494:, defined as the permanent conversion of forest area to non-forest due to activities associated with agriculture, urban or recreational development, oil and gas development, and flooding for hydroelectric projects. In Alberta, the province with the largest oil and gas industry, more trees are cut for agriculture or oil and gas exploration than for timber. In Eastern Canada, over 9,000 km (3,500 sq mi) of peatlands and forest have been flooded over the past four decades for hydroelectric projects. As of 2005, Canada as a whole has 91% of the boreal forest cover that existed at the dawn of European settlement. More deforestation has occurred outside the boreal region, in more southerly areas of the country. The forest sector annually harvests approximately ½ of 1% of the region. However, this is not considered deforestation by some, given that provincial laws are meant to ensure that areas harvested by the forest sector are replanted or regenerated naturally. However, the resulting road network from logging has effects that persist long beyond the period of harvest; indeed, one can make the case that road construction is one of the most harmful and persistent effects of logging.
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estimated that the annual harvest in the boreal was about 7,500 square kilometres per year, equivalent to about 0.2% of the total
Canadian boreal forest. The sharp downturn in the market for lumber because of the collapse of the housing market in the United States that began in 2006, coupled with import tariff and tax barriers, have knocked the bottom out of Canada's forest industry. In Ontario, Canada's most populous province, where most forestry activity is in the boreal, government statistics suggest that the harvest declined 18% from 2005 to 2006. Given the high number of mill closings from 2005 onward, mostly in Ontario and Quebec, it is a trend that most likely persisted through 2007 and 2008. Most of Canada's conventional onshore oil and gas production, including the rapidly expanding oil sands production in Alberta, is located in the boreal region as is Canada's largest uranium producing zone in northern Saskatchewan and Quebec's largest hydroelectric generating facilities in the La Grande watershed.
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carbon that will remain for more than a hundred years. This will result in global impacts which researchers are still uncertain about. Direct effects of herbivores can lead to boreal landscapes as there may be decreased regeneration in some local forest patches. This is altering the input of soils, which could affect soil compaction, and density, or reduce microbial and nitrogen levels in the soil. At high abundance, large herbivores often choose palatable, fast-growing plants which keep keystone species in boreal forests juvenile, which changes these forests. This moose-led transition in forest age class distribution and composition causes slower increases in net primary production with lower large herbivore populations. This means that they are not only changing boreal forests from carbon sinks to sources over moderate periods. Wildfires have impacts on the forest carbon balance as well, including the combustion emissions and the after effects.
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companies have come to adopt the management practices known as eco-system based management, which takes into consideration criteria and indicators for sustainability – social, economic and environmental. A number of key principles have come to underpin
Canadian forestry practices as mandated by forestry legislation, including the obligation for forestry companies operating on public lands to fully regenerate all areas harvested for timber and to consult the public on the preparation of forest management/harvest plans submitted to the relevant provincial authorities.
641:
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147:, the boreal makes an important contribution to the rural and aboriginal economies of Canada, primarily through resource industries, recreation, hunting, fishing and eco-tourism. Hundreds of cities and towns within its territory derive at least 20% of their economic activity from the forest, mainly from industries like forest products, mining, oil and gas and tourism. The boreal forest also plays an iconic role in Canada's history, economic and social development and the arts.
358:. There are large areas of black spruce, a species which is tolerant of shallow soil, permafrost and waterlogged substrates, although as a consequence they have relatively low biological productivity. Owing to the short growing season, generally infertile soils, generally shallow soils, and frequent waterlogging, most of these forest types are slow-growing species, which generally tend to predominate in stressed habitats. Similarly, many of the understory shrubs are in the
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current annual industrial timber harvest. It can be many more times that in intense fire years. However, although logging also removes trees, fire is not the same as logging, since fire has been a part of coniferous forests for millennia. Fire not only stimulates regeneration of many plant species, it recycles phosphorus and removes accumulated organic matter. Fire is increasingly used as a management tool to maintain forest health in some parts of North
America (see
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almost 400,000 direct and indirect jobs across Canada. Forestry, pulp and paper, mining, and oil and gas exploration and development are the largest industries along with tourism, trapping, recreation, light manufacturing and the services to support industry and communities. The forest products sector is one of Canada's largest export industries, representing approximately 3% of GDP, with about half of the annual wood harvest coming from the boreal forest.
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insect outbreaks. Owing to the accumulated peat in the soil, and the predominance of coniferous trees, lightning-caused fire has always been a natural part of this forest. It is one of many ecosystems that depend upon such recurring natural disturbance. For example, fire dependent species like lodgepole and jack pine have resin sealed cones. In a fire, the resin melts and the cones open, allowing seeds to scatter so that a new pine forest begins (see also
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effects of logging, so they should not be treated as equivalent in their ecological consequences. Logging, for example, requires road networks with their negative impacts, and it removes nutrients from the site, which may deplete nutrients for the next cycle of forest growth. Fire, on the other hand, recycles nutrients on location (except for some nitrogen), it removes accumulated organic matter and it stimulates reproduction of fire-dependent species.
480:
272:
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653:). Different parts of the boreal have different burn cycles. The drier western region, which receives lower average rainfall, had higher natural fire frequencies. Hence, more area is burned annually on average in the west than in central and eastern Canada. When natural burn cycles are interrupted by fire suppression, natural renewal is obstructed and
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miles (11,000 km) in the Mealy
Mountains area of eastern Canada and a waterway provincial park of 1,200 square miles (3,100 km) that follows alongside the Eagle River from headwaters to sea. A report issued in 2011 by the Pew Environment Group described the Canadian boreal forest as the largest natural storage of
374:. Since nutrient levels are so low, overall, the productivity of forest trees is highly dependent on the rate at which mineral elements such as nitrogen and phosphorus are recycled by litterfall and decomposition. After logging, the loss of nutrients may convert forested areas into shrub barrens dominated by shrubs such as
601:). It has been estimated that prior to European settlement, this renewal process occurred on average every 75 to 100 years, creating even-aged stands of forest. Fire continues to cause natural forest disturbance, but fire suppression and clear-cutting has interrupted these natural cycles, leading to significant changes in
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Many of the wildlife species, are, like the forests, dependent upon natural disturbance from fire and insect outbreaks. For example, at least three species of warbler (Cape May warbler, bay-breasted warbler and
Tennessee warbler), have distributions and abundance related to spruce budworm outbreaks.
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As a result of growing public concern with sustainable development and conserving the integrity of the boreal forests, conservation initiatives are progressing on various fronts. The area in national and provincial parks and protected conservation areas is approximately 10% of the total boreal area.
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There may be as many as five billion landbirds, including resident and migratory species. The
Canadian boreal region contains the largest area of wetlands of any ecosystem of the world, serving as breeding ground for over 12 million waterbirds and millions of land birds, the latter including species
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and the
Mackenzie River basin, are among the ten largest wetlands in the world. The boreal forest wetlands provide wildlife habitat (particularly for migratory birds), they maintain water flow in rivers, and they store significant amounts of carbon that otherwise would be released to the atmosphere.
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on Earth, with around three million square kilometres still undisturbed by roads, cities and industrial development. Its high level of intactness has made the forest a particular focus of environmentalists and conservation scientists who view the untouched regions of the forest as an opportunity for
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About 1,400 communities within the Boreal region rely on resource industries for at least part of the livelihood and stability. Many of these communities were carved out of the forest to support a sawmill, pulp and paper mill, mine or railway maintenance facility. Boreal forestry activities support
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Because parts of the boreal forest region are found in nearly every province and territory in Canada, there has not been much in the way of coordinated planning to develop the region. Prime
Minister Diefenbaker talked of his "northern vision" but little was done to see it come to pass. A proposal
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is changed. In addition, fire suppression causes fuel loads to increase so that fires, when they do occur, become more intense. One can argue that fire suppression actually creates a positive feed back loop, where ever more expensive fire suppression generates the conditions for ever larger fires.
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Canada's boreal region can be divided into seven ecozones. These seven can be divided into two main groups. The northern regions of the boreal forest consists of four eco-zones – Taiga
Cordillera, Taiga Plains, Taiga Shield and Hudson Plains – that are the most thinly treed areas where the growing
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Roughly one quarter of the boreal forest is managed for industrial forestry. The remaining three-quarters is either in parks, conservation areas, model forests or is considered non-timber-productive, generally defined as unsuitable for managed forestry or inaccessible. As recently as 2003, it was
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The particular mixture of tree species depends upon factors including soil moisture, soil depth, and organic content. Upland forests can be closely mixed with forested peatlands. The resulting conifer forests are produced by and dependent upon recurring disturbance from storms, fires, floods and
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Canada's boreal landscape contains more lakes and rivers than any comparably sized landmass on Earth. It has been estimated that the boreal region contains over 1.5 million lakes with a minimum surface area of 40,000 m (430,000 sq ft) as well as some of Canada's largest lakes. Soft
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Although there are rather few species of trees in the boreal forest, there is a considerable diversity of other kinds of plants. An accurate summary is difficult, since most compendia on plants are organized by political, rather than ecological boundaries; one exception addresses the flora of the
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Since the melting of the great ice sheet, the boreal forest has been through many cycles of natural death through fire, insect outbreaks and disease, followed by regeneration. Prior to
European colonization of Canada and the application of modern firefighting equipment and techniques, the natural
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most prevalent in the four northern eco-zones of the Taiga and Hudson Plains, while spruce, balsam fir, jack pine, white birch and trembling aspen are most common in the lower boreal regions. Large populations of trembling aspen and willow are found in the southernmost parts of the Boreal Plains.
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and biodiversity. This type of coniferous forest vegetation is spread across the Northern Hemisphere. These forests contain three structural types: forest tundra in the north, open lichen woodland further south, and closed forest in more southern areas. White spruce, black spruce and tamarack are
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In July 2008 the Ontario government announced plans to protect 225,000 km (87,000 sq mi) of the Northern Boreal lands. In February 2010 the Canadian government established protection for 5,300 square miles (14,000 km) of boreal forest by creating a new reserve of 4,100 square
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Terms like old growth and ancient forest have a different connotation in the boreal context than they do when used to describe mature coastal rain forests with longer-lived species and different natural disturbance cycles. However, the effects of forest fires and insect outbreaks differ from the
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Since the early 1990s, a strong impetus has been created to focus on conserving Canada's boreal legacy and sustainably managing economic activity within the entire region. The Canadian boreal is largely intact and available for multiple uses like timber harvest, recreation and hunting. Forestry
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Despite today's sophisticated and expensive fire-spotting and fire-fighting techniques, forest fires in Canada still burn, on average, about 28,000 km (11,000 sq mi) of boreal and other forest area annually. That average annual burn area is equivalent to more than three times the
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The boreal forests keeps large amounts of carbons in biomass, dead organic matter, and soil pools. Due to cold temperatures, significant amounts of carbon stocks have been built up, this combined with the further increasing temperatures and disturbance rates will lead to the high net source of
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season and average tree size progressively shrinks until the edge of the Arctic tundra is reached. The southern tier of the boreal meanwhile consists of three other ecozones that form the largely uninterrupted or continuous forest in stretching as far south as Lake Superior in Ontario (as the
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Forman, R. T. T., D. Sperling, J. Bissonette, A. P. Clevenger, C. D. Cutshall, V. H. Dale, L. Fahrig, R. France, C. R. Goldman, K. Heanue, J. A. Jones, F. J. Swanson, T. Turrentine, and T. C. Winter. 2002. Road Ecology: Science and Solutions. Washington: Island
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ecoregion) and the Manitoba-North Dakota border. These three southern zones are the Boreal Shield, at 1,630,000 square kilometres the largest of the eight zones, the Boreal Plains and Boreal Cordillera. A typical ecoregion of this southern tier would be the
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The Canadian boreal forest is a very large bio-region that extends in length from the Yukon-Alaska border right across the country to Newfoundland and Labrador. It is over 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) in width (north to south) separating the arctic
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Heinselman, M. L. 1981. Fire and succession in the conifer forests of northern North America. pp. 374–405. In D. C. West, H.H. Shugart, and D. B. Botkin (eds.) Forest Succession: Concepts and Applications. New York: Springer-Verlag.True
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Lemprière, T.C.; Kurz, W.A.; Hogg, E.H.; Schmoll, C.; Rampley, G.J.; Yemshanov, D.; McKenney, D.W.; Gilsenan, R.; Beatch, A.; Blain, D.; Bhatti, J.S.; Krcmar, E. (December 2013). "Canadian boreal forests and climate change mitigation".
531:(or perching birds, often referred to as songbirds). It is estimated that the avian population of the boreal represents 60% of the landbirds in all of Canada and almost 30% of all landbirds in the United States and Canada combined.
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water lakes predominate in central and eastern Canada and hard water lakes predominate in Western Canada. Most large boreal lakes have cold water species of fish like trout and whitefish, while in warmer waters, species may include
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The forest – and boreal species such as the caribou and loon – are or have been featured on Canadian currency. Another iconic and enduring image of the boreal was created by 20th-century landscape painters, most notably from the
1328:
Vitt, D.H., L.A. Halsey and B.J. Nicholson. 2005. The Mackenzie River basin. Pp. 166–202 in L.H. Fraser and P.A. Keddy (eds.). The World's Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
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835:, who saw the uniqueness of Canada in its boreal vastness. The Group of Seven artists largely portrayed the boreal as natural, pure and unspoiled by human presence or activity and hence only partly a reflection of reality.
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that covers northern Quebec and most of Labrador. Within the boreal region, there are about 1,890,000 square kilometres that are 80% to 100% forested and another 650,000 square kilometres with 60% to 80% forest cover.
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that kill large tracts of forest with cyclical regularity. For example, the many stands of white spruce, black spruce, and balsam fir are vulnerable to the cyclical outbreaks of a species of the spruce budworm, the
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10,000 years ago, spruce and northern pine migrated northward and were followed thousands of years later by fir and birch. About 5,000 years ago, the Canadian boreal began to resemble what it is today in terms of
1273:
Weetman, G. F. 1983. Forestry practices and stress on Canadian forest land. pp. 260–301. In W. Simpson-Lewis, R. McKechnie, and V. Neimanis (eds.) Stress on Land in Canada. Ottawa: Lands Directorate, Environment
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KurzW.A., ShawC.H., BoisvenueC., StinsonG., MetsarantaJ., LeckieD., DykA., SmythC., and NeilsonE.T.. 2013. Carbon in Canada’s boreal forest — A synthesis. Environmental Reviews. 21(4): 260-292.
1675:, p. 21; Canadian Boreal Initiative, Borealcanada.ca/boreal-did-you-know-e.php; "Aboriginal Issues in Canada's Boreal Forest", Summary, National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy.
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are also stimulated by fires, probably benefiting from the removal of shade, and the nutrients released in ashes. The resulting berries are an important food source for boreal forest animals.
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One dominant characteristic of the boreal is that much of it consists of large, even-aged stands, a uniformity that owes to a cycle of natural disturbances like forest fires, or outbreaks of
1738:
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Carleton, T. J. and P. MacLellan. 1994. Woody vegetation responses to fire versus clear-cutting logging: a comparative survey in the central Canadian boreal forest. Ecoscience 1: 141–152.
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Few species of boreal wildlife are classified under government conservation regimes as being at risk of extinction. However, the decline of some major species of wildlife is a concern.
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The negative effects of fire suppression are still under study, and not fully measured, but they need to be considered when making decisions about the future health of boreal forests.
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Most large forest products companies have certified their boreal forestry operations to one of three third-party, independently audited standards for sustainable forest management:
717:. Over 90% of the boreal forest is provincial Crown land; another 5% is federally controlled and includes national parks, First Nations reserves and national defence installations.
177:. The central interior of the province is occupied by a sub-boreal transition zone between the main boreal forest and the dry forests of the southern interior. However, across the
827:, the construction of Canada's transcontinental railways – all are symbols of Canadian history familiar to school children that are inextricably linked to the boreal forest.
85:. The boreal region in Canada covers almost 60% of the country's land area. The Canadian boreal region spans the landscape from the most easterly part of the province of
1487:
Leroux, S. J., Wiersma, Y. F., & Vander Wal, E. (2020). Herbivore Impacts on Carbon Cycling in Boreal Forests. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 35(11), 1001–1010.
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Ludwig, D., D. D. Jones, and C. S. Holling. 1978. Qualitative analysis of insect outbreak systems: the spruce budworm and forest. Journal of Animal Ecology 47: 315–332.
811:, their adventures, discoveries, aboriginal alliances and misfortunes is an essential part of the popular colonial history of Canada. The canoe, the beaver pelt, the
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National Wetlands Working Group. 1988. Wetlands of Canada.Jesse Graham Likes to party Canada Committee on Ecological Land Classification, Environment Canada. 452 p.
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Zhao, B., Zhuang, Q., Shurpali, N. et al. North American boreal forests are a large carbon source due to wildfires from 1986 to 2016. Sci Rep 11, 7723 (2021).
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In the absence of a nationwide plan, private industry and the provinces have pursued development in particular products or certain regions. These include the
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produce a vegetation mosaic supporting an ever-changing diversity of plant and animal populations (Viereck 1973). In the absence of fire, the accumulation of
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growth (as defined in North America) along the northern flank of the boreal forest creates a transition to the tundra region at the northern
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Fraser, L.H. and P.A. Keddy (eds.). 2005. The World's Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
1806:"The boreal muse of the Group of Seven; Creating a national identity from a palette of boreal colours", Canadian Geographic, Jan/Feb 2004,
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The boreal forest is deeply ingrained in the Canadian identity and the images foreigners have of Canada. The history of the early European
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378:. Many of the plant species are fire-dependent, since fire removes neighbouring plants, and recycles nutrients locked in organic matter.
1588:
1414:
Cadman, M.D., P.F.J. Eagles, and F.M. Helleiner. Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Ontario. University of Waterloo Press, Waterloo. p. 244
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Cadman, M.D., P.F.J. Eagles, and F.M. Helleiner. Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Ontario. University of Waterloo Press, Waterloo. p. 376
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About eighty percent of the Indigenous population of Canada resides in forested areas – including one million in over five hundred
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Sustainable Forest Management refers to managing a forest ecosystem in a manner that maintains and enhances its long-term health.
386:, but much of this area is not forested. One portion of the boreal forest can be used to illustrate plant diversity; consider the
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1658:"Mill Closures and Mill Investments in the Canadian Forest Sector", State of Canada's Forests, 2005–2006, pp. 46–55.
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countries (e.g. Sweden, Finland, Norway and small regions of Scotland). In Europe, the entire boreal forest is referred to as
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shows a preference for burnt over forests, where it forages for insects burrowing in the dead trees that remain standing.
286:
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The Canadian boreal forest in its current form began to emerge with the end of the last Ice Age. With the retreat of the
1978:
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Ecology and seasonal habitat selection of boreal caribou in the Snake-Sahtaneh watershed, British Columbia: 2000 to 2004
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Riley, J.L. 2003. Flora of the Hudson Bay Lowland and its Postglacial Origins.NRC Research Press, Ottawa, Canada. 236 p.
1261:
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1364:"Birds in Canada's Boreal Forest: New paradigms for paradise found", State of Canada's Forests 2005–2006, p. 72
1478:
Kurz, W.A. et al. “Carbon in Canada’s Boreal Forest — A Synthesis.” Environmental reviews 21.4 (2013): 260–292. Web.
1973:
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and MĂ©tis settlements in boreal zones. Of that amount, over 17,000 work in the forest products industry, mostly in
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574:. The Newfoundland population of marten is threatened by habitat loss, accidental trapping and prey availability.
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1667:"Aboriginal Partnerships in the Forest", State, The State of Canada's Forests, 2007, National Resources Canada,
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Churchill, E.D.; Hanson, H.C. 1958. The concept of climax in arctic and alpine vegetation. Bot. Rev. 24:127–191.
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205:. It consists mainly of mixed coniferous and broad-leaf woodlands. South of this transition can be found the
173:. On the southwestern flank, the boreal forest extends into sub-alpine and lower elevation areas of northern
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element (Ritchie 1987). The proportions of the dominant conifers (white and black spruces, jack pine (
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and Alaska. The area is dominated by coniferous forests, particularly spruce, interspersed with vast
109:. While the biodiversity of regions varies, each ecozone has characteristic native flora and fauna.
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Rowe, J. S. and G. W. Scotter. 1973. Fire in the boreal forest. Quaternary Research 3: 444–464.
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State of Canada's Forests: 2004–2005, Map "Canada's Boreal Forest", inside back cover.
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1569:"Disturbances and Renewal in the Forest", State of Canada's Forests, 2003–2004, p. 74
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https://www.buschsystems.com/resource-center/page/why-we-need-our-boreal-forest-left-intact
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State of Canada's Forests: 2004–2005, p. 45, Map "Canada's Boreal Forest" inside back cover
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390:. In this western part of the boreal forest, there are, for example 127 species of grass (
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large-scale conservation that would otherwise be impractical in other parts of the world.
198:
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marks a different kind of transition along the south-central flank from boreal forest to
1375:
1292:
Cody, W.J. 1996. Flora of the Yukon Territory. NRC Research Press, Ottawa, Canada. 643 p.
1065:"Canada's Boreal Forest", Forest Products Association of Canada, map, inside front cover.
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The boreal region contains about 13% of Canada's population. With its sheer vastness and
1225:
Archibold, O. W. 1995. Ecology of World Vegetation. London: Chapman and Hall. Chapter 8.
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State of Canada's Forests: 2004–2005, The Boreal Forest, Canadian Forest Service,
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grows in clearings and shallow soils. It can form extensive shrub barrens after logging.
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burn/regeneration cycle was less than 75 to 100 years, and it still is in many areas.
1967:
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1739:"Boreal landscapes added to Canada's parks Boreal landscapes added to Canada's parks"
1606:
1447:"Forest Associated Species at Risk", State of Canada's Forests 2004–2005, pp. 77–79;
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State of Canada's Forests: 2004–2005, Map "Canada's Boreal Region", inside back cover
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1713:"Protecting a Northern Boreal region one-and-a-half times the size of the Maritimes"
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and was discussed by officials and politicians but was never implemented. In 2014,
362:, a family known to tolerate acid, infertile and flooded habitats: examples include
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319:
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543:, as the name suggests, is a plant that similar thrives in recently burned areas.
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Lamb.), tamarack, and balsam fir) vary greatly in response to interactions among
1684:"Sustainable Forest Management in Canada", State of Canada's Forests, 2007, p. 6
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548:
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70:
1947:
1560:
Viereck, L.A. 1973. Wildfire in the taiga of Alaska. Quaternary Res. 3:465–495.
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Spurr, S.H.; Barnes, B.V. 1980. Forest ecology, 3rd ed. Wiley, New York. 687 p.
1101:
418:). Overall, the flora has 1112 species – there are even 15 species of orchids.
1381:(Report). Canadian Boreal Initiative / Boreal Songbird Initiative. p. 1.
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558:, whose lichen-rich, mature forest habitat spans the boreal forest from the
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1915:
1113:"The Nature of Forest Fires," State of Canada's Forests, 2003–2004,
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1104:. Can. Dep. Agric., For. Biol. Div., Ottawa ON, Bi-mo. Progr. Rep. 10(1).
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Boreal vegetation never attains stability because of interactions among
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1942:
1809:"The Boreal Muse of the Group of Seven - Canadian Geographic Magazine"
1301:"Boreal fresh waters", State of Canada's Forests 2004–2005, pp. 70–71
959:"Global Warming Cited as Wildfires Increase in Fragile Boreal Forest"
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1879:"State of Canada's Forests 1999–2000: Forests in the New Millennium"
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1524:"Fire in the Forest", State of Canada's Forests, 2003–2004, p. 47
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and woodlands operations in the boreal and other forest regions.
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1937:
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is a vast region comprising about one third of the circumpolar
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Fireweed is a native wildflower that grows after forest fires.
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ecoregion that spreads across the northern parts of the world.
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NatGeo News Watch: News Editor David Braun's Eye on the World
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In contemporary times, the boreal forest has suffered little
1036:
State of Canada's Forests, 2004–2005, pp. 46–47.
1102:
Results of spraying against spruce budworm in New Brunswick
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region from the various landscapes of southern Canada. The
81:, not just the northern fringe where it thins out near the
1239:, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. Nicklas Stromberg, November 2008
612:, vegetation, soil–water relationships, frost action, and
1959:(Motion picture). Canada: National Film Board of Canada.
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Plants and Vegetation: Origins, Processes, Consequences.
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1129:
1127:
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Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada
1695:"Canadian Sustainable Forestry Certification Coalition"
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Plants and Vegetation: Origins, Processes, Consequences
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1042:
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Canada's boreal forest is considered to be the largest
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Boreal forests occur in the more southern parts of the
1025:
Analysis produced by Global Forest Watch Canada, 2012.
1091:. Can. Dep. Agric., Ottawa ON, Tech. Bull. 37 (N.S.).
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The Forest Stewardship Council's FSC Boreal Standard;
916:
http://www.borealcanada.ca/boreal-did-you-know-e.php
616:(Churchill and Hanson 1958, Spurr and Barnes 1980).
1715:. Office of the Premier. 2008-07-14. Archived from
1264:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 666 p.
1607:"If We Build It, They Will Stay | the Walrus"
1198:State of Canada's Forests: 2004–2005, p. 40.
1083:Swaine, J.M.; Craighead, F.C.; Bailey, J.W. 1924.
27:Canadian biome characterized by coniferous forests
1845:, Fort St. John, British Columbia, archived from
1783:"Canada urged to protect water in boreal forests"
1515:Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 666 p.
1449:http://www.newfoundlandmarten.com/page.php?pid=21
1376:Importance of Canada's Boreal Forest to Landbirds
1339:
1337:
1335:
624:peat on level upland sites would eventually oust
1836:Culling, Diane E.; Culling, Brad A. (May 2006),
1637:State of Canada's Forests 2004–2005, p. 48
1628:State of Canada's Forests 2004–2005, p. 57
1578:State of Canada's Forests 2003–2004, p. 69
1343:State of Canada's Forests 2004–2005, p. 40
957:Gillis, Justin; Fountain, Henry (May 10, 2016).
729:A skidder is used to clear forest and move logs.
112:The boreal forest zone consists of closed-crown
767:Certification for sustainable forest management
429:with spruce trees on a forested ridge in Quebec
314:, with needle leaves and cones. These include:
1435:
925:; State of Canada's Forests: 2004–2005, p. 43.
1745:. National Geographic Society. Archived from
1648:http://canadaforests.nrcan.gc.ca/statsprofile
1256:
1254:
515:as diverse as vultures, hawks, grouse, owls,
310:Most trees native to the Canadian boreal are
105:. The boreal region of Canada includes eight
57:. Other countries with boreal forest include
8:
1646:Natural Resources Canada, statistical data,
1100:Balch, R.E.; Webb, F.E.; Morris, R.F. 1954.
991:State of Canada's Forests: 2004–2005, p. 48.
982:State of Canada's Forests: 2004–2005, p. 55.
947:Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK. 178 p.
1953:McMahon, Kevin (writer, director) (2020).
1943:International Boreal Conservation Campaign
1869:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1619:State of Canada's Forests 2004–2005, p. 49
1501:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-87343-3
1489:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2020.07.009
678:Mid-Canada Development Corridor: A Concept
193:, the southeastern flank is marked by the
803:Boreal in culture and popular imagination
454:The boreal forest also has vast areas of
414:and 36 members of the snapdragon family (
890:
89:to the border between the far northern
1862:
1769:Forest of Blue: Canada's Boreal Forest
505:nests on the ground in boreal forests.
1933:The Alberta Centre for Boreal Studies
306:grows in the shade of boreal forests.
7:
1468:https://doi.org/10.1139/er-2013-0041
782:The Sustainable Forestry Initiative.
140:, pests, and perhaps other factors.
914:Canadian Boreal Initiative online,
779:The Canadian standard CAN/CSA Z809;
61:, which contains the majority; the
1781:Munro, Margaret (March 16, 2011).
338:. A few are broad-leaved species:
25:
1737:Braun, David (February 7, 2010).
945:Postglacial Vegetation of Canada.
713:Forest land in Canada is largely
684:attempted to revive the concept.
1948:Map of world's largest wetlands.
1914:
859:
845:
195:Eastern forest-boreal transition
1388:from the original on 2021-09-17
693:Ring of Fire (Northern Ontario)
282:Central Canadian Shield forests
1697:. 23 July 2012. Archived from
1085:Studies on the spruce budworm
275:Typical upland taiga in Quebec
1:
1424:Natural Resources Canada 2000
287:Eastern Canadian Shield taiga
65:in its northernmost state of
1374:Blancher, Peter (May 2003).
1352:We need our forests intact,
1054:Ecology of World Vegetation.
1237:Black Spruce: Picea mariana
402:), 93 species of crucifer (
116:forests with a conspicuous
2000:
1938:Boreal Songbird Initiative
1436:Culling & Culling 2006
1001:bc fisher habitat (2017).
706:
466:. Two wetland areas, the
1888:, Ottawa, Ontario, 2000,
1767:Pew Environment Group. A
1056:London: Chapman and Hall.
825:North-West Mounted Police
434:Inland water and wetlands
87:Newfoundland and Labrador
1984:Taiga and boreal forests
1928:Map of Canadian Ecozones
1886:Natural Resources Canada
1244:October 5, 2011, at the
1234:C. Michael Hogan. 2008.
742:Indigenous participation
709:Land ownership in Canada
398:, 115 species of sedge (
254:Choristoneura fumiferana
1921:Boreal forest of Canada
1052:Archibold, O. W. 1995.
758:Sustainable development
628:vegetation and produce
556:Boreal woodland caribou
537:black-backed woodpecker
18:Boreal Forest of Canada
1003:"Implementation zones"
880:La Saline Natural Area
730:
645:
506:
487:
430:
307:
276:
225:General forest ecology
53:, mostly north of the
43:Canada's boreal forest
39:
1923:at Wikimedia Commons
1593:www.canadahistory.com
1589:"The Northern Vision"
1166:Environmental Reviews
875:Environment of Canada
728:
643:
566:, is designated as a
560:Northwest Territories
500:
482:
424:
301:
274:
33:
1749:on February 15, 2010
1178:10.1139/er-2013-0039
943:Ritchie, J.C. 1987.
821:Hudson's Bay Company
667:Region-wide planning
592:Natural regeneration
1979:Geography of Canada
1852:on 21 December 2013
1609:. 8 September 2014.
1511:Keddy, P.A. 2007.
1260:Keddy, P.A. 2007.
1087:Cacoecia fumiferana
1005:. bc fisher habitat
721:Industrial activity
689:Athabasca Oil Sands
662:Economic activities
655:species composition
603:species composition
236:species composition
231:Wisconsin Ice Sheet
207:deciduous woodlands
51:Northern Hemisphere
1454:2007-11-14 at the
963:The New York Times
921:2008-06-01 at the
731:
646:
578:Boreal life cycles
507:
488:
468:Hudson Bay Lowland
431:
394:), 118 species of
388:Flora of the Yukon
384:Hudson Bay Lowland
342:and large-toothed
308:
277:
40:
1974:Forests of Canada
1919:Media related to
1787:The Vancouver Sun
1673:978-0-662-46538-6
682:John van Nostrand
406:), 52 species of
179:Prairie Provinces
156:Location and size
75:Northern European
16:(Redirected from
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1772:
1771:. March 16, 2011
1765:
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181:, a band of
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1901:19 December
1856:19 December
1753:17 February
1009:28 November
968:December 7,
809:fur traders
545:Blueberries
525:woodpeckers
521:kingfishers
425:A Sphagnum
352:white birch
244:pine beetle
1968:Categories
1819:2008-05-27
1723:2008-07-31
1392:2023-07-25
886:References
797:freshwater
790:Protection
715:Crown land
626:coniferous
614:permafrost
568:threatened
529:passerines
400:Cyperaceae
396:Asteraceae
348:cottonwood
324:balsam fir
267:Ecosystems
130:topography
69:; and the
1830:Citations
1186:1181-8700
1153:facterino
817:voyageurs
697:Plan Nord
618:Wildfires
372:blueberry
360:Ericaceae
340:trembling
336:jack pine
187:grassland
171:tree line
118:deciduous
97:, mostly
83:tree line
1956:Borealis
1865:citation
1792:16 March
1452:Archived
1383:Archived
1242:Archived
1121:, p. 47.
919:Archived
839:See also
823:and the
622:sphagnum
564:Labrador
541:Fireweed
510:Wildlife
408:Rosaceae
312:conifers
151:Overview
107:ecozones
95:wetlands
1274:Canada.
905:, p. 43
570:by the
456:wetland
445:walleye
392:Poaceae
126:climate
114:conifer
1892:
1671:
1184:
1134:Press.
1117:
901:
819:, the
815:, the
630:muskeg
527:, and
447:, and
354:, and
334:, and
203:Quebec
163:tundra
67:Alaska
59:Russia
1882:(PDF)
1850:(PDF)
1843:(PDF)
1386:(PDF)
1379:(PDF)
344:aspen
328:larch
189:. In
167:taiga
91:Yukon
79:taiga
36:taiga
1903:2013
1890:ISBN
1871:link
1858:2013
1794:2011
1755:2010
1669:ISBN
1182:ISSN
1115:ISBN
1089:Clem
1011:2020
970:2018
899:ISBN
610:fire
547:and
535:The
501:The
464:fens
462:and
460:bogs
370:and
350:and
302:The
138:fire
134:soil
103:fens
101:and
99:bogs
1329:UK.
1174:doi
562:to
427:bog
246:or
209:of
197:of
73:or
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1884:,
1867:}}
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366:,
346:,
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