Bourbon Reforms - Knowledge (XXG)

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officials were effective in the extraction of rents, these conclusions are largely based analysis of fiscal results without a direct connection drawn between monopoly policies and the outcomes of those policies. The overall evolution of monopoly policies suggests that the Bourbons were, in fact, quite aware of organizational problems that plague hierarchies, and that they had a solid understanding of the importance of transaction costs for the sustenance of bureaucracy. This is evidenced in the design of the factory system, which helped vertically integrate much of the market and also helped reduce costs associated with controlling illegal markets. The closing of tobacco factories and similarly perceived ‘failures’ at the end of the 18th century should be read with an understanding of the limitations of the political economy of colonialism and in light of policy changes in Madrid that happened in the context of a tumultuous Europe. Monopoly policies were relaxed in areas where the most conflict arose in response to such policies.

1993:, led by a Criollo, presented demands in Bogota that would benefit the Criollos and Indians but it was not successful. The inhabitants of New Spain, especially the peasant class, experienced the oppression of Bourbons but did not turn to revolt in the same way as their southern neighbors. Rising costs of land, disease, crime and agricultural crises increased tensions in New Spain. Perhaps due to the lack of Aztec identity, the circumstances did not produce a united response like that of the Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II and Revolt of the Comuneros. It is important to note that while a threat, the Tupac Amaru II revolt did not intend to overthrow the Spanish crown. Tupac Amaru himself claimed to have been loyal and merely carrying out the king's will. The unrest in the late 18th century was not motivated by the prospect of independence or enlightenment thinking, and often used traditional Spanish law and Catholic theology in its justifications and reasoning. However, it is seen by some scholars as a precursor to the eventual 1733:. In New Spain alone, there was 6000 Spanish soldiers to 23,000 militia. Some believe that militias were often created along race lines, with militias for whites, blacks and mixed race people. However, other studies indicate that the men in militias were from all races, most of them being mixed-race. These militias aided the supplement of a standing Spanish army, which, at the time, was occupied with conflicts on the home front. Eventually, the militias formed the base for independent armies, and turned on the Spanish. Outnumbered and already indulged in conflict abroad, Spain was put in a difficult situation that they created themselves. However, this begs a crucial thought; was the Spanish crown foolish to encourage the creation of these militias? While on the surface this seemed to be a failure from the beginning, the reality was Spain did not have much of a choice but to trust the Creoles. The reality was the Spanish Empire was tied down in to many places, and naturally they ran out of resources. 1139:, the reforms were designed to make the administration more efficient and to promote its economic, commercial and fiscal development. When looking at the material effects of how the Bourbon Reforms aimed to change the relationship between the Spanish American colonies and the Crown, it can be said that the reforms functionally aimed to transform juridically semi-autonomous groups into proper colonies. Specifically, the reforms sought to increase commercial agriculture and mining and increase trade. The system was intended to be much more hierarchal, forcing the colonies to become more dependent on Spain and serve as a market for their manufactured goods. The crown ordered these changes in hopes that it would have a positive effect on the economy of Spain. Furthermore, the Bourbon Reforms were intended to limit the power of 1729:, and compositions of councils chosen by the wealthy creoles. Due to a fear amongst the Bourbons of a potential penetration of their empire by other European empires, they engaged in the construction of fortresses and garrisons and created and heavily promoted militias composed of people of a variety of backgrounds and races to supplement their army. The military was a place where creoles still enjoyed a political space within the bourbon reforms. In fact, the Bourbons encouraged the creation of militia under Creole control. The Creoles were also tasked with founding municipalities and collecting revenue in order to support their militias and build fortifications. Shortly, the militias soon became significantly larger and more powerful than the standing 1441:

center. During the period of the Bourbon reforms, the Spanish crown wanted to switch from the Plaza Mayor model, in which the plaza was a central square that was a daily market and a space for public festivities, to the Plaza de Armas model, in which the plaza space would be cleared and devoted to martial activities. These reforms were characterized by a mixture of construction projects, relocations, and unfinished or unsuccessful projects. Although they were only partially applied, some aspects of these reform projects actually spilled over from colonial to republican times, post- independence. In fact, in both Mexico and Peru, the independent regimes assumed features of the Bourbon reform program in terms of the use and understanding of the plaza.

1530:

principle to be one of the cornerstone principles of the Bourbon reforms. The Free Trade decree opened all ports in the colonies to trade with Spanish controlled ports, the colonies, or Spain. This act, in tandem with the crucial decision preceding it to open the islands of the Spanish Caribbean to all nine peninsular Spanish ports in 1765, helped establish the notion that the special privilege of trade that only a few ports had enjoyed earlier was to be no more. It is important to understand that the ‘free’ trade that was established by the Free Trade Decree was only free in a limited sense. There were geographic limitations both in Spain and in the Americas, most notably being the exclusion of Venezuela and New Spain.

1549:, implemented several new strategies aimed at streamlining the production and importation of Spanish American goods to Spain. One such strategy that proved highly profitable was the establishment of royal monopolies and trading companies as early as 1717 that controlled the production of export crops such as tobacco and sugar in Cuba and cacao in Venezuela. By charging higher prices for Spanish imports and paying lower prices for exports from Spanish America, these companies used their monopolies to generate rents that disproportionately benefited the Spanish mainland over its Spanish American colonies. For example, during the 1750s, the royal monopoly on Cuban tobacco generated a profit of more than 500 million pesos. 1645:

themselves afterwards. However, with the elimination of this practice and the transition to direct tax collection, tax rates were thus higher and were also now set at an unnegotiable and inflexible rate. Changes like this were part and parcel of the move on behalf of the Crown to try to regain control of administrative power in the American colonies. Administrative powers had, in the mind of the Crown, previously been too porous for Creoles via mechanisms such as the sale of office and tax-farming. However, as Bourbon reforms were put into effect, many colonial officials were condemned for corrupt practices, such as taking bribes and neglecting tax collection without considering the Crown's interest.

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removal of taxes on Spanish wine and the blocking of local mechanisms of production was intended to encourage the purchase of Spanish products. During this time as local production suffered, the flow of wealth increasingly moved towards the Criollo and bureaucratic elites and away from the lower classes. While in certain regions, such as Buenos Aires, the reforms led to growth and productivity, in other places, particularly in smaller towns or rural regions, the lack of presence of wealthy Criollo elites and the massive disparities in distribution of wealth led to unrest, which eventually manifested itself in complaints, and eventually riots and revolts.

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the movements for independence. However, it is necessary to be wary of reading this history as a linear process in which the Bourbon reforms created an unrest that just grew and grew until finally tensions finally snapped and revolts ignited through Spanish America. For example, although it is true that the militias that were created in this era eventually became the base of independence armies, it does not become a significant issue until a while later. There were a series of riots. However, they generally did not threaten the system in place, they rarely made demands, and they were usually in response to something specific.

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transforming them into consumable final products. Through this entire process, the crown was focused on capturing tax revenue. Additionally, Spanish merchants were pushed upwards as a result of these changes. This shift to a focus on export crops and commercial agriculture further altered and limited the autonomy and functionality of the colonies, as they became resources in a system of direct extraction for the Spanish Empire. This boosted a need for trade between Spain and the colonies as they exported raw goods and needed to receive back the processed and manufactured resources of Spain.

1963:

reforms, missionaries still played an active part in the Spanish-American colonial empire. Missionaries often were sent with presidial soldiers into the wilderness of the moving frontier as an arguably more human and, to the crown, less expensive method of converting, subjugating, and incorporating new indigenous peoples. Although the prevalence of missionary groups might have declined in most areas, there still existed a rhythmic and constantly fluctuating relationship in which missions, the military, and civil settlement in frontier society.

1708:

maps were created to display terrain, mineral deposits, bridges and canals, forts, and other important features like mines. Mine-based maps and plans showed plans of mining towns and technical drawings of equipment like winches and ovens which were used in mine production. These maps were used to help the Bourbons fulfil their other reform goals, such as revitalizing old mines and creating new ones. They also used these maps to be able to levy more efficient taxes upon their colonies based on what they consumed and produced in abundance.

1784:

became more expensive and time-consuming to extract mineral ores. Therefore, the Spanish Crown attempted to revitalize the mines and create new ones through a series of reforms. These included giving the mine owners control over labor costs through lower salaries, lowering the prices of gunpowder and organizing its supply more efficiently, as well as a steadier and cheaper supply of mercury which was used for refining silver ores. The reforms also gave tax exemptions to mine production. In 1787, mining ordinances of New Spain and the

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recognition (as early as the 16th century) that the northern area of South America had certain challenges of distance from Peru. There had been earlier creations of captaincies general in Guatemala and Venezuela, marking an increase in their importance. The addition of the viceroyalties in order to compensate for challenges of distance between northern South America and Peru also came about as a result of the need to protect the vital trade routes that existed between these regions. In 1776, a second jurisdiction, the

1919:

of the time. The expulsion represented aspects of liberal ideology as a need to break away from colonial past, progress and civilization as attainable objectives, education as a neutral term of religious instruction, and the separation of the Catholic Church and state. These factors played a major role in the modernization of Spanish America. Spanish soldiers went to Mexico and rounded up the Jesuits to be exiled to Italy. The Jesuits were then placed on Spanish warships and sent to the Italian port of

1325: 1284: 1687:. The intendancies had the intended effect of further decentralizing the administration at the expense of viceroys, captains general and governors, since intendants were directly responsible to the Crown and were granted large powers in economic and political matters. The intendancy system proved to be efficient in most areas and led to an increase in revenue collection. Intendency seats were mainly based in large cities and successful mining centers. Almost all of the new intendants were 973: 2001:

Vizcayans. Even at its height "the rebellion remained a moderate movement, basically a peaceful protest, led by a man who in no way was in no way a revolutionary." In the end, while the leader was executed, there was limited action and the revolt reduced privileges for the Caracas company. Therefore, while some of the information in this section is essential, it is important to present the example of the Venezuelan revolt to show that not all of the revolts were bloody.

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militia which was ordered to muster frequently for training. They were also liable to serve actively in peacetime if the situation required it. This system of organisation in Havana was expanded to New Orleans, Louisiana, Puerto Rico, St Louis, St Genevieve, Pensacola. By 1784 the militia of New Spain had grown to 18,000 in a well-organised manner with an additional 15,000 less organised troops with hundreds more in the Provincias Internas, in Central America the

1300:, a Spanish import, was an essential resource for extracting silver in the mining process, but the French naval blockade dramatically limited imports in Spanish America. As a result, silver plunged downward and mining slumped, which caused revenue to decrease. Ultimately, in 1805, the highland mining districts exploded in revolt. Therefore, it was not the Bourbon reforms that failed, but rather the role of the conflicts at home that resulted in failure. 1242:, the first king of the House of Bourbon, took measures intended to counter the decline of Spanish power called the Bourbon Reforms. Even before the war, the state of the empire was precarious. When Charles II died, the military was practically nonexistent, consisting of only one division; the treasury was bankrupt; and there was no state promotion of commerce or industry. Philip V and his ministers needed to act quickly to reconstruct the empire. 1292:

tightening noose of imperial rivalry abroad with the British, the French, and the Portuguese. They were all fighting for domination in the Atlantic trade. Spain's problems with its neighbor were the biggest concern, and the Spanish Bourbons made constant short-term adjustments to colonial and increasingly, continental war-making. War was inevitable as the hegemonic powers were pinned against each other in a quest for expansion. This hindered the

1808:

they were profit-pursuing when purchasing the rights of mita, while also seeking profit in the forcible sale of goods to the indigenous. However, to clarify, ‘forcible sale’ is a phrase that ought to be read with caution. The evidence indicates that there were indigenous peoples who would participate in the purchase of goods from these merchants willingly, and that mules used in mule trains helped to facilitate their own internal economy.

1876:. In the sixteenth century, missionizing native peoples was seen as a moral conquest. It was used as a tool of pacification among Africans who escaped slavery and made their home in Spanish America. In Ecuador, Santo Domingo, Mexico, and Panama, imprinting and "pacifying" maroon societies was very dependent on the spread of Spanish Catholicism. Pacification is an attempt to create or maintain peace through agreements and diplomacy. 1383:, who was later named Minister of the Indies. Upon his inspection, he found the viceroyalty in a shambles and then reorganized the tax collection system, rewarded loyal Spanish merchants, jailed corrupt tax collectors, and steered the local economy towards mining. The reforms attempted in New Spain were implemented elsewhere in Spanish America subsequently. There had been one earlier reform in the creation of the new 1695:, who wished to retain some control of local administration. The installation of the intendancy system contributed to the further marginalization of the creole elite. It changed the question of who would occupy the positions of Crown officials and shifted the center of influence from landed Creole elites to peninsular Spaniards. Creoles were largely pushed out in favor of peninsular administrators. 1336: 1404:

the crown was able to collect tax revenues from those circuits of trade that had previously eluded it. Although some analyze the Bourbon reforms by arguing that the purpose of the reform was to eliminate contraband trade and other illicit circuits of trade, a closer analysis of the material evidence available indicates that many of these circuits did not disappear, but were simply incorporated.

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changes made by the crown, the consulados also functioned to shift power away from the creole elite and into the hands of peninsular Spaniards. As the consulados controlled internal economic circuits, when the Creoles lost control of these roles in government they also lost much of their control of trade and economic systems, further destabilizing their established power in the colonies.

888: 902: 1351:(New System of Economic Government for America) (1743) was a key text that shaped the reforms. He compared the colonial systems of Britain and France to that of Spain, as the first two nations reaped far greater benefits from their colonies than Spain. He advocated reforming Spain's economic relations with its overseas territories to a system more like the 1955:

hesitant to join forces with the state because they feared the state would gain too much power and try to alter the preexisting ideals and beliefs of the Catholic Church. With the formation of Spanish America, the Catholic Church and the Spanish Crown formed an alliance that lasted for centuries both in the Iberian Peninsula and Spanish America.

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largely supported, notably by important ministers like Gálvez, a Spanish Visitador general, who argued for more commercial deregulation and the end of the monopoly of Cádiz in his paper entitled "Discurso y reflexiones de un vasallo sobre la decadencia de nuestras Indias españoles". Another supporter of free trade was

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tax on silver from one-fifth to one-tenth in order to encourage silver production to be reported. Over the course of the 18th century, the market for silver led the port city of Buenos Aires to prominence, and between 1776 and 1783, 80% of the exports leaving the port at Buenos Aires were shipments of silver.

1211:, which ended the War of Spanish Succession and placed Philip V securely on the Spanish throne, the new Bourbon dynasty was forced to make several territorial concessions to outside powers. This included, in compromise with the Austrian Habsburgs, most of the Spanish Empire's European territories, and with 1890:

colonial Ecuador will allow us to see in three acts, or phases, how clerical intervention and the discourse of Christian conversion shaped colonization over time: ultimately yielding a modus vivendi between rebel African slaves and Spanish colonial authorities." (Bryant, O'Toole, Vinson, 2012: 96–97).

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was still in place, but through purchasing the rights of mita from miners who had been given mita quotas and incorporating themselves into the infrastructure of forcible sale of goods to the indigenous, merchants were still able to participate in mining. These merchants were income-pursuing more than

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Cartographical pushes resulted in massive output with extremely specific indications on maps in a manner that was extremely modern. In tandem with this were data-gathering expeditions that were sponsored and sent out to develop a deeper understanding of the colonies. Quantitative and qualitative data

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An important goal of the Bourbon Reforms was to increase legal, registered trade with Spanish America in order to collect more tax revenue for the Crown, an aim that was frequently undercut both by the prevalence of contraband and the increasing presence of foreign merchants. One strategy to diminish

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of the Spanish crown. This is not to say that a clean and straight line can be drawn from the Bourbon reforms to the movements for independence, but rather that the period of unrest that came in the wake of the reforms helped encourage the conditions necessary for local riots, and eventually revolts.

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The tensions continued to grow and widespread discontent lead to an increasing number of revolts in the Andean region. In the middle of the 18th century, the number of insurrections rose steadily so there were a dozen or more per decade. From 1750 to 1759 there were 11 recorded, while 20 years later

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There are various historical interpretations on the success of the Bourbon reforms. Nevertheless, though the legislation passed by the Bourbons did much to reform the Empire, it was not enough to sustain it. Many of these reforms laid the groundwork of unrest that continued to develop and grow until

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The Bourbon reforms succeeded in raising revenue and increasing silver production in Spanish America. While the changes in tax collection and trade policy had a significant impact on the economic success of the colonies, the domestic industries suffered under the Bourbon reforms. Changes such as the

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However, the relationship between the Church and the implementation of the Bourbon reforms in Spanish America should not be treated as if it were monolithic and singular. While the above-mentioned trends can be seen when looking at the core areas of Spanish America, even at the height of the Bourbon

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whilst in Havana and added to by instructions from Madrid. Colonial Militias were to contain men between 16-45 years of age with the men being conscripted if volunteers were insufficient. The wealthy and educated were to be the officers of the militia with regular army officers seconded to train the

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were expanded from 734 men in 1729 to 2,187 men in 1777 and then again to 3,087 in 1787. The line of forts and the intervening patrols were not to provide a concrete line of protection or to eradicate the threat to Mexico but it was to create general safety as there were troops further south in this

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in the 7 years war prompted the formation of a secret commission in Madrid to discuss and implement military reform. The Commission decided firstly, to strengthen fortifications, secondly to reinforce colonial regulars with metropolitan regulars and to raise new colonial units so that reinforcements

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Another part of the Bourbon reforms targeted the set-up of the municipio itself. Specifically, the main plaza was a central figure in Hispanic colonial urbanism. In Spanish America, cities were planned around a central public square, and much of colonial life emanated from or was planned around that

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Emphasis on the dominant role of the state in ecclesiastical reform sometimes made the church seem defensive and resistant to change and modern ideas. Many nuns of the eighteenth century were resistant and even rebelled against the thought of the church and state joining. Many priests and nuns were

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The expulsion of the Jesuits which was frowned upon among many colonists. Many historians believe that the Bourbon Reforms would bring forth self-confidence for American-born Spaniards. The expulsion of the Jesuits confronted the liberal ideology of the nineteenth century and conservative positions

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functioned to imprint submission to religious practices. Maroons, as well as other Africans, rapidly learned that Catholicism was necessary for political legitimation. However, bringing Christianity to light did not interrupt the development of localized practices that observed religious traditions

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mining industry as part of the Crown's attempts to stimulate silver production, which had plummeted throughout Spanish America at the beginning of the 1700s. Spain relied heavily on the silver industry for tax revenue, particularly on the mines at Potosí in the Andes. In 1736, the Crown reduced the

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seeking travel to Cordoba or Paraguay and the port could also be described as a "back-door" to the Andes. Regardless of Buenos Aires having a positive correlation with the Bourbon reforms due its heavy reliance on the flow of silver and Spain's commerce, its reign eventually fell victim to Spain's

1572:

In addition to changes to production, the nature of trade under the Bourbons, especially after 1740, also shifted – away from the Habsburg fleet system for shipping, which had many inefficiencies and was vulnerable to attack, and towards a single-ship system, which was more competitive with foreign

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A key reason for freeing trade was that King Charles III wanted to remove the monopoly of Cádiz, a Spanish port, over trade with the Americas. Cádiz could not supply for the large demand in the Americas. He also wanted to end the Spanish Crown's financial dependence on this monopoly. Free trade was

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Establishment of new viceroyalties also revealed a new revelation on the part of the Spanish crown: that there were huge circuits of illicit trade in Spanish America, and that it was in the best interest of the crown to incorporate these circuits of trade into the existing infrastructure. This way,

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fleets. Spain turned to France for help with the export of its goods, which was the first time in Spanish colonial history that legal trade occurred with a foreign nation. Prior to this, trade between Spanish-American colonies and other European countries had all occurred on illicit trade circuits.

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movement. They came to be functionally as soldiers of the church and therefore had a special allegiance to the papacy. Thus, it was likely in the best interest of the Crown to make sure that the people on the ground in the American colonies would have a stronger allegiance to the Crown than to any

1707:

The Bourbons launched large projects of information gathering to investigate and record the natural endowments in their American colonies to enable more efficient exploitation of their colonies’ resources. These projects included censuses and large cartographical efforts. Various types of detailed

1648:

With regards to the economy, collection of taxes was more efficient under the intendancy system. In 1778, Charles III established the "Decree of Free Trade," which allowed the Spanish American ports to trade directly with one another and most ports in Spain. Therefore, "commerce would no longer be

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ended. Prior to the Bourbon reforms, the practice of tax-farming allowed people, specifically members of the Creole elite, to purchase the right of tax collection from the crown. These people would then pay the crown ahead of time what the expected tax revenue would be, and then they collect taxes

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Merchants in Cadiz benefited enormously as a result of these changes. Much wealth accumulated in the hands of the already wealthy peninsular Spaniards. Creole merchants, on the other hand, saw much of their profit decrease with the demolition of monopolies. However, these criollo merchants did not

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throughout the Spanish world. Imperial rivalry and competition was also a large factor of the Bourbon reforms, and since France was the more dominant power, the Spanish tried to compete with their intellectual power. In a sense, all things French came into fashion during the subsequent century and

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The new Bourbon kings kept close ties with France and used many Frenchmen as advisors. French innovations in politics and social manners never fully replaced Spanish laws and traditions but became an important model in both areas. As a result, there was an influx of French goods, ideas, and books,

1958:

These changes are all part of the movement to subjugate the church to the state. Eliminating the fuero also eliminated what the Crown would have likely seen as unnecessary intermediaries, and thus, the bypassing of these intermediaries would make the state stronger. Moreover, ideologically, while

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in New Spain and later Minister of the Indies, implemented labor regulation through his "Regulation on Wage and Peonage" (1769). This decree specified wages for free labor workers and set conditions for contract fulfillment and circumstances such as debt repayment. Under the Bourbons, the further

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Then in 1778, the Free Trade Decree (Reglamento para el comercio libre) was passed. The crown believed that free and protected trade between Spain and the Americas was the best way to restore all sectors of the Spanish dominion to their former glory. Traditionally, many identify this act and this

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demonstrated an effort on the part of Spain that, unlike other Atlantic empires, seemed to make a real effort to integrate its American colonies as essential parts of not just Spain's colonial empire, but also as provinces of the monarchy and not simply faraway lands. Just as in many of the other

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with Great Britain (1756–1763). Charles III's counselors sought more detailed reports of Spain's overseas territories/and now understood the need to take them fully into account. The new wave of reforms included larger exploitation of resources in the colonies, increased taxes, the opening of new

1716:

In terms of agriculture, the Bourbons established state monopolies over crops and established state monopoly over purchases, too. They specifically focused on commercial export crops like sugar, indigo, cochineal, tobacco, and cacao. The State was the one in charge of taking primary products and

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The early reforms were aimed at improving the economic and political structure of Spain. They sought to modernize agriculture, construction of ships, and infrastructure to monitor and incite economic integration and development on a regional and national level. The Spanish were caught in an ever

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It is important when studying the process of these reforms, particularly the economic reforms, that one pays close attention to where the money being generated is going. Much of it went to the creole elites in the cities, and to bureaucratic elites, and to the Spanish treasure in the Americas.

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The Bourbons implemented a range of mining reforms to reverse the decline of mines in New Spain and in accordance with the Bourbon's goals to increase the wealth of Spain. The mines had been declining due to technological issues and high costs: as tunnels deepened, flooding became easier and it

1587:

An examination of Bourbon intervention in the Peruvian tobacco industry from the mid-18th century to the beginning of the 19th century helps reveal a little more about the nature of the Bourbon administration and its relationship to monopoly policies. Although it is widely accepted that Bourbon

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The War of Succession's main objective was to determine which European powers would dominate over the Atlantic trade. In 1713, the war ended with the Treaty of Utrecht which had significant impact on Spain's economic holdings. Spain lost some of its primary European possessions to the Austrian

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The Bourbon reforms have been termed "a revolution in government" for their sweeping changes to the structure of the administration, which sought to strengthen the power of the Spanish state, decrease the power of local elites in favor of office holders from the Iberian peninsula, and increase

2000:

Not all rebellions were violent. In Venezuela, the movement was essentially an economic protest which the government by its response turned into a rebellion; its social base was among smaller farmers and merchants, many of them criollos, and their cry was ‘long live the King and death to the

1950:

and elsewhere in Spain arising from his reforms. Charles created a commission which blamed the unrest in Madrid on the Jesuits. Along this line of reasoning, historians Kenneth Andrien and Allan Kuethe argue that "claims of a Jesuit-led conspiracy allowed the crown to find a scapegoat without

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world. "While an Afro-Christian diasporic identity may have been in its formative stage during the sixteenth century, transfers of knowledge between the old world and the new were readily apparent in European interactions with Maroons on the Esmeraldas coast. This case study of the Maroons of

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The intendancy system was part of the new attitude on the part of the Bourbons to push the economic development of the mother country. The intendants were meant to be promoters of export-oriented economic activity. They were meant to focus on extractive activities, and not manufacturing ones.

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to improve the administration of the overseas possessions. The new viceroyalty was created initially in 1717, suppressed just six years later, and then permanently established in 1739, still earlier than the reforms of the late 18th century. It was an administrative change that reflected the

1800:, a mining region with huge turnover in mining production, historian Enrique Tandeter argues that "There the rise of the first quarter of the century can be attributed to individual entrepreneurs." Entrepreneurial investments allowed for improvements in mining technology and lower costs. 1980:

Wealth being generated was not being redistributed to lower classes. This coupled with a general increase in regulations and obligations, especially for the indigenous, contributed to a societal foundation that was untenable for the plebeians of colonial Spanish-American society.

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not only led to a significant loss of revenue for the Spanish Crown, it also provided channels through which British merchants could deal in contraband trade. With these losses, Spain relied primarily on its American colonies to maintain its position as a European power.

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these reforms were being implemented, there was a parallel movement happening in Europe to move towards a harder line of separation between Church and State. The Bourbons were, in fact, quite modern in their understanding of the separation between Church and State.

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and the Caribbean despite the fact that most of this trade was considered contraband since it was not carried on Spanish ships. Most of the Bourbon kings tried to outlaw this trade through various programs like increasing the customs receipts, with little avail.

1556:. Frustrations with this company's monopoly were felt among the majority of Venezuela's population and culminated in a revolt against the company in 1749, led by Juan Francisco de León. The revolt created a temporary alliance between elite creoles, 2329:

Nuevo sistema de gobierno economico para la América: con los males y daños que le causa el que hoy tiene, de los que participa copiosamente España, y remedios universales para que la primera tenga considerables ventajas, y la segunda mayores

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However, the Jesuits also were more than just a missionary group. They were very clever and influential businessmen and had control over significant portions of the American colonies. Moreover, the Jesuits were a group that emerged from the

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would not need to be dispatched from Spain during emergency. Thirdly, the artillery was integrated under the metropolitan Royal Artillery Corps, fourthly, the existing colonial militias were completely reformed and expanded dramatically.

1510:, an economic policy in which countries maximize their exports and minimize their imports to secure greater portion of wealth from a fixed amount in the world. This wealth was measured in the quantity that ended up in imperial treasuries. 1905:

broke out in 1762. In 1767, Charles III of Spain ordered the expulsion of 2,200 Jesuits from the vice royalties. Of the 2,200 that were exiled, 678 were from Mexico (New Spain) with 75% of the Jesuits from Mexico being Mexican-born.

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natives, and free blacks. While these efforts were quickly extinguished by Spanish forces, the Bourbons did put limits on the power of the Guipuzcoana company following the revolt. However, these limits primarily benefited the

1175:, who left no successor. Even before his death in 1700, the European powers were already positioning themselves to see which royal house would succeed in placing someone on the Spanish throne and thereby gain its vast empire. 1400:. Even after his time in the colonies, José de Gálvez joined the Council of the Indies and eventually rose to the top of that, effectively becoming the most influential figure in the legislation of colonial Americas. 3409: 1897:. The Society of Jesus, the members being the Jesuits, had become one of the most powerful organizations in the colonies at the time and had a distinct amount of power until the Bourbon Reforms. First, under the 1454:) had made in the local bureaucracy in the past century and a half, usually through the sale of offices, were checked by the direct appointment of (supposedly more qualified and disinterested) Spanish officials. 1901:, which orchestrated a land exchange between Spain and Portugal in South America, Spain's intention to give Portugal territory containing a total of seven Jesuit missions sparked intense Jesuit resistance, and 1795:

in Mexico alone. Some historians attribute this growth to the Bourbon reforms, whereas others attribute it more to the rising investments of entrepreneurs into mining during this period. For example, regarding

1857:, any civil crime or criminal offense would be heard in front of the ecclesiastical instead of the royal or local court. This privilege was then extended to all clerics, nuns, priests, monks, and friars. This 1988:

drew mainly upon the frustrations of the indigenous community but also included black slaves and Criollos. The cross-class alliance was fleeting, and the insurrection was squashed by the Spanish army. The

1623:. Silver would be easily dispatched to the peninsula. Buenos Aires was not solely a beneficial port for the Spanish as it was often the center of illicit contraband along the Atlantic. Buenos Aires housed 1885:

of Africans and indigenous Americans. Maroon communities on the coast of colonial Ecuador learned how Christianization became a tool for Afro-Amerindian rebels in Spain's empire and in the African

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Buenos Aires provided the perfect opportunity to integrate the products of the New World into peninsular Spain. The port city was essential to the process of extraction due to its proximity to the

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Havana was fortified heavily with a regiment being formed in the city and Metropolitan ones being rotated through the city with at least 2 at all times within the city occasionally rising to 3.

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was also carved out of the Viceroyalty of Peru in 1776 as part of José de Gálvez's comprehensive administrative reform. In the same year, an autonomous captaincy general was also established in

1579:

proved to be a successful crop after state monopolies were expanded. Also, many of the colonies began to produce an abundance of resources, which became vital to many European powers and the

1545:

Another goal was to more efficiently extract raw materials from Spanish America and create a captive Spanish American market for Spanish goods. The Bourbons, with the help of administrator

1135:

The reforms resulted in significant restructuring of administrative structure and personnel. The reforms were intended to stimulate manufacturing and technology to modernise Spain. In

1120:, mainly in the 18th century. The beginning of the new Crown's power with clear lines of authority to officials contrasted to the complex system of government that evolved under the 91: 5633: 1607:

systematization of wages impacted the lower economic classes directly and created the organization within society that the Spanish needed for greater economic success and control.

1339:

Palacio de Minería, Mexico City. The crown sought to make silver mining more productive and the silver magnates ennobled; it created the College of Mines and the Royal Mining Court

1946:

Another historical view is that the Jesuits were expelled primarily due to the Bourbons’ need for a scapegoat, following King Charles’ failures in the Seven Years' War and due to

639: 4239:

Premo, Bianca, "Children of the Father King: Youth, Authority and Legal Minority in Colonial Lima," Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 2005 ISBN 978-0-8078-5619-2

1788:

in Lima were created, to handle and make more efficient mining production. In 1792, the Tribunal opened a new mining school, the Royal Mining Seminary, with limited success.

1183:, a great-nephew of Charles, to take the throne. On his deathbed, Charles willed the crown to the French-born successor, but an international conflict ensued, known as the 5653: 1080: 6571: 1535: 1760:

In 1768 a Regiment of infantry was regulated so as to possess 1 grenadier company (76 men) and 9 fusilier companies (720 men with 80 per company)a total of 796 men.

6118: 5613: 1943:

back to Naples. Historian Charles Gibson stated that the expulsion of the Jesuits was a "sudden and devastating move" by the Spanish Crown to assert royal control.

4065:

Marichal, Carlos and Matilde Souto Mantecón, "Silver and Situados: New Spain and the Financing of the Spanish Empire in the Caribbean in the Eighteenth Century,"

3347: 3298: 3246: 3197: 6655: 6576: 5663: 5268: 2199: 2868:

Cuello, José (1988). "The Economic Impact of the Bourbon Reforms and the Late Colonial Crisis of Empire at the Local Level: The Case of Saltillo, 1777-1817".

4626: 1596: 1893:

The reforms caused many religious tensions as well as social tensions. One of the most major modifications in the Bourbon Reforms was the expulsion of the

449: 433: 6503: 2405:

Tavárez, Fidel J. (2018-11-01). "Colonial Economic Improvement: How Spain Created New Consulados to Preserve and Develop Its American Empire, 1778–1795".

1012: 2624: 2169: 2020: 1868:

Missionizing in maroon societies in Spanish America became essential for the nature of politics of African resistance in the Iberian Atlantic world. The

1552:

One of the testing grounds for this reformation of trade was in Venezuela. Starting in the 1730s, the monopoly on Venezuelan trade was held by the Royal

934: 6615: 3572:"Social interaction between civil, military, and mission communities in Spanish colonial Texas during the height of the Bourbon reforms, 1763 - 1772" 6483: 5587: 4265: 695: 1785: 1725:

The Bourbon reforms brought a different stratagem to military organization in Latin America. The reforms focused on a strong relationship with the

5567: 119: 3543:

Chowning, Margaret (Feb 2005). "Convent Reform, Catholic Reform, and Bourbon Reform in Eighteenth-Century New Spain: The View from the Nunnery".

2920: 802: 510: 1073: 789: 726: 6341: 5303: 5172: 4799: 4795: 4452: 4234: 4220: 4197: 4183: 4160: 4146: 4132: 4118: 4095: 4081: 4050: 4019: 4005: 3991: 3977: 3963: 3940: 3913: 3899: 3885: 3871: 3857: 3843: 3829: 3815: 3801: 3787: 3765: 3724: 3691: 3658: 3469: 3387: 3323: 3274: 3222: 3173: 3113: 3007: 2930: 2794: 2761: 2670: 2642: 2227: 2129: 1994: 1990: 1673:

Charles III also initiated the difficult process of changing the complex administrative system practiced under the former ruling family, the

1159: 1042: 565: 5799: 1171:

At the end of the 17th century, Spain was an ailing empire, facing declining revenues and the loss of military power, ruled by a weak king,

6436: 6431: 5205: 4848: 4301: 982: 264: 1526:. However, this effort did not prove highly effective, as the trade of contraband simply moved with the Casa de la Contratación to Cádiz. 766: 6498: 5618: 1152:

The reforms achieved mixed results administratively but succeeded in alienating the local elites of the Americas (who called themselves

812: 655: 5734: 4390: 6630: 6265: 5582: 5518: 5240: 5220: 4695: 4427: 2066: 1898: 613: 4735: 4365: 6670: 6240: 5638: 5182: 3444: 3419: 3366:

Tandeter, Enrique; Couriel, John; Karl, Robert (2005-12-30), Bulmer-Thomas, Victor; Coatsworth, John; Cortes-Conde, Roberto (eds.),

2736: 2708: 2553: 2505: 2185: 1066: 6331: 5907: 4477: 391: 296: 3138: 1595:

Within New Spain, economic reforms aimed to not just increase revenue, but also to make the Crown essential in the local economy.

6531: 5847: 5842: 5215: 4699: 1557: 1022: 972: 6047: 54: 6468: 6260: 5396: 5346: 5331: 5230: 4917: 4819: 773: 605: 5902: 5643: 1538:'s commercial policy commission, which on February 14, 1765, submitted a report advocating imperial free trade to replace the 6660: 6488: 6426: 6225: 5356: 5336: 5308: 5225: 5200: 5060: 4868: 4775: 4705: 4682: 2015: 1772: 1397: 1393: 927: 24: 6451: 6280: 6037: 5724: 1985: 1467:

positions to Criollos. The Bourbon kings ended this policy. By 1807, "only twelve out of ninety-nine judges were creoles."

992: 6581: 6536: 6478: 6456: 6270: 6042: 5837: 5832: 5513: 5498: 4583: 4447: 4400: 1553: 1263: 1184: 987: 952: 671: 426: 304: 1880:

often conflicted with the relationships the Maroons created with Catholic clerics and created tensions. Spanish cultural

6473: 6461: 6441: 5972: 5794: 5273: 4653: 4462: 4258: 3367: 1927:

refused to let the prisoners set foot on papal territory. The warships then went to the island of Corsica, but due to a

1480:, which brought the Portuguese in close proximity to Buenos Aires. In addition to its lost territory, Spain granted the 1002: 997: 359: 343: 199: 6446: 6346: 5977: 5429: 5361: 4330: 1054: 873: 485: 5897: 5804: 5744: 2196: 1820:

played a major role in the Bourbon Reforms, specifically in the viceroyalties. The Catholic Church was the official

6675: 6381: 5764: 5719: 5391: 5278: 5190: 5162: 4789: 4759: 4395: 2094: 2046: 1384: 820: 794: 248: 4380: 4350: 1424:. These consulados would resolve commercial disputes and develop the infrastructure of the colony. Moreover, the 1037: 6300: 6250: 6108: 6007: 5503: 5376: 5341: 5293: 5195: 4807: 4691: 4345: 920: 856: 841: 734: 679: 34: 4472: 4457: 3056:"Taking the Enlightenment Underground: Mining Spaces and Cartographic Representation in the Late Colonial Andes" 1757:

regard the Cueros performed well and they managed to keep a relative atmosphere of safety in Northern Mexico.

1272: 581: 6665: 6245: 6128: 6027: 6022: 5962: 5381: 5371: 5157: 4860: 4771: 1495: 1212: 846: 589: 225: 192: 153: 135: 6088: 5887: 5789: 5704: 2166: 1791:

There was much growth in mine production under the Bourbons, with silver output increasing by over 15 million

3921:"Bureaucracy and Business in the Spanish Empire, 1759–1804: Failure of a Bourbon Reform in Mexico and Peru," 1128:, pushed economic reforms, and placed power solely into the hands of civil officials, paving the way for the 6295: 6153: 5997: 5937: 5488: 5386: 5351: 5298: 4803: 4767: 4497: 4370: 4355: 4251: 1741: 1515: 1444:

Under Charles III, colonial matters were concentrated in a single ministry, which took powers away from the

1017: 632: 6586: 6158: 6093: 5729: 5597: 5483: 5366: 5326: 4970: 4763: 4422: 4412: 4060:

Spanish Colonial Administration, 1782–1810: The Intendant System in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata

4055: 4024: 2010: 1641: 1477: 1324: 1283: 1129: 807: 534: 502: 335: 20: 4929: 1824:

among the vice royalties of Spanish America, and the new colonies brought forth an opportunity to spread

6386: 6032: 5442: 5263: 5152: 5091: 5019: 4630: 4310: 1679: 1592:

necessarily lose out. Many of them simply shifted their investments to mining, especially in New Spain.

1580: 1445: 1356: 851: 781: 573: 6566: 5967: 5877: 5754: 5714: 5673: 4642: 2448:

Ramón, Gabriel (2017). "Bourbon manoeuvres in the plaza: Shifting urban models in late colonial Lima".

1767: 367: 3571: 2971:

London: Macmillan in association with Institute of Latin American Studies, University of London, 1996.

1951:

confronting directly the broad array of popular and conservative political forces opposed to reform".

6541: 6210: 6173: 6163: 6103: 6067: 6002: 5982: 5857: 5779: 5689: 5508: 4385: 4375: 2025: 1539: 1487: 1380: 1371:

The bulk of the changes in Spanish America came in the second half of the 18th century following the

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were gathered so that systems of taxation could be modified to maximize tax revenue for the crown.

1418:(free internal trade) by Jose de Gálvez, merchants in Spanish America petitioned the crown for new 1388: 1308: 1176: 1172: 1107: 1027: 550: 140: 96: 5822: 6371: 6361: 6336: 6290: 6255: 6113: 5699: 5572: 5070: 5050: 4710: 4598: 4487: 4325: 3626: 3411:

The history of the Catholic Church in Latin America : from conquest to revolution and beyond

3341: 3292: 3240: 3191: 3083: 2901: 2893: 2847: 2602: 2594: 2465: 2430: 2098: 1851:, or clerical immunity, granted clergy members immunity from the royal courts. According to this 1457:

Charles III and Charles IV also reversed the advances that Criollos had made in the high courts (

1192: 1007: 663: 476: 467: 280: 168: 71: 5694: 5623: 1518:. This was the House of Trade which oversaw Spanish trade with its colonies, and was moved from 458: 351: 2830:

Vizcarra, Catalina (2007). "Bourbon Intervention in the Peruvian Tobacco Industry, 1752-1813".

6625: 6551: 6493: 6326: 6098: 6072: 6062: 6052: 5987: 5942: 5872: 5852: 5827: 5774: 5749: 5014: 4568: 4564: 4541: 4482: 4437: 4296: 4230: 4216: 4193: 4179: 4156: 4142: 4128: 4114: 4091: 4077: 4046: 4015: 4001: 3987: 3973: 3959: 3936: 3909: 3895: 3881: 3867: 3853: 3839: 3825: 3811: 3797: 3783: 3761: 3730: 3720: 3697: 3687: 3664: 3654: 3618: 3583: 3502: 3475: 3465: 3440: 3415: 3383: 3329: 3319: 3280: 3270: 3228: 3218: 3179: 3169: 3119: 3109: 3075: 3013: 3003: 2926: 2885: 2800: 2790: 2767: 2757: 2732: 2704: 2676: 2666: 2638: 2586: 2549: 2501: 2422: 2233: 2223: 2181: 2135: 2125: 2062: 1936: 1928: 1924: 1873: 1839:

to thrive. As in Spain itself, there was a clear alliance between the Church and the Crown in

1726: 1674: 1546: 1482: 1297: 1239: 1228: 1188: 1180: 1121: 861: 687: 526: 518: 441: 3933:

Hacienda and Market in Eighteenth Century Mexico: The Rural Economy of Guadalajara, 1675–1820

3529: 1112:'Borbonic reformism') consisted of political and economic changes promulgated by the 6561: 6183: 6178: 6143: 6123: 5882: 5759: 5658: 5562: 5024: 4864: 4715: 4647: 4593: 3918: 3610: 3552: 3494: 3375: 3067: 2877: 2839: 2817: 2630: 2626:

The Spanish Atlantic World in the Eighteenth Century: War and the Bourbon Reforms, 1713–1796

2578: 2457: 2414: 2328: 1947: 1932: 1877: 1208: 1196: 1117: 1113: 1098: 241: 84: 64: 43: 6376: 6316: 6230: 6138: 6012: 5992: 5957: 5739: 5709: 5648: 5258: 5248: 5029: 4921: 4878: 4638: 4546: 3836:

Commercial Relations between Spain and Spanish America in the Era of Free Trade, 1778–1796

2203: 2173: 1869: 1840: 1817: 1737: 1491: 1293: 1136: 1125: 750: 711: 401: 6285: 3822:

Bureaucrats, Planters, and Workers: The Making of the Tobacco Monopoly in Bourbon Mexico

3034:

Adelman, Jeremy (1999). "Imperial Reconstitution and the Limits of Political Property".

6603: 6220: 6133: 6017: 5769: 5592: 5577: 5478: 5452: 5437: 5318: 4913: 4907: 4811: 4578: 4492: 4442: 4320: 4274: 3928: 2061:. It was settled by the Portuguese in the early 18th century and incorporated into the 2058: 1844: 1821: 1692: 1459: 1450: 1267: 1154: 1140: 906: 718: 647: 410: 328: 272: 4190:

Crown and Clergy in Colonial Mexico, 1759–1821: The Crisis of Ecclesiastical Privilege

3464:. Johnson, Lyman L. (Tenth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 300. 3108:. Johnson, Lyman L. (Tenth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 305. 3002:. Johnson, Lyman L. (Tenth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 283. 2789:. Johnson, Lyman L. (Tenth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 287. 2756:. Johnson, Lyman L. (Tenth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 286. 2665:. Johnson, Lyman L. (Tenth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 285. 2392: 2222:. Johnson, Lyman L. (Tenth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 280. 2124:. Johnson, Lyman L. (Tenth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 316. 6649: 5784: 4634: 4551: 4360: 4227:

To Love Honor and Obey in Colonial Mexico: Conflicts Over Marriage Choice, 1574–1821.

3998:

From Impotence to Authority: The Spanish Crown and the American Audiencias, 1687–1808

3522: 3087: 2905: 2851: 2606: 2469: 2434: 1920: 1902: 1862: 1832: 1413: 742: 383: 288: 3036:

Republic of Capital: Buenos Aires and the Legal Transformation of the Atlantic World

2955:

Republic of capital: Buenos Aires and the legal transformation of the Atlantic world

2528:

Republic of Capital: Buenos Aires and the Legal Transformation of the Atlantic World

2316:

Republic of Capital: Buenos Aires and the Legal Transformation of the Atlantic World

1691:, people who were born in Spain, exacerbating the conflict between Peninsulares and 1271:

The new commercial relationship stimulated the colonial economy, especially that of

6556: 6546: 6275: 5814: 5668: 5493: 5009: 4785: 4467: 4315: 3719:. Lyman L Johnson (10th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 330. 3686:. Lyman L Johnson (10th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 331. 3653:. Lyman L Johnson (10th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 306. 2050: 1940: 1836: 1730: 1688: 1507: 1352: 1145: 892: 5867: 4937: 3379: 2569:

Fisher, John (1981). "Imperial 'Free Trade' and the Hispanic Economy, 1778-1796".

1335: 6626:

Law of coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others)

3601:

Barbier, Jacques A. (1977). "The Culmination of the Bourbon Reforms, 1787-1792".

5457: 5447: 5283: 4852: 1825: 1662: 1258: 256: 215: 4074:

Colombia before Independence: Economy, Society, and Politics under Bourbon Rule

1861:

extended to the land owned by the individuals and institutions which meant the

1312:

ports allowed to trade only with Spain, and the establishment of several state

6321: 5055: 4725: 4335: 3479: 3123: 3017: 2843: 2804: 2771: 2680: 2582: 2461: 2282:

Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.

2237: 2139: 1616: 207: 3734: 3701: 3668: 3622: 3587: 3506: 3495:"The expulsion of Jesuits from Nueva Granada in 185Oas key for understanding" 3333: 3284: 3232: 3183: 3079: 2889: 2634: 2590: 2426: 2418: 1939:

and the Jesuits were threatened with death if they crossed the border of the

1430:

would be in charge of trying to implement innovative economic projects. The

5288: 5045: 4945: 4622: 4556: 3864:

Trade, War, and Revolution: Exports from Spain to Spanish America, 1797–1820

3556: 2919:

Mills, Kenneth; Taylor, William B.; Graham, Sandra Lauderdale (2002-08-01).

1886: 1797: 1684: 1573:

merchants and opened up more Spanish American ports to transatlantic trade.

1506:

The Bourbon Reforms transitioned Spain's economic policy to be increasingly

1376: 1220: 1620: 3313: 3264: 3212: 3163: 3071: 1984:

the decade of 1770-1779 witnessed more than 20. The following decade, the

1476:

Habsburgs in addition to losing other territories such as the fortress of

5462: 4572: 4340: 3435:

Bryant, Sherwin K.; O'Toole, Rachel Sarah; Vinson III, Ben, eds. (2012).

2629:. New Approaches to the Americas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2280:

Enlightenment, Governance, and Reform in Spain and Its Empire, 1759-1808.

2028:

issued by Philip V, 1707–1716, reorganizing the royal government of Spain

1881: 1804: 1749: 1650: 1566: 1523: 1313: 127: 112: 4012:

Government and Society in Colonial Peru: The Intendant System, 1784–1814

3758:

Enlightenment, Governance, and Reform in Spain and its Empire, 1759-1808

2981: 1835:

Many missionaries came to the Americas for a fresh, new environment for

6620: 6591: 5144: 5101: 5086: 4730: 4176:

Church and State in Bourbon Mexico: The Diocese of Michoacán, 1749–1810

4036:

The Bourbon Reformers and Spanish Civilization; Builders or Destroyers?

3630: 2897: 1894: 1766:

The reform of the Colonial militia was along the pattern introduced by

1624: 1576: 1519: 1216: 597: 3055: 2598: 1124:

monarchs. For example, the crown pursued state predominance over the

5557: 5111: 5106: 4883: 2820:. Encyclopædia Britannica Presents Hispanic Heritage in the Americas. 1872:

were Africans who escaped slavery in America and then mixed with the

1666: 1658: 176: 4088:

Pre-Revolutionary Caracas: Politics, Economy, and Society, 1777–1811

3614: 2881: 1287:

Charles III of Spain, who initiated the vigorous programs of reform.

3984:

Bourbons and Brandy: Imperial Reform in Eighteenth-Century Arequipa

3956:

The Kingdom of Quito, 1690–1830: The State and Regional Development

1569:

elites who were creoles that profited highly from the cacao trade.

6598: 4925: 4872: 4720: 4536: 1853: 1334: 1331:, Visitador general in New Spain and later Minister of the Indies. 1323: 1282: 1048: 4243: 4941: 4933: 4856: 3878:

Atlantic Empires: The Network of Trade and Revolution, 1713–1826

2548:. New York ; Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 281. 1792: 1303:

The failure of reform measures became evident when Spain, under

6520: 6415: 5539: 5417: 5132: 4991: 4959: 4896: 4833: 4748: 4671: 4611: 4525: 4514: 4285: 4247: 2486:. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc., 2007. 1296:

of industries and so disrupted the class system. For example,

3906:

The Merchants of Buenos Aires, 1778–1810: Family and Commerce

1266:, the ports of Spanish America were blockaded by British and 3374:(1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 315–356, 1847:

institutions were allotted some freedom from the Crown. The

1179:

asked for and received the Pope's consent for his grandson,

3780:

Haciendas and Ranchos in the Mexican Bajío: León, 1700–1860

1935:, adviser to Charles III, did not welcome the Jesuits into 1514:

this trade in contraband was the relocation in 1717 of the

3850:

Silver Mines and Silver Miners in Colonial Peru, 1776–1824

3038:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. pp. 20–30. 2703:. Johnson, Lyman L. Oxford University Press. p. 284. 2393:"Reformas Borbónicas en el Virreinato del Río de la Plata" 1262:, who welcomed the new influence. In addition, during the 3437:

Africans to Spanish America : expanding the diaspora

1865:

could not exercise justice physically nor collect taxes.

3414:. New York: New York University Press. pp. 13–16. 2167:"Las reformas borbónicas y la Independencia, 1767–1821" 1803:

The city of Potosí saw increases in silver production.

4127:. Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society, 1978. 3099: 3097: 2656: 2654: 2530:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 27. 2318:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 22. 1931:, it took a while to let the Jesuits onto the island. 4589:

Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France

4139:

Military Reform and Society in New Granada, 1773-1808

4113:. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press, 1977. 3986:. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press, 1986. 3499:

Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura

2383:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1983, p. 348. 2156:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1983, p. 347. 4125:

The Military and Society in Colonial Peru, 1750–1810

3139:"The Military Institution in Colonial Latin America" 2988:. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1996. 2344:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1971, p. 27. 2105:. New York: Cambridge University Press 1983, p. 347. 6309: 6203: 6196: 6081: 5930: 5923: 5916: 5813: 5682: 5606: 5550: 5471: 5428: 5317: 5239: 5181: 5143: 5079: 5038: 5002: 1683:were to be replaced with a French institution, the 1522:, where traders frequently dealt in contraband, to 1407:Additionally, in the wake of the implementation of 1349:

Nuevo Sistema de gobierno económico para la América

4155:. Knoxville, University of Tennessee Press, 1986. 4141:. Gainesville, University of Florida Press, 1978. 3892:Spain, Europe and the "Spanish Miracle," 1700–1900 3521: 2500:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 389. 1195:, and other European countries against the French 4031:. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1929. 3794:Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico, 1763–1810 2969:Political Corruption in Europe and Latin America. 2342:Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico, 1763–1810 4043:Politics and Trade in Southern Mexico, 1750–1821 4000:. Columbus, University of Missouri Press, 1977. 3796:. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1971. 2722: 2720: 1831:The Catholic Church arrived in America with the 1536:Leopoldo de Gregorio, 1st Marquess of Esquilache 4213:The Mexican Nobility at Independence, 1780–1826 4178:. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994. 4076:. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993. 4045:. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1971. 3970:Reform and Politics in Bourbon Chile, 1755–1796 3958:. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995. 3894:. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996. 3372:The Cambridge Economic History of Latin America 2544:Burkholder, Mark A.; Johnson, Lyman L. (2019). 4090:. Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 1985. 3493:Guerrero, José David Cortés (1 January 2003). 2623:Kuethe, Allan J.; Andrien, Kenneth J. (2014). 1236:to Spanish America to the British government. 4778:, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon) 4259: 2922:Colonial Latin America: A Documentary History 1431: 1425: 1419: 1074: 928: 8: 4453:Independence of Spanish continental Americas 4153:Cuba, 1753–1815: Crown, Military and Society 3972:. Ottawa, University of Ottawa Press, 1980. 3866:. Liverpool, University of Liverpool, 1992. 3838:. Liverpool, University of Liverpool, 1985. 1187:, which lasted from 1702 to 1713 and pitted 4229:Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1988. 3824:. Austin, University of Texas Press, 1992. 3315:The Spanish Army in North America 1700-1793 3266:The Spanish Army in North America 1700-1793 3214:The Spanish Army in North America 1700-1793 3165:The Spanish Army in North America 1700-1793 1775:possessed an additional 21,136 militiamen. 1628:peninsular conflicts, particularly France. 1463:). Under the Habsburgs, the Crown had sold 6517: 6412: 6200: 5927: 5920: 5547: 5536: 5425: 5414: 5140: 5129: 4999: 4988: 4956: 4893: 4830: 4745: 4668: 4608: 4522: 4511: 4282: 4266: 4252: 4244: 3576:Revista Complutense de Historia de América 3346:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3297:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3245:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3196:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2021:Historiography of Colonial Spanish America 1081: 1067: 946: 935: 921: 28: 6572:Colonial universities in Hispanic America 2980:Merrill, Tim L. and Ramón Miró, editors. 2967:Walter Little, and Eduardo Posada Carbó. 2482:Burns, E. Bradford and Julie A. Charlip. 6577:Colonial universities in the Philippines 3996:Burkholder, Mark A. and D. S. Chandler. 3810:. Ann Arbor, Syracuse University, 1981. 3439:. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 2484:Latin America: An Interpretative History 2295:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. 2291:Skidmore, Thomas E. and Peter H. Smith. 5568:Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia 4029:The Intendant System in Spanish America 3808:The Mining Society of Potosí, 1776–1810 3603:The Hispanic American Historical Review 3137:Archer, Christon I. (28 October 2011). 2925:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 2729:Latin America between Colony and Nation 2087: 2053:, and was formerly part of the Spanish 2038: 1448:. Furthermore, the advances Americans ( 1256:gave rise to a new type of person, the 960: 949: 42: 31: 3361: 3359: 3357: 3339: 3290: 3258: 3256: 3238: 3189: 3029: 3027: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2618: 2616: 2368:Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico 2355:Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico 1160:independence of all overseas dominions 1013:History of the Philippines (1565–1898) 664:Revolution and Asturian miners' strike 4111:The Army in Bourbon Mexico, 1760–1810 3644: 3642: 3640: 3528:. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 3049: 3047: 3045: 2948: 2946: 2944: 2942: 2863: 2861: 2539: 2537: 2521: 2519: 2517: 2309: 2307: 2305: 2303: 2301: 1995:independence of the American colonies 1665:)." Tax reductions were given to the 1251:which helped spread the ideas of the 1043:Spanish American wars of independence 7: 6656:Spanish colonization of the Americas 4849:Captaincy General of the Philippines 4341:New Laws in favour of the indigenous 2498:Colonial Latin America Tenth Edition 2379:James Lockhart and Stuart Schwartz, 2249: 2247: 2213: 2211: 2152:James Lockhart and Stuart Schwartz, 2115: 2113: 2111: 983:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire 6552:Indochristian painting in New Spain 4067:Hispanic American Historical Review 3923:Hispanic American Historical Review 3545:Hispanic American Historical Review 3060:Journal of Latin American Geography 2407:Hispanic American Historical Review 1748:The Cueros or the garrisons of the 1649:restricted to four colonial ports ( 813:Catalan declaration of independence 5519:Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires 3408:Schwaller, John Frederick (2011). 3318:. Botley, Oxford. pp. 53–55. 3269:. Botley, Oxford. pp. 40–46. 3217:. Botley, Oxford. pp. 34–39. 3168:. Botley, Oxford. pp. 25–27. 2731:. New York: Palgrave. p. 63. 2082:In Spanish unless otherwise noted. 2067:Treaty of Madrid (13 January 1750) 1736:Following the disastorous loss of 1219:and the continental stronghold of 14: 4493:Independence of Equatorial Guinea 3570:Almaraz, Félix Jr. (1995-01-01). 2832:Journal of Latin American Studies 2571:Journal of Latin American Studies 2395:Historia Argentina-Planeta Senda. 1581:British colonies in North America 6604:Criollos in the colonial society 6532:Spanish missions in the Americas 5654:Charles Bonaventure de Longueval 3760:. Palgrave Macmillan 2008, 2011. 1023:Spanish missions in the Americas 971: 900: 886: 53: 6631:Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649 4192:. London, Athlone Press, 1968. 4014:. London, Athlone Press, 1970. 606:Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera 4683:Captaincy General of Guatemala 4391:Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659) 4062:. London, Athlone Press, 1958. 3054:Scott, Heidi V. (2015-10-08). 2016:Spanish American Enlightenment 1903:war between Spain and Portugal 1394:Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata 1226:It also included granting the 25:Spanish American Enlightenment 1: 6582:General Archive of the Indies 5843:Francisco Vázquez de Coronado 5514:Camino Real de Tierra Adentro 5499:Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas 4448:Third Treaty of San Ildefonso 4401:War of the Spanish Succession 4366:Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) 4069:74(4) 1994, pp. 587–613. 3380:10.1017/chol9780521812894.011 1554:Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas 1264:War of the Spanish Succession 1185:War of the Spanish Succession 1149:supremacy over the colonies. 988:Spanish conquest of Guatemala 305:War of the Spanish Succession 16:18th century reforms in Spain 4654:Captaincy General of Yucatan 4584:Union with Holy Roman Empire 4563:Southern Italy (Kingdoms of 4478:German–Spanish Treaty (1899) 3460:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 3143:www.oxfordbibliographies.com 3104:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 2998:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 2785:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 2752:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 2699:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 2661:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 2496:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 2218:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 2120:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 1773:Captain-General of Guatemala 1387:(1717), carved out from the 1158:) and eventually led to the 1003:Spanish conquest of the Maya 265:Colonisation of the Americas 5134:Administrative subdivisions 4331:War of the League of Cognac 2263:The Pacification of Utrecht 1986:Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II 1116:under various kings of the 1055:Mexican War of Independence 993:Spanish conquest of Yucatán 6692: 5848:Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar 5833:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada 5735:Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca 4633:), Western United States ( 4396:Portuguese Restoration War 2818:"History of Latin America" 2172:November 25, 2005, at the 1640:Moreover, the practice of 1385:Viceroyalty of New Granada 803:2008–2014 financial crisis 18: 6616:Slavery in Spanish Empire 6527: 6516: 6422: 6411: 5903:Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor 5644:Álvaro de Bazán the Elder 5546: 5535: 5504:Barcelona Trading Company 5424: 5413: 5269:New Andalusia (1501–1513) 5139: 5128: 4998: 4987: 4966: 4903: 4844: 4776:Venezuela, part of Guyana 4755: 4678: 4629:, Central United States ( 4618: 4532: 4521: 4510: 4361:Bruneian–Spanish conflict 4346:Expulsion of the Moriscos 4292: 4281: 3715:Burkholder, Mark (2019). 3682:Burkholder, Mark (2019). 3649:Burkholder, Mark (2019). 3312:Chartrand, René. (2011). 3263:Chartrand, René. (2011). 3211:Chartrand, René. (2011). 3162:Chartrand, René. (2011). 2957:. ALCS Humanities E-Book. 2844:10.1017/S0022216X07002842 2583:10.1017/S0022216X00006155 2462:10.1017/S0963926816000535 2202:October 26, 2015, at the 2178:Breve historia de Sinaloa 1486:, a monopoly contract on 1345:José del Campillo y Cosío 1232:, a monopoly contract on 998:Spanish conquest of Petén 735:Spain during World War II 566:Regency of María Cristina 434:Regency of María Cristina 6671:House of Bourbon (Spain) 6557:Quito painting tradition 6547:Cusco painting tradition 5908:García López de Cárdenas 5898:Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera 5805:Felipe González de Ahedo 5725:Pedro Menéndez de Avilés 4302:Conquest of the Americas 3520:Gibson, Charles (1966). 2953:Adelman, Jeremy (1999). 2635:10.1017/cbo9781107338661 2526:Adelman, Jeremy (1999). 2419:10.1215/00182168-7160336 2314:Adelman, Jeremy (1999). 2165:Ortega Noriega, Sergio. 1375:(general inspection) of 1363:revenues for the crown. 1203:Beginning of Bourbon era 790:1981 coup d'état attempt 590:Spain during World War I 169:Kingdom of the Visigoths 6342:Comuneros (New Granada) 6119:Balearic Islands (1558) 5838:Hernán Pérez de Quesada 5765:Ruy López de Villalobos 5720:Miguel López de Legazpi 5634:García de Toledo Osorio 4498:Western Sahara conflict 4488:Independence of Morocco 4428:Treaty of Madrid (1750) 4371:Piracy in the Caribbean 4356:French Wars of Religion 4025:Fisher, Lillian Estelle 3904:Socolow, Susan Migden. 3557:10.1215/00182168-85-1-1 2986:Mexico: A Country Study 1991:Revolt of the Comuneros 1207:Under the terms of the 1018:Piracy in the Caribbean 774:Transition to democracy 6587:Colonial Spanish Horse 6261:Colonia del Sacramento 5484:Spanish treasure fleet 5061:Royal Decree of Graces 4086:McKinley, P. Michael. 4034:Floyd, Troy S. (ed.). 3806:Buechler, Rose Marie. 3717:Colonial Latin America 3684:Colonial Latin America 3651:Colonial Latin America 3462:Colonial Latin America 3106:Colonial Latin America 3000:Colonial Latin America 2982:"Road to Independence" 2787:Colonial Latin America 2754:Colonial Latin America 2701:Colonial Latin America 2663:Colonial Latin America 2546:Colonial Latin America 2220:Colonial Latin America 2122:Colonial Latin America 2011:Enlightenment in Spain 1915:other external group. 1432: 1426: 1420: 1340: 1332: 1288: 1130:Enlightenment in Spain 1102: 808:2017 Barcelona attacks 640:Provisional Government 511:Provisional Government 384:Absolutist restoration 336:Abdications of Bayonne 21:Enlightenment in Spain 6661:18th century in Spain 5745:Vasco Núñez de Balboa 5705:Juan Sebastián Elcano 5020:Council of the Indies 4381:Spanish–Moro conflict 4351:Ottoman–Habsburg wars 4311:Treaty of Tordesillas 3756:Paquette, Gabriel B. 3368:"The Mining Industry" 3072:10.1353/lag.2015.0039 2278:Paquette, Gabriel B. 2197:"The Bourbon Reforms" 1899:1750 Treaty of Madrid 1471:Trade and the economy 1446:Council of the Indies 1357:Jean-Baptiste Colbert 1338: 1327: 1286: 1181:Philip, Duke of Anjou 1038:Spanish–Moro conflict 795:Madrid train bombings 672:1936 general election 574:Reign of Alfonso XIII 360:Constitution of Cádiz 6542:Mesoamerican Codices 6266:Comuneros (Paraguay) 6104:Siege of Castelnuovo 5690:Christopher Columbus 5509:Consulate of the Sea 5489:Casa de Contratación 5080:Titles and positions 4473:Spanish–American War 4463:Liberal constitution 4306:Asia and the Pacific 4109:Archer, Christon I. 4072:McFarlane, Anthony. 4038:Boston: Heath, 1966. 3968:Barbier, Jacques A. 3954:Andrien, Kenneth J. 3820:Deans-Smith, Susan. 2727:Lynch, John (2001). 2293:Modern Latin America 2026:Nueva Planta decrees 1516:Casa de Contratación 1343:In Spanish America, 1103:Reformismo borbónico 821:Coronavirus pandemic 782:Current constitution 767:Contemporary history 582:Spanish–American War 558:Reign of Alfonso XII 450:Regency of Espartero 427:Reign of Isabella II 313:Nueva Planta Decrees 161:Kingdom of the Suebi 6271:Cartagena de Indias 5893:Diego de Mazariegos 5863:Pere Fages i Beleta 5730:Sebastián de Ocampo 5211:Provincias Internas 5183:Captaincies General 5097:Municipal president 5066:School of Salamanca 4837:Spanish East Indies 4816:Misiones Orientales 4688:Spanish West Indies 4652:, Central America ( 4599:Pyrénées-Orientales 4552:Union with Portugal 4443:Napoleonic invasion 4423:War of Jenkins' Ear 3880:. Baltimore, 1983. 3852:. Liverpool, 1977. 3782:. Cambridge, 1978. 2381:Early Latin America 2154:Early Latin America 2103:Early Latin America 2055:Viceroyalty of Peru 2049:is named after the 1912:Counter-Reformation 1812:The Catholic Church 1786:Tribunal de Minería 1754:Provincias Internas 1389:Viceroyalty of Peru 1177:Louis XIV of France 1167:End of Habsburg era 696:Nationalist victory 617:of Dámaso Berenguer 503:Sexenio Democrático 486:Glorious Revolution 392:Sexenio Absolutista 242:Early modern period 141:Diocese of Hispania 6567:Academia Antártica 6522:Other civil topics 5888:Pánfilo de Narváez 5790:Sebastián Vizcaíno 5755:Andrés de Urdaneta 5715:Juan Ponce de León 5700:Ferdinand Magellan 5674:Bernardo de Gálvez 5573:Indian auxiliaries 5071:Trial of residence 5051:Laws of the Indies 4835:Asia and Oceania ( 4696:Dominican Republic 4123:Campbell, Leon G. 4041:Hamnett, Brian R. 3982:Brown, Kendall W. 3935:. Berkeley, 1981. 3908:. Cambridge 1978. 2265:, 460; Trevelyan: 2099:Stuart B. Schwartz 2057:, a region called 1929:rebellion on shore 1849:fuero eclesiástico 1768:Alejandro O'Reilly 1341: 1333: 1289: 1008:Columbian exchange 907:History portal 477:Bienio progresista 468:Second Carlist War 368:Treaty of Valençay 226:Christian kingdoms 97:Carthaginian Spain 72:Prehistoric Iberia 6676:Philip V of Spain 6643: 6642: 6639: 6638: 6512: 6511: 6417:Spanish conquests 6407: 6406: 6403: 6402: 6399: 6398: 6395: 6394: 6192: 6191: 5873:Pedro de Alvarado 5858:Gaspar de Portolà 5853:Pedro de Valdivia 5828:Francisco Pizarro 5780:Nicolás de Ovando 5775:Alonso de Ercilla 5750:Alonso de Salazar 5583:Ships of the line 5531: 5530: 5527: 5526: 5409: 5408: 5405: 5404: 5124: 5123: 5120: 5119: 4983: 4982: 4979: 4978: 4955: 4954: 4912:Northern Africa ( 4908:Equatorial Guinea 4892: 4891: 4829: 4828: 4744: 4743: 4667: 4666: 4658:Spanish Caribbean 4631:Spanish Louisiana 4607: 4606: 4542:Crown of Castille 4506: 4505: 4483:Spanish Civil War 4458:Adams–Onís Treaty 4438:Nootka Convention 4386:Thirty Years' War 4376:Eighty Years' War 4297:Catholic Monarchs 4287:Timeline–immersed 4235:978-0-8047-1457-0 4221:978-0-292-75027-2 4198:978-0-485-13121-5 4188:Farris, Nancy M. 4184:978-0-521-46092-7 4161:978-0-87049-487-1 4151:Kuethe, Allan J. 4147:978-0-8130-0570-6 4137:Kuethe, Allan J. 4133:978-0-87169-123-1 4119:978-0-8263-0442-1 4096:978-0-521-30450-4 4082:978-0-521-41641-2 4051:978-0-521-07860-3 4020:978-0-485-13129-1 4006:978-0-8262-0219-2 3992:978-0-8263-0829-0 3978:978-2-7603-5010-6 3964:978-0-521-48125-0 3941:978-0-520-04161-5 3919:Stein, Stanley J. 3914:978-0-521-21812-2 3900:978-0-585-04069-1 3890:Ringrose, David. 3886:978-0-8018-2742-6 3872:978-0-902806-22-1 3858:978-0-902806-06-1 3844:978-0-902806-12-2 3830:978-0-292-70786-3 3816:978-0-8357-0591-2 3802:978-0-521-07874-0 3788:978-0-521-22200-6 3766:978-0-230-30052-1 3726:978-0-19-986588-8 3693:978-0-19-986588-8 3660:978-0-19-986588-8 3471:978-0-19-064240-2 3389:978-1-139-05394-5 3325:978-1-84908-597-7 3276:978-1-84908-597-7 3224:978-1-84908-597-7 3175:978-1-84908-597-7 3115:978-0-19-064240-2 3009:978-0-19-064240-2 2932:978-0-7425-7407-6 2796:978-0-19-064240-2 2763:978-0-19-064240-2 2672:978-0-19-064240-2 2644:978-1-107-04357-2 2229:978-0-19-064240-2 2131:978-0-19-064240-2 2063:Portuguese Empire 1925:Pope Clement XIII 1874:indigenous people 1675:House of Habsburg 1483:asiento de negros 1279:In Mainland Spain 1240:Philip V of Spain 1229:asiento de negros 1209:Treaty of Utrecht 1143:and re-establish 1111: 1091: 1090: 945: 944: 862:Religious history 551:Restoration Spain 527:Third Carlist War 519:Reign of Amadeo I 442:First Carlist War 249:Catholic Monarchs 154:Early Middle Ages 92:Pre-Roman peoples 6683: 6518: 6484:Chibchan Nations 6413: 6382:Santiago de Cuba 6241:Guadalupe Island 6201: 5928: 5921: 5883:Diego de Almagro 5760:Antonio de Ulloa 5664:Ambrosio Spinola 5659:Pedro de Zubiaur 5629:Alfonso d'Avalos 5619:Antonio de Leyva 5563:Army of Flanders 5548: 5537: 5426: 5415: 5141: 5130: 5000: 4989: 4957: 4930:Peñón of Algiers 4894: 4831: 4746: 4669: 4651: 4609: 4523: 4512: 4433:Seven Years' War 4406:Queen Anne's War 4283: 4268: 4261: 4254: 4245: 4225:Seed, Patricia. 4215:. Austin, 1976. 4010:Fisher, John R. 3862:Fisher, John R. 3848:Fisher, John R. 3834:Fisher, John R. 3739: 3738: 3712: 3706: 3705: 3679: 3673: 3672: 3646: 3635: 3634: 3598: 3592: 3591: 3567: 3561: 3560: 3540: 3534: 3533: 3527: 3524:Spain in America 3517: 3511: 3510: 3490: 3484: 3483: 3457: 3451: 3450: 3432: 3426: 3425: 3405: 3399: 3398: 3397: 3396: 3363: 3352: 3351: 3345: 3337: 3309: 3303: 3302: 3296: 3288: 3260: 3251: 3250: 3244: 3236: 3208: 3202: 3201: 3195: 3187: 3159: 3153: 3152: 3150: 3149: 3134: 3128: 3127: 3101: 3092: 3091: 3051: 3040: 3039: 3031: 3022: 3021: 2995: 2989: 2978: 2972: 2965: 2959: 2958: 2950: 2937: 2936: 2916: 2910: 2909: 2865: 2856: 2855: 2827: 2821: 2815: 2809: 2808: 2782: 2776: 2775: 2749: 2743: 2742: 2724: 2715: 2714: 2696: 2685: 2684: 2658: 2649: 2648: 2620: 2611: 2610: 2566: 2560: 2559: 2541: 2532: 2531: 2523: 2512: 2511: 2493: 2487: 2480: 2474: 2473: 2445: 2439: 2438: 2402: 2396: 2390: 2384: 2377: 2371: 2364: 2358: 2351: 2345: 2338: 2332: 2326: 2320: 2319: 2311: 2296: 2289: 2283: 2276: 2270: 2251: 2242: 2241: 2215: 2206: 2194: 2188: 2180:. Mexico, 1999. 2163: 2157: 2150: 2144: 2143: 2117: 2106: 2092: 2070: 2043: 1933:Bernardo Tanucci 1923:. Upon arrival, 1878:Christianization 1435: 1429: 1423: 1417: 1309:Seven Years' War 1246:French influence 1197:House of Bourbon 1118:House of Bourbon 1106: 1083: 1076: 1069: 1028:Queen Anne's War 975: 965: 947: 937: 930: 923: 905: 904: 903: 893:Spain portal 891: 890: 889: 857:Military history 842:Economic history 825: 817: 799: 786: 778: 755: 747: 739: 731: 727:Republican exile 723: 700: 692: 684: 680:1936 coup d'état 676: 668: 660: 652: 644: 621: 610: 602: 594: 586: 578: 570: 562: 539: 531: 523: 515: 490: 482: 472: 464: 454: 446: 438: 415: 407: 397: 372: 364: 356: 348: 344:Napoleonic Spain 340: 317: 309: 301: 293: 285: 277: 269: 261: 253: 230: 222: 212: 204: 181: 177:Byzantine Spania 173: 165: 132: 131:(218 BCE–472 CE) 124: 101: 57: 47: 29: 6691: 6690: 6686: 6685: 6684: 6682: 6681: 6680: 6666:Reform in Spain 6646: 6645: 6644: 6635: 6611:Old inquisition 6523: 6508: 6418: 6391: 6347:Trinidad (1797) 6317:La Noche Triste 6305: 6301:San Juan (1797) 6251:San Juan (1595) 6188: 6077: 5917:Notable battles 5912: 5878:Martín de Ursúa 5809: 5740:Alonso de Ojeda 5710:Juan de la Cosa 5695:Pinzón brothers 5678: 5649:John of Austria 5624:Martín de Goiti 5602: 5542: 5523: 5467: 5420: 5401: 5313: 5309:Terra Australis 5304:Río de la Plata 5249:Castilla de Oro 5235: 5177: 5173:Río de la Plata 5135: 5116: 5075: 5034: 5030:Santa Hermandad 4994: 4975: 4971:Terra Australis 4962: 4951: 4918:Spanish Morocco 4899: 4888: 4879:Northern Taiwan 4840: 4825: 4796:Río de la Plata 4751: 4740: 4674: 4673:Central America 4663: 4645: 4614: 4603: 4547:Crown of Aragon 4528: 4517: 4502: 4418:Bourbon Reforms 4288: 4277: 4272: 4242: 4211:Ladd, Doris M. 4207: 4202: 4174:Brading, D. A. 4170: 4165: 4105: 4100: 3950: 3945: 3929:Van Young, Eric 3876:Liss, Peggy K. 3792:Brading, D. A. 3778:Brading, D. A. 3774: 3753: 3748: 3746:Further reading 3743: 3742: 3727: 3714: 3713: 3709: 3694: 3681: 3680: 3676: 3661: 3648: 3647: 3638: 3615:10.2307/2513542 3600: 3599: 3595: 3569: 3568: 3564: 3542: 3541: 3537: 3519: 3518: 3514: 3492: 3491: 3487: 3472: 3459: 3458: 3454: 3447: 3434: 3433: 3429: 3422: 3407: 3406: 3402: 3394: 3392: 3390: 3365: 3364: 3355: 3338: 3326: 3311: 3310: 3306: 3289: 3277: 3262: 3261: 3254: 3237: 3225: 3210: 3209: 3205: 3188: 3176: 3161: 3160: 3156: 3147: 3145: 3136: 3135: 3131: 3116: 3103: 3102: 3095: 3053: 3052: 3043: 3033: 3032: 3025: 3010: 2997: 2996: 2992: 2979: 2975: 2966: 2962: 2952: 2951: 2940: 2933: 2918: 2917: 2913: 2882:10.2307/1006909 2867: 2866: 2859: 2829: 2828: 2824: 2816: 2812: 2797: 2784: 2783: 2779: 2764: 2751: 2750: 2746: 2739: 2726: 2725: 2718: 2711: 2698: 2697: 2688: 2673: 2660: 2659: 2652: 2645: 2622: 2621: 2614: 2568: 2567: 2563: 2556: 2543: 2542: 2535: 2525: 2524: 2515: 2508: 2495: 2494: 2490: 2481: 2477: 2447: 2446: 2442: 2404: 2403: 2399: 2391: 2387: 2378: 2374: 2365: 2361: 2352: 2348: 2339: 2335: 2327: 2323: 2313: 2312: 2299: 2290: 2286: 2277: 2273: 2252: 2245: 2230: 2217: 2216: 2209: 2204:Wayback Machine 2195: 2191: 2174:Wayback Machine 2164: 2160: 2151: 2147: 2132: 2119: 2118: 2109: 2093: 2089: 2079: 2074: 2073: 2044: 2040: 2035: 2007: 1969: 1948:riots in Madrid 1841:Spanish America 1818:Catholic Church 1814: 1781: 1723: 1714: 1705: 1634: 1613: 1498:. Granting the 1492:Spanish America 1473: 1411: 1379:(1765–1771) by 1369: 1322: 1320:Spanish America 1294:nationalization 1281: 1248: 1205: 1169: 1137:Spanish America 1126:Catholic Church 1095:Bourbon Reforms 1087: 1033:Bourbon Reforms 963: 956: 941: 912: 901: 899: 887: 885: 867: 866: 847:Law enforcement 837: 829: 828: 823: 815: 797: 784: 776: 769: 759: 758: 753: 751:Basque conflict 745: 737: 729: 721: 714: 712:Francoist Spain 704: 703: 698: 690: 682: 674: 666: 658: 656:Second Biennium 650: 642: 635: 633:Second Republic 625: 624: 619: 608: 600: 592: 584: 576: 568: 560: 553: 543: 542: 537: 529: 521: 513: 506: 494: 493: 488: 480: 470: 462: 459:Década moderada 452: 444: 436: 429: 419: 418: 413: 405: 402:Trienio Liberal 395: 386: 376: 375: 370: 362: 354: 352:Cortes of Cádiz 346: 338: 331: 321: 320: 315: 307: 299: 291: 283: 275: 267: 259: 251: 244: 234: 233: 228: 220: 210: 202: 200:Muslim conquest 195: 185: 184: 179: 171: 163: 156: 146: 145: 130: 122: 115: 105: 104: 99: 87: 77: 76: 67: 45: 38: 27: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6689: 6687: 6679: 6678: 6673: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6648: 6647: 6641: 6640: 6637: 6636: 6634: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6607: 6606: 6596: 6595: 6594: 6584: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6528: 6525: 6524: 6521: 6514: 6513: 6510: 6509: 6507: 6506: 6501: 6496: 6491: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6465: 6464: 6459: 6454: 6449: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6427:Canary Islands 6423: 6420: 6419: 6416: 6409: 6408: 6405: 6404: 6401: 6400: 6397: 6396: 6393: 6392: 6390: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6313: 6311: 6307: 6306: 6304: 6303: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6281:Túpac Amaru II 6278: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6226:Bogotá savanna 6223: 6218: 6213: 6207: 6205: 6198: 6194: 6193: 6190: 6189: 6187: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6136: 6134:Spanish Armada 6131: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6101: 6096: 6091: 6085: 6083: 6079: 6078: 6076: 6075: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6028:White Mountain 6025: 6023:Cape Celidonia 6020: 6018:English Armada 6015: 6010: 6005: 6000: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5934: 5932: 5925: 5918: 5914: 5913: 5911: 5910: 5905: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5885: 5880: 5875: 5870: 5865: 5860: 5855: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5819: 5817: 5811: 5810: 5808: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5795:Juan Fernández 5792: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5770:Diego Columbus 5767: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5686: 5684: 5680: 5679: 5677: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5610: 5608: 5604: 5603: 5601: 5600: 5598:Army of Africa 5595: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5578:Spanish Armada 5575: 5570: 5565: 5560: 5554: 5552: 5544: 5543: 5540: 5533: 5532: 5529: 5528: 5525: 5524: 5522: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5479:Manila galleon 5475: 5473: 5469: 5468: 5466: 5465: 5460: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5440: 5434: 5432: 5422: 5421: 5418: 5411: 5410: 5407: 5406: 5403: 5402: 5400: 5399: 5394: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5364: 5359: 5354: 5349: 5344: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5323: 5321: 5315: 5314: 5312: 5311: 5306: 5301: 5296: 5291: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5251: 5245: 5243: 5237: 5236: 5234: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5187: 5185: 5179: 5178: 5176: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5160: 5155: 5149: 5147: 5137: 5136: 5133: 5126: 5125: 5122: 5121: 5118: 5117: 5115: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5083: 5081: 5077: 5076: 5074: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5042: 5040: 5036: 5035: 5033: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5012: 5006: 5004: 4996: 4995: 4993:Administration 4992: 4985: 4984: 4981: 4980: 4977: 4976: 4974: 4973: 4967: 4964: 4963: 4960: 4953: 4952: 4950: 4949: 4914:Western Sahara 4910: 4904: 4901: 4900: 4897: 4890: 4889: 4887: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4845: 4842: 4841: 4834: 4827: 4826: 4824: 4823: 4812:Banda Oriental 4793: 4779: 4756: 4753: 4752: 4749: 4742: 4741: 4739: 4738: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4685: 4679: 4676: 4675: 4672: 4665: 4664: 4662: 4661: 4627:Coastal Alaska 4619: 4616: 4615: 4612: 4605: 4604: 4602: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4561: 4560: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4533: 4530: 4529: 4526: 4519: 4518: 4515: 4508: 4507: 4504: 4503: 4501: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4460: 4455: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4410: 4409: 4408: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4299: 4293: 4290: 4289: 4286: 4279: 4278: 4275:Spanish Empire 4273: 4271: 4270: 4263: 4256: 4248: 4241: 4240: 4237: 4223: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4201: 4200: 4186: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4164: 4163: 4149: 4135: 4121: 4106: 4104: 4101: 4099: 4098: 4084: 4070: 4063: 4053: 4039: 4032: 4022: 4008: 3994: 3980: 3966: 3951: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3943: 3926: 3925:61(1)19812-28. 3916: 3902: 3888: 3874: 3860: 3846: 3832: 3818: 3804: 3790: 3775: 3773: 3770: 3769: 3768: 3752: 3749: 3747: 3744: 3741: 3740: 3725: 3707: 3692: 3674: 3659: 3636: 3593: 3578:(in Spanish). 3562: 3535: 3512: 3485: 3470: 3452: 3445: 3427: 3420: 3400: 3388: 3353: 3324: 3304: 3275: 3252: 3223: 3203: 3174: 3154: 3129: 3114: 3093: 3041: 3023: 3008: 2990: 2973: 2960: 2938: 2931: 2911: 2876:(3): 301–323. 2857: 2838:(3): 567–593. 2822: 2810: 2795: 2777: 2762: 2744: 2737: 2716: 2709: 2686: 2671: 2650: 2643: 2612: 2561: 2554: 2533: 2513: 2506: 2488: 2475: 2456:(4): 622–646. 2440: 2413:(4): 605–634. 2397: 2385: 2372: 2359: 2346: 2340:D.A. Brading, 2333: 2321: 2297: 2284: 2271: 2257:, 162–5; Wolf: 2243: 2228: 2207: 2189: 2158: 2145: 2130: 2107: 2095:James Lockhart 2086: 2085: 2078: 2075: 2072: 2071: 2059:Spanish Guyana 2037: 2036: 2034: 2031: 2030: 2029: 2023: 2018: 2013: 2006: 2003: 1968: 1965: 1845:Ecclesiastical 1822:state religion 1813: 1810: 1780: 1777: 1722: 1719: 1713: 1710: 1704: 1701: 1633: 1630: 1612: 1609: 1597:José de Gálvez 1488:African slaves 1472: 1469: 1409:comercio libre 1381:José de Gálvez 1373:visita general 1368: 1365: 1329:José de Gálvez 1321: 1318: 1280: 1277: 1247: 1244: 1234:African slaves 1204: 1201: 1168: 1165: 1089: 1088: 1086: 1085: 1078: 1071: 1063: 1060: 1059: 1058: 1057: 1052: 1045: 1040: 1035: 1030: 1025: 1020: 1015: 1010: 1005: 1000: 995: 990: 985: 977: 976: 968: 967: 958: 957: 950: 943: 942: 940: 939: 932: 925: 917: 914: 913: 911: 910: 896: 881: 878: 877: 869: 868: 865: 864: 859: 854: 849: 844: 838: 835: 834: 831: 830: 827: 826: 824:(2020–present) 818: 810: 805: 800: 792: 787: 779: 770: 765: 764: 761: 760: 757: 756: 748: 740: 732: 724: 719:Spanish Maquis 715: 710: 709: 706: 705: 702: 701: 693: 685: 677: 669: 661: 653: 648:First Biennium 645: 636: 631: 630: 627: 626: 623: 622: 611: 603: 595: 587: 579: 571: 563: 554: 549: 548: 545: 544: 541: 540: 535:First Republic 532: 524: 516: 507: 500: 499: 496: 495: 492: 491: 483: 473: 465: 455: 447: 439: 430: 425: 424: 421: 420: 417: 416: 411:Ominous Decade 408: 398: 387: 382: 381: 378: 377: 374: 373: 365: 357: 349: 341: 332: 329:Peninsular War 327: 326: 323: 322: 319: 318: 310: 302: 294: 286: 278: 270: 262: 254: 245: 240: 239: 236: 235: 232: 231: 223: 213: 205: 196: 191: 190: 187: 186: 183: 182: 174: 166: 157: 152: 151: 148: 147: 144: 143: 138: 133: 125: 120:Roman Conquest 116: 113:Roman Hispania 111: 110: 107: 106: 103: 102: 94: 88: 83: 82: 79: 78: 75: 74: 68: 63: 62: 59: 58: 50: 49: 40: 39: 32: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6688: 6677: 6674: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6653: 6651: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6605: 6602: 6601: 6600: 6597: 6593: 6590: 6589: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6568: 6565: 6563: 6562:Tapada limeña 6560: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6550: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6529: 6526: 6519: 6515: 6505: 6502: 6500: 6497: 6495: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6444: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6424: 6421: 6414: 6410: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6314: 6312: 6308: 6302: 6299: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6208: 6206: 6202: 6199: 6195: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6154:Montes Claros 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6094:Vienna (1529) 6092: 6090: 6087: 6086: 6084: 6080: 6074: 6071: 6069: 6066: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5935: 5933: 5929: 5926: 5922: 5919: 5915: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5881: 5879: 5876: 5874: 5871: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5823:Hernán Cortés 5821: 5820: 5818: 5816: 5815:Conquistadors 5812: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5785:Juan de Ayala 5783: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5773: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5687: 5685: 5681: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5639:Duke of Savoy 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5611: 5609: 5605: 5599: 5596: 5594: 5591: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5555: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5538: 5534: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5476: 5474: 5470: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5438:Dollar (Peso) 5436: 5435: 5433: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5416: 5412: 5398: 5397:Santo Domingo 5395: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5324: 5322: 5320: 5316: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5274:New Andalusia 5272: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5246: 5244: 5242: 5238: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5221:Santo Domingo 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5188: 5186: 5184: 5180: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5150: 5148: 5146: 5145:Viceroyalties 5142: 5138: 5131: 5127: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5084: 5082: 5078: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5043: 5041: 5037: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5007: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4990: 4986: 4972: 4969: 4968: 4965: 4958: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4905: 4902: 4895: 4885: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4874: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4847: 4846: 4843: 4838: 4832: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4794: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4780: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4758: 4757: 4754: 4750:South America 4747: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4729: 4727: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4680: 4677: 4670: 4659: 4655: 4649: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4635:Spanish Texas 4632: 4628: 4624: 4621: 4620: 4617: 4613:North America 4610: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4594:Franche-Comté 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4539: 4538: 4535: 4534: 4531: 4524: 4520: 4513: 4509: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4407: 4404: 4403: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4303: 4300: 4298: 4295: 4294: 4291: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4269: 4264: 4262: 4257: 4255: 4250: 4249: 4246: 4238: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4172: 4167: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4068: 4064: 4061: 4057: 4054: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4037: 4033: 4030: 4026: 4023: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3927: 3924: 3920: 3917: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3776: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3754: 3750: 3745: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3722: 3718: 3711: 3708: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3689: 3685: 3678: 3675: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3656: 3652: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3637: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3597: 3594: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3566: 3563: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3539: 3536: 3531: 3526: 3525: 3516: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3489: 3486: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3467: 3463: 3456: 3453: 3448: 3446:9780252036637 3442: 3438: 3431: 3428: 3423: 3421:9780814740033 3417: 3413: 3412: 3404: 3401: 3391: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3362: 3360: 3358: 3354: 3349: 3343: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3321: 3317: 3316: 3308: 3305: 3300: 3294: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3272: 3268: 3267: 3259: 3257: 3253: 3248: 3242: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3220: 3216: 3215: 3207: 3204: 3199: 3193: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3171: 3167: 3166: 3158: 3155: 3144: 3140: 3133: 3130: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3111: 3107: 3100: 3098: 3094: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3050: 3048: 3046: 3042: 3037: 3030: 3028: 3024: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3005: 3001: 2994: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2977: 2974: 2970: 2964: 2961: 2956: 2949: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2939: 2934: 2928: 2924: 2923: 2915: 2912: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2864: 2862: 2858: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2826: 2823: 2819: 2814: 2811: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2792: 2788: 2781: 2778: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2759: 2755: 2748: 2745: 2740: 2738:0-333-71476-8 2734: 2730: 2723: 2721: 2717: 2712: 2710:9780190642402 2706: 2702: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2687: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2668: 2664: 2657: 2655: 2651: 2646: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2627: 2619: 2617: 2613: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2565: 2562: 2557: 2555:9780190642402 2551: 2547: 2540: 2538: 2534: 2529: 2522: 2520: 2518: 2514: 2509: 2507:9780190642402 2503: 2499: 2492: 2489: 2485: 2479: 2476: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2450:Urban History 2444: 2441: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2401: 2398: 2394: 2389: 2386: 2382: 2376: 2373: 2369: 2363: 2360: 2356: 2350: 2347: 2343: 2337: 2334: 2331: 2325: 2322: 2317: 2310: 2308: 2306: 2304: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2288: 2285: 2281: 2275: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2255:Robert Harley 2250: 2248: 2244: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2225: 2221: 2214: 2212: 2208: 2205: 2201: 2198: 2193: 2190: 2187: 2186:968-16-5378-5 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2168: 2162: 2159: 2155: 2149: 2146: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2127: 2123: 2116: 2114: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2091: 2088: 2084: 2083: 2076: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2045:For example, 2042: 2039: 2032: 2027: 2024: 2022: 2019: 2017: 2014: 2012: 2009: 2008: 2004: 2002: 1998: 1996: 1992: 1987: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1966: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1949: 1944: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1921:Civitavecchia 1916: 1913: 1907: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1891: 1888: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1866: 1864: 1863:Spanish Crown 1860: 1856: 1855: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1833:Conquistadors 1829: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1811: 1809: 1806: 1801: 1799: 1794: 1789: 1787: 1778: 1776: 1774: 1769: 1764: 1761: 1758: 1755: 1751: 1746: 1743: 1739: 1734: 1732: 1728: 1720: 1718: 1711: 1709: 1702: 1700: 1696: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1681: 1676: 1671: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1646: 1643: 1638: 1631: 1629: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1617:mining empire 1610: 1608: 1605: 1602: 1598: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1568: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1550: 1548: 1543: 1541: 1537: 1531: 1527: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1511: 1509: 1504: 1501: 1497: 1496:Great Britain 1493: 1489: 1485: 1484: 1479: 1470: 1468: 1466: 1462: 1461: 1455: 1453: 1452: 1447: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1428: 1422: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1401: 1399: 1395: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1366: 1364: 1360: 1359:(1619–1683). 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1337: 1330: 1326: 1319: 1317: 1315: 1310: 1306: 1301: 1299: 1295: 1285: 1278: 1276: 1274: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1260: 1254: 1253:Enlightenment 1245: 1243: 1241: 1237: 1235: 1231: 1230: 1224: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1213:Great Britain 1210: 1202: 1200: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1166: 1164: 1161: 1157: 1156: 1150: 1148: 1147: 1142: 1138: 1133: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1114:Spanish Crown 1109: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1084: 1079: 1077: 1072: 1070: 1065: 1064: 1062: 1061: 1056: 1053: 1051: 1050: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1039: 1036: 1034: 1031: 1029: 1026: 1024: 1021: 1019: 1016: 1014: 1011: 1009: 1006: 1004: 1001: 999: 996: 994: 991: 989: 986: 984: 981: 980: 979: 978: 974: 970: 969: 966: 959: 954: 948: 938: 933: 931: 926: 924: 919: 918: 916: 915: 909: 908: 897: 895: 894: 883: 882: 880: 879: 876: 875: 871: 870: 863: 860: 858: 855: 853: 850: 848: 845: 843: 840: 839: 833: 832: 822: 819: 814: 811: 809: 806: 804: 801: 796: 793: 791: 788: 783: 780: 775: 772: 771: 768: 763: 762: 752: 749: 744: 743:Blue Division 741: 736: 733: 728: 725: 720: 717: 716: 713: 708: 707: 697: 694: 689: 686: 681: 678: 673: 670: 665: 662: 657: 654: 649: 646: 641: 638: 637: 634: 629: 628: 618: 616: 612: 607: 604: 599: 596: 591: 588: 583: 580: 575: 572: 567: 564: 559: 556: 555: 552: 547: 546: 536: 533: 528: 525: 520: 517: 512: 509: 508: 505: 504: 498: 497: 487: 484: 479: 478: 474: 469: 466: 461: 460: 456: 451: 448: 443: 440: 435: 432: 431: 428: 423: 422: 412: 409: 404: 403: 399: 394: 393: 389: 388: 385: 380: 379: 369: 366: 361: 358: 353: 350: 345: 342: 337: 334: 333: 330: 325: 324: 314: 311: 306: 303: 298: 295: 290: 289:Iberian Union 287: 282: 279: 274: 271: 266: 263: 258: 255: 250: 247: 246: 243: 238: 237: 227: 224: 219: 218: 214: 209: 206: 201: 198: 197: 194: 189: 188: 178: 175: 170: 167: 162: 159: 158: 155: 150: 149: 142: 139: 137: 134: 129: 126: 121: 118: 117: 114: 109: 108: 100:(575–206 BCE) 98: 95: 93: 90: 89: 86: 85:Early history 81: 80: 73: 70: 69: 66: 61: 60: 56: 52: 51: 48: 41: 36: 30: 26: 22: 6537:Architecture 6432:The Americas 6296:Newfoundland 6286:Túpac Katari 6276:Cuerno Verde 6211:Tenochtitlan 6043:Valenciennes 5800:Luis Fajardo 5669:Blas de Lezo 5614:Duke of Alba 5494:Spanish Road 5332:Buenos Aires 5241:Governorates 5010:Ayuntamiento 5003:Organization 4468:Carlist Wars 4417: 4316:Italian Wars 4226: 4212: 4189: 4175: 4152: 4138: 4124: 4110: 4087: 4073: 4066: 4059: 4042: 4035: 4028: 4011: 3997: 3983: 3969: 3955: 3932: 3922: 3905: 3891: 3877: 3863: 3849: 3835: 3821: 3807: 3793: 3779: 3757: 3716: 3710: 3683: 3677: 3650: 3606: 3602: 3596: 3579: 3575: 3565: 3548: 3544: 3538: 3523: 3515: 3498: 3488: 3461: 3455: 3436: 3430: 3410: 3403: 3393:, retrieved 3371: 3314: 3307: 3265: 3213: 3206: 3164: 3157: 3146:. Retrieved 3142: 3132: 3105: 3063: 3059: 3035: 2999: 2993: 2985: 2976: 2968: 2963: 2954: 2921: 2914: 2873: 2870:The Americas 2869: 2835: 2831: 2825: 2813: 2786: 2780: 2753: 2747: 2728: 2700: 2662: 2625: 2577:(1): 21–56. 2574: 2570: 2564: 2545: 2527: 2497: 2491: 2483: 2478: 2453: 2449: 2443: 2410: 2406: 2400: 2388: 2380: 2375: 2367: 2362: 2357:, pp. 33–94. 2354: 2349: 2341: 2336: 2324: 2315: 2292: 2287: 2279: 2274: 2269:, III, 182–5 2266: 2262: 2261:, 581; Pitt: 2258: 2254: 2219: 2192: 2177: 2161: 2153: 2148: 2121: 2102: 2090: 2081: 2080: 2051:Amazon River 2041: 1999: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1945: 1941:Papal States 1917: 1908: 1892: 1867: 1858: 1852: 1848: 1837:Christianity 1830: 1815: 1802: 1790: 1782: 1765: 1762: 1759: 1747: 1735: 1731:Spanish Army 1724: 1715: 1706: 1697: 1689:Peninsulares 1680:Corregidores 1678: 1672: 1647: 1639: 1635: 1614: 1611:Buenos Aires 1603: 1600: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1575: 1571: 1561: 1551: 1544: 1532: 1528: 1512: 1508:mercantilist 1505: 1499: 1481: 1474: 1464: 1458: 1456: 1449: 1443: 1439: 1406: 1402: 1372: 1370: 1361: 1355:of France's 1353:mercantilism 1348: 1342: 1302: 1290: 1257: 1249: 1238: 1227: 1225: 1206: 1170: 1153: 1151: 1144: 1134: 1094: 1092: 1047: 1032: 898: 884: 872: 852:LGBT history 614: 501: 475: 457: 400: 390: 216: 136:Romanization 123:(206–27 BCE) 6504:Philippines 6469:El Salvador 6089:Capo d'Orso 5973:St. Quentin 5948:Rome (1527) 5607:Strategists 5357:Guadalajara 5284:New Navarre 5279:New Castile 5264:La Luisiana 5216:Puerto Rico 5206:Philippines 5163:New Granada 4853:Philippines 4814:(Uruguay), 4810:(Bolivia), 4760:New Granada 4700:Puerto Rico 4646: [ 4516:Territories 4336:Encomiendas 4056:Lynch, John 3066:(3): 7–34. 1826:Catholicism 1712:Agriculture 1703:Cartography 1642:tax-farming 1547:José Patiño 1412: [ 1307:, lost the 1305:Charles III 1259:afrancesado 962:History of 777:(1975–1978) 754:(1959–2011) 746:(1941–1944) 738:(1939–1945) 730:(1939–1977) 722:(1939–1965) 691:(1936–1939) 659:(1933–1936) 651:(1931–1933) 620:(1930–1931) 615:Dictablanda 609:(1923–1930) 593:(1914–1918) 577:(1886–1931) 569:(1885–1902) 561:(1874–1885) 538:(1873–1874) 530:(1872–1876) 522:(1870–1873) 514:(1868–1871) 481:(1854–1856) 471:(1846–1849) 463:(1844–1854) 453:(1840–1843) 445:(1833–1840) 437:(1833–1840) 414:(1823–1833) 406:(1820–1823) 396:(1814–1820) 355:(1810–1814) 347:(1808–1813) 316:(1707–1716) 308:(1701–1714) 300:(1700–1808) 292:(1580–1640) 284:(1556–1659) 276:(1516–1700) 268:(1492–1898) 260:(1482–1492) 257:Granada War 252:(1479–1516) 217:Reconquista 193:Middle Ages 44:History of 6650:Categories 6174:Somosierra 6164:Manila Bay 6038:Nördlingen 5978:Gravelines 5458:Columnario 5430:Currencies 5347:Concepción 5319:Audiencias 5294:New Toledo 5259:La Florida 5092:Corregidor 5056:Papal bull 4961:Antarctica 4869:Micronesia 4326:Golden Age 3948:Government 3551:(1): 3–7. 3480:1015274908 3395:2020-12-08 3148:2020-01-13 3124:1015274908 3018:1015274908 2805:1015274908 2772:1015274908 2681:1015274908 2238:1015274908 2140:1015274908 2077:References 2065:after the 1542:monopoly. 1478:Sacramento 1460:audiencias 1433:consulados 1427:consulados 1421:consulados 1367:Government 1314:monopolies 1173:Charles II 1146:peninsular 281:Golden Age 229:(718–1479) 221:(711–1492) 211:(711–1492) 208:Al-Andalus 65:Prehistory 19:See also: 6479:Nicaragua 6457:Guatemala 6367:Pichincha 6352:Chacabuco 6291:Pensacola 6236:Mataquito 6216:Cajamarca 6197:New World 6169:Trafalgar 6073:Alhucemas 5953:Landriano 5938:Comuneros 5924:Old World 5868:Joan Orpí 5588:Royalists 5362:Guatemala 5289:New Spain 5226:Venezuela 5201:Guatemala 5158:New Spain 5153:Columbian 5046:Exequatur 4946:Cape Juby 4800:Argentina 4623:New Spain 4557:Gibraltar 4321:Habsburgs 3735:755004262 3702:755004262 3669:755004262 3623:0018-2168 3609:(1): 63. 3588:1988-270X 3507:0120-2456 3342:cite book 3334:762983392 3293:cite book 3285:762983392 3241:cite book 3233:762983392 3192:cite book 3184:762983392 3088:146193888 3080:1548-5811 2906:147450268 2890:0003-1615 2852:145148932 2607:153452195 2591:0022-216X 2470:151456126 2435:149788933 2427:0018-2168 2366:Brading, 2353:Brading, 2259:Louis XIV 1887:diasporic 1798:Zacatecas 1750:Presidios 1685:intendant 1655:Cartagena 1619:that was 1601:visitador 1558:Canarians 1465:audiencia 1398:Venezuela 1377:New Spain 1221:Gibraltar 964:New Spain 688:Civil War 273:Habsburgs 203:(711–716) 180:(552–624) 172:(418–721) 164:(409–585) 6489:Colombia 6474:Honduras 6387:Asomante 6372:Ayacucho 6362:Carabobo 6337:Curalaba 6114:Ceresole 6008:Gembloux 5968:Mühlberg 5683:Mariners 5541:Military 5463:Doubloon 5448:Maravedí 5392:Santiago 5299:Paraguay 5025:Germania 4865:Caroline 4820:Malvinas 4804:Paraguay 4764:Colombia 4706:Trinidad 4573:Sardinia 4413:Bourbons 4103:Military 2370:, p. 34. 2330:interese 2200:Archived 2170:Archived 2047:Amazonas 2005:See also 1882:hegemony 1727:cabildos 1721:Military 1693:Criollos 1651:Veracruz 1632:Taxation 1567:Mantuano 1451:Criollos 1155:Criollos 1141:Criollos 1122:Habsburg 953:a series 951:Part of 874:Timeline 297:Bourbons 128:Hispania 35:a series 33:Part of 6621:Asiento 6592:Mustang 6452:Yucatán 6447:Chiapas 6327:Tucapel 6159:Passaro 6109:Algiers 6099:Preveza 6068:Tetouan 6063:Vitoria 6053:Bitonto 5993:Antwerp 5988:Lepanto 5943:Bicocca 5419:Economy 5342:Charcas 5337:Caracas 5231:Yucatán 5102:Regidor 5087:Alcalde 5015:Cabildo 4922:Tripoli 4861:Mariana 4808:Charcas 4784:(Peru, 4768:Ecuador 4731:Bonaire 4726:Curazao 4711:Jamaica 4639:Florida 4205:Society 3772:Economy 3751:General 3631:2513542 2898:1006909 2267:England 1967:Effects 1895:Jesuits 1870:Maroons 1752:in the 1657:, Lima/ 1625:Jesuits 1604:generál 1577:Tobacco 1562:pardos, 1520:Seville 1500:asiento 1298:mercury 1217:Menorca 1193:England 1189:Austria 1110: 1099:Spanish 601:(–1927) 598:Rif War 6599:Castas 6357:Boyacá 6332:Guiana 6322:Iguape 6246:Recife 6184:Mactan 6179:Annual 6144:Rocroi 6139:Leiden 6124:Djerba 6058:Bailén 6013:Ostend 5998:Azores 5593:Legión 5558:Tercio 5551:Armies 5453:Escudo 5382:Panamá 5377:Mexico 5372:Manila 5327:Bogotá 5112:Vecino 5107:Syndic 4938:Béjaïa 4898:Africa 4884:Tidore 4772:Panama 4736:Belize 4643:Mexico 4569:Sicily 4565:Naples 4527:Europe 4233: 4219: 4196: 4182: 4168:Church 4159: 4145: 4131: 4117: 4094: 4080: 4049: 4018: 4004: 3990: 3976: 3962: 3939: 3912: 3898: 3884: 3870: 3856: 3842: 3828: 3814: 3800: 3786: 3764: 3733: 3723: 3700: 3690: 3667: 3657: 3629: 3621: 3586: 3582:: 11. 3505: 3501:(30). 3478: 3468: 3443: 3418: 3386: 3332: 3322: 3283: 3273: 3231: 3221: 3182: 3172: 3122: 3112: 3086: 3078: 3016: 3006: 2929: 2904: 2896: 2888: 2850: 2803: 2793: 2770: 2760: 2735: 2707: 2679: 2669: 2641: 2605: 2599:156338 2597: 2589: 2552: 2504: 2468: 2433: 2425: 2253:Hill: 2236: 2226: 2184: 2138: 2128: 1937:Naples 1779:Mining 1742:Manila 1738:Havana 1667:silver 1663:Panama 1661:, and 1659:Callao 1621:Potosí 1599:, the 955:on the 816:(2017) 798:(2004) 785:(1978) 699:(1939) 683:(1936) 675:(1936) 667:(1934) 643:(1931) 585:(1898) 489:(1868) 371:(1813) 363:(1812) 339:(1808) 37:on the 6494:Chile 6462:Petén 6437:Aztec 6256:Bahia 6231:Penco 6221:Cusco 6149:Downs 6129:Tunis 6048:Ceuta 6033:Breda 5983:Malta 5963:Tunis 5958:Pavia 5472:Trade 5387:Quito 5352:Cusco 5191:Chile 4926:Tunis 4873:Palau 4790:Chile 4721:Aruba 4716:Haiti 4650:] 4579:Milan 4537:Spain 3627:JSTOR 3530:83–84 3084:S2CID 2902:S2CID 2894:JSTOR 2848:S2CID 2603:S2CID 2595:JSTOR 2466:S2CID 2431:S2CID 2033:Notes 1859:fuero 1854:fuero 1793:Pesos 1540:Cádiz 1524:Cádiz 1416:] 1273:Chile 1268:Dutch 1049:Casta 836:Topic 46:Spain 6499:Inca 6442:Maya 6377:Guam 6310:Lost 6082:Lost 6003:Mons 5443:Real 5367:Lima 5254:Cuba 5196:Cuba 5168:Perú 4944:and 4942:Ifni 4934:Oran 4857:Guam 4786:Acre 4782:Peru 4692:Cuba 4571:and 4231:ISBN 4217:ISBN 4194:ISBN 4180:ISBN 4157:ISBN 4143:ISBN 4129:ISBN 4115:ISBN 4092:ISBN 4078:ISBN 4047:ISBN 4016:ISBN 4002:ISBN 3988:ISBN 3974:ISBN 3960:ISBN 3937:ISBN 3910:ISBN 3896:ISBN 3882:ISBN 3868:ISBN 3854:ISBN 3840:ISBN 3826:ISBN 3812:ISBN 3798:ISBN 3784:ISBN 3762:ISBN 3731:OCLC 3721:ISBN 3698:OCLC 3688:ISBN 3665:OCLC 3655:ISBN 3619:ISSN 3584:ISSN 3503:ISSN 3476:OCLC 3466:ISBN 3441:ISBN 3416:ISBN 3384:ISBN 3348:link 3330:OCLC 3320:ISBN 3299:link 3281:OCLC 3271:ISBN 3247:link 3229:OCLC 3219:ISBN 3198:link 3180:OCLC 3170:ISBN 3120:OCLC 3110:ISBN 3076:ISSN 3014:OCLC 3004:ISBN 2927:ISBN 2886:ISSN 2801:OCLC 2791:ISBN 2768:OCLC 2758:ISBN 2733:ISBN 2705:ISBN 2677:OCLC 2667:ISBN 2639:ISBN 2587:ISSN 2550:ISBN 2502:ISBN 2423:ISSN 2234:OCLC 2224:ISBN 2182:ISBN 2136:OCLC 2126:ISBN 2097:and 1816:The 1805:Mita 1740:and 1108:lit. 1093:The 23:and 6204:Won 5931:Won 5039:Law 4936:, 4656:), 4637:), 3611:doi 3553:doi 3376:doi 3068:doi 2878:doi 2840:doi 2631:doi 2579:doi 2458:doi 2415:doi 1494:to 1490:to 1347:'s 1223:. 6652:: 4940:, 4932:, 4928:, 4924:, 4920:, 4916:, 4871:, 4867:, 4863:, 4859:, 4855:, 4818:, 4806:, 4802:, 4788:, 4774:, 4770:, 4766:, 4698:, 4694:, 4648:es 4641:, 4567:, 4304:, 4058:. 4027:. 3931:. 3729:. 3696:. 3663:. 3639:^ 3625:. 3617:. 3607:57 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