxanthellae
3652:
3651:
3649:
3645:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3624:Project AWARE
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3606:
3604:
3602:
3601:Organizations
3598:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3573:
3571:
3567:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3532:
3530:
3526:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3469:Ningaloo Reef
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3374:List of reefs
3372:
3371:
3369:
3367:
3366:Coral regions
3363:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3346:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3290:
3286:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3256:
3254:
3252:
3248:
3243:
3233:
3229:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3210:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3175:
3173:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3152:
3147:
3145:
3140:
3138:
3133:
3132:
3129:
3121:
3117:
3115:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3083:
3082:
3078:
3061:
3057:
3050:
3043:
3040:
3028:
3024:
3018:
3015:
3009:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2977:
2974:
2962:
2955:
2949:
2947:
2943:
2938:
2937:
2929:
2927:
2923:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2897:Hydrobiologia
2891:
2888:
2876:
2872:
2866:
2863:
2858:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2807:
2804:
2801:(1), 197–202.
2800:
2796:
2790:
2787:
2782:
2778:
2777:Sea Frontiers
2771:
2768:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2718:
2711:
2708:
2695:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2669:"Black Coral"
2663:
2660:
2655:
2643:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2617:9780123942821
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2594:
2591:
2587:
2585:9783319313030
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2562:
2560:
2558:
2556:
2552:
2547:
2540:
2537:
2532:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2489:
2486:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2442:
2439:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2404:
2401:
2396:
2384:
2376:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2351:
2348:
2342:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2310:
2307:
2302:
2296:
2292:
2285:
2282:
2277:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2240:
2237:
2233:. 2013-11-21.
2232:
2228:
2227:"Black Coral"
2222:
2220:
2218:
2216:
2214:
2212:
2210:
2208:
2204:
2199:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2158:
2155:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2115:
2103:
2099:
2092:
2089:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2061:
2058:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2030:(1): 96–104.
2029:
2025:
2021:
2019:
2010:
2008:
2004:
1991:
1987:
1981:
1978:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1951:
1948:
1943:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1914:
1909:
1905:
1898:
1896:
1892:
1887:
1881:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1840:
1831:
1828:
1823:
1817:
1813:
1812:
1804:
1801:
1788:
1784:
1777:
1770:
1767:
1754:
1750:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1728:
1723:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1682:
1680:
1676:
1664:
1660:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1645:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1618:
1616:
1612:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1600:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1577:
1573:
1572:IUCN Red List
1565:
1564:
1558:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1531:overexploited
1528:
1522:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1475:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1452:
1447:
1446:metamorphoses
1443:
1439:
1435:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1417:
1413:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1399:
1394:
1393:
1388:
1384:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1371:
1366:
1365:
1360:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1344:invertebrates
1340:
1338:
1334:
1329:
1328:butterflyfish
1325:
1321:
1318:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1297:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1278:
1276:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1229:
1228:
1222:
1215:
1210:
1208:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1188:
1181:
1172:
1171:
1167:
1164:Opresko, 2006
1162:
1161:
1157:
1154:Opresko, 2006
1152:
1151:
1147:
1146:
1144:Opresko, 2006
1142:
1141:Stylopathidae
1138:
1133:Opresko, 2005
1131:
1130:
1129:Umbellapathes
1126:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1111:
1110:
1106:
1103:Opresko, 2002
1101:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1090:
1086:
1083:Opresko, 2002
1081:
1080:
1076:
1071:
1070:
1069:Parantipathes
1066:
1063:Opresko, 2002
1061:
1060:
1056:
1053:Opresko, 2005
1051:
1050:
1046:
1043:Opresko, 2002
1041:
1040:
1036:
1031:
1030:
1026:
1021:
1020:
1016:
1013:Opresko, 2002
1011:
1010:
1006:
1005:
1001:
997:
992:Opresko, 2001
990:
989:
985:
982:Opresko, 2001
980:
979:
975:
972:Opresko, 2001
970:
969:
965:
962:Opresko, 2001
960:
959:
955:
950:
949:
945:
944:
942:Opresko, 2001
940:
939:Myriopathidae
936:
929:
928:
924:
923:
920:
916:
912:
903:
902:
898:
897:
895:Opresko, 2003
893:
889:
882:
881:
877:
874:Opresko, 2011
872:
871:
867:
866:
864:Opresko, 2003
862:
858:
853:Opresko, 2003
851:
850:
846:
841:
840:
836:
833:Opresko, 2003
831:
830:
826:
825:
821:
820:Cladopathinae
817:
816:
813:
809:
808:Cladopathidae
805:
798:Opresko, 2004
796:
795:
791:
788:Opresko, 2004
786:
785:
784:Pteridopathes
781:
778:Opresko, 2004
776:
775:
771:
768:Opresko, 2004
766:
765:
764:Asteriopathes
761:
756:
755:
751:
750:
748:Opresko, 2004
746:
742:
736:
732:
731:Milne-Edwards
728:
727:
726:Rhipidipathes
723:
720:Opresko, 2004
718:
717:
713:
710:Opresko, 2004
708:
707:
703:
700:Opresko, 2004
698:
697:
696:Acanthopathes
693:
692:
690:Opresko, 2004
688:
684:
683:
681:Opresko, 2004
679:
675:
668:
667:
663:
657:
652:
648:
647:
643:
639:
635:
634:
630:
626:
622:
621:
617:
613:
612:de Blainville
609:
608:
604:
600:
596:
595:
591:
585:
581:
577:
572:
568:
564:
563:
559:
558:
555:
551:
547:
546:
545:
543:
539:
524:
518:
508:
507:Myriopathidae
502:
492:
486:
476:
475:Cladopathidae
470:
460:
454:
444:
438:
426:
424:
422:
418:
414:
413:Stylopathidae
410:
406:
405:Myriopathidae
402:
398:
397:Cladopathidae
394:
389:
387:
383:
380:
376:
372:
368:
360:
358:
355:
350:
346:
342:
337:
332:
327:
322:
321:Ancient Greek
317:
315:
307:
305:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
278:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
225:Opresko, 2006
223:
222:Stylopathidae
220:
214:
209:
205:
202:
199:Opresko, 2001
197:
196:Myriopathidae
194:
190:
186:
183:
179:
175:
174:Cladopathidae
172:
168:
164:
161:
157:
153:
150:
149:
147:
142:
137:
133:
132:Milne-Edwards
128:
125:
122:
121:
118:
115:
112:
111:
108:
105:
102:
101:
98:
95:
92:
91:
88:
85:
82:
81:
76:
71:
67:
61:
55:
50:
46:
41:
36:
32:
27:
22:
19:
4015:Hexacorallia
4010:Antipatharia
3808:Antipatharia
3795:Antipatharia
3781:Antipatharia
3751:Antipatharia
3750:
3667:Symbiodinium
3665:
3658:
3569:Conservation
3484:Pulley Ridge
3343:
3251:Octocorallia
3177:
3170:Hexacorallia
3120:the original
3113:
3104:the original
3090:
3064:. Retrieved
3059:
3055:
3042:
3030:. Retrieved
3026:
3017:
2990:
2986:
2976:
2964:. Retrieved
2960:
2935:
2900:
2896:
2890:
2878:. Retrieved
2874:
2871:"Appendices"
2865:
2820:
2816:
2806:
2798:
2794:
2789:
2780:
2776:
2770:
2727:
2723:
2710:
2698:. Retrieved
2676:
2672:
2662:
2599:
2593:
2567:
2539:
2502:
2498:
2488:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2441:
2429:. Retrieved
2417:
2413:
2403:
2356:
2350:
2326:(13): 1–11.
2323:
2319:
2309:
2290:
2284:
2249:
2245:
2239:
2230:
2171:
2167:
2157:
2132:
2128:
2105:. Retrieved
2101:
2091:
2079:. Retrieved
2075:the original
2070:
2060:
2027:
2023:
2017:
1996:13 September
1994:. Retrieved
1989:
1980:
1968:. Retrieved
1960:
1950:
1941:
1907:
1880:cite journal
1868:. Retrieved
1848:
1844:
1838:
1830:
1810:
1803:
1793:29 September
1791:. Retrieved
1786:
1782:
1769:
1757:. Retrieved
1752:
1713:11567/802206
1695:
1691:
1687:
1666:. Retrieved
1662:
1635:. Retrieved
1627:
1597:
1580:
1569:
1561:
1547:
1523:
1499:Indo-Pacific
1480:
1461:
1455:
1431:
1425:
1416:growth rings
1408:
1396:
1390:
1380:
1377:Interactions
1368:
1362:
1341:
1331:stomachs of
1315:
1282:
1272:
1233:
1227:Cirrhipathes
1225:
1205:
1193:
1168:
1160:Triadopathes
1158:
1148:
1127:
1117:
1107:
1099:Stauropathes
1097:
1089:Schizopathes
1087:
1077:
1067:
1057:
1049:Dendropathes
1047:
1037:
1027:
1017:
1009:Abyssopathes
1007:
986:
976:
966:
956:
948:Antipathella
946:
925:
915:Leiopathidae
899:
892:Sibopathinae
878:
870:Heteropathes
868:
861:Hexapathinae
849:Trissopathes
847:
837:
829:Chrysopathes
827:
792:
782:
772:
762:
754:Aphanipathes
752:
724:
714:
704:
694:
666:Stichopathes
664:
644:
640:et al., 2009
631:
618:
607:Cirrhipathes
605:
592:
560:
550:Antipathidae
535:
491:Leiopathidae
443:Antipathidae
401:Leiopathidae
390:
386:phylogenetic
382:Antipathidae
364:
318:
311:
286:Hexacorallia
279:
263:cosmopolitan
243:thorn corals
242:
239:black corals
238:
234:
233:
185:Leiopathidae
152:Antipathidae
127:Antipatharia
126:
117:Hexacorallia
24:Black coral
18:
3881:iNaturalist
3775:Wikispecies
3660:Amphidinium
3449:Lakshadweep
3384:Amazon Reef
3289:Coral reefs
3162:coral reefs
2431:12 November
2420:: 244–260.
2267:10125/24187
2071:EdwardsLabs
1970:25 November
1759:4 September
1563:Bathypathes
1539:Appendix II
1383:crustaceans
1285:zooplankton
1174:Brook, 1889
1150:Stylopathes
1113:Brook, 1889
1093:Brook, 1889
1073:Brook, 1889
1059:Lillipathes
1033:Brook, 1889
1029:Bathypathes
1003:Brook, 1889
978:Plumapathes
968:Myriopathes
952:Brook, 1889
931:Haime, 1849
843:Brook, 1889
839:Cladopathes
794:Tetrapathes
774:Phanopathes
758:Brook, 1889
716:Elatopathes
670:Brook, 1889
654: [
646:Pteropathes
620:Hillopathes
574: [
375:Jules Haime
351:are called
211: [
56:Appendix II
4004:Categories
3726:Fire coral
3711:Coral sand
3634:Reef Check
3614:Green Fins
3329:Microatoll
3269:Organ pipe
3193:Hermatypic
3066:4 November
3032:28 October
2966:4 November
2880:29 October
2783:: 267–272.
2745:10125/2453
2700:28 October
2426:10125/4416
2081:30 October
1821:1149951974
1606:References
1576:Madagascar
1487:Indonesian
1324:parrotfish
1317:Vertebrate
1289:cnidarians
1170:Tylopathes
1119:Telopathes
1109:Taxipathes
1079:Saropathes
927:Leiopathes
901:Sibopathes
890:subfamily
880:Hexapathes
859:subfamily
818:subfamily
743:subfamily
685:subfamily
594:Antipathes
562:Allopathes
354:akah bahar
326:antipathes
3706:Coral rag
3629:Reef Ball
3399:Baa Atoll
2839:2167-8359
2823:: e5129.
2754:1534-6188
2652:ignored (
2642:cite book
2626:0065-2881
2393:ignored (
2383:cite book
2198:1755-2672
2174:(1): 12.
1507:bracelets
1483:medicinal
1342:However,
1320:predation
1312:Predators
1293:oral disk
1253:meiofauna
1197:tentacles
812:Kinoshita
625:van Pesch
554:Ehrenberg
367:specimens
308:Etymology
275:asexually
245:, are an
178:Kinoshita
156:Ehrenberg
144:Families
93:Kingdom:
87:Eukaryota
3766:Q1479472
3760:Wikidata
3454:Maldives
3444:Kiribati
3394:Apo Reef
3324:Fringing
3279:Sea pens
3274:Sea fans
3232:Tabulate
3218:Staghorn
3188:Elegance
2917:12598714
2857:30013832
2762:38992352
2634:22877611
2531:19307564
2480:85999468
2276:41135750
2149:22877611
2052:29314907
1865:17049278
1722:22546360
1590:salinity
1503:necklace
1495:Hawaiian
1387:bivalves
1356:mollusks
1348:muricids
1346:such as
1291:have an
1269:plateaus
1249:currents
1241:salinity
536:List of
294:poaching
271:sexually
107:Cnidaria
103:Phylum:
97:Animalia
83:Domain:
3494:Red Sea
3439:Jamaica
3213:Elkhorn
3198:Chalice
2995:Bibcode
2848:6035717
2681:Bibcode
2522:2663997
2460:Bibcode
2328:Bibcode
2176:Bibcode
2044:1541743
1789:(2): 54
1552:Threats
1535:Cozumel
1491:Chinese
1451:oocytes
1442:planula
1412:budding
1352:ovulids
1216:Habitat
1211:Ecology
1139:Family
998:Family
937:Family
919:Haeckel
913:Family
806:Family
676:Family
656:species
580:species
567:Opresko
548:Family
314:protein
213:species
189:Haeckel
167:Opresko
123:Order:
113:Class:
58: (
3945:NZOR:
3886:121454
3860:1ANTPO
3519:Yabiji
3259:Bamboo
3226:Rugose
3203:Pillar
3158:Corals
2915:
2855:
2845:
2837:
2760:
2752:
2673:Nature
2632:
2624:
2614:
2582:
2529:
2519:
2478:
2371:
2297:
2274:
2196:
2147:
2050:
2042:
1902:NOAA.
1863:
1818:
1720:
1637:13 May
1493:, and
1337:sharks
1261:cliffs
921:, 1896
814:, 1910
737:, 1857
733:&
660:, 1889
627:, 1914
614:, 1830
601:, 1766
599:Pallas
588:, 1994
571:Cairns
569:&
556:, 1834
538:genera
427:Genera
421:chitin
419:and a
417:polyps
411:, and
379:family
349:corals
347:, the
341:Hawaii
259:polyps
255:chitin
251:corals
217:, 1889
191:, 1896
180:, 1910
169:, 2004
158:, 1834
138:, 1857
134:&
3987:22549
3982:WoRMS
3961:84510
3938:44168
3912:51940
3899:11616
3894:IRMNG
3834:6227G
3821:80397
3679:Other
3434:India
3307:Coral
3297:Atoll
3208:Table
3183:Brain
3178:Black
3052:(PDF)
2961:CITES
2957:(PDF)
2913:S2CID
2875:CITES
2817:PeerJ
2758:S2CID
2720:(PDF)
2476:S2CID
2272:S2CID
2107:4 May
2102:Reefs
2040:JSTOR
1961:WoRMS
1870:4 May
1779:(PDF)
1668:4 May
1628:WoRMS
1543:CITES
1519:myrrh
1515:stony
1438:sperm
1359:mimic
1265:caves
735:Haime
658:]
651:Brook
586:]
393:order
345:Malay
343:. In
323:word
247:order
215:]
208:Brook
136:Haime
60:CITES
54:CITES
3974:4743
3933:NCBI
3907:ITIS
3868:GBIF
3855:EPPO
3847:6584
3816:BOLD
3264:Blue
3160:and
3068:2019
3034:2019
3027:NOAA
2968:2019
2882:2019
2853:PMID
2835:ISSN
2750:ISSN
2702:2019
2654:help
2630:PMID
2622:ISSN
2612:ISBN
2580:ISBN
2527:PMID
2433:2019
2395:help
2369:ISBN
2295:ISBN
2194:ISSN
2145:PMID
2109:2020
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