Bourbon Reforms - Knowledge (XXG)

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officials were effective in the extraction of rents, these conclusions are largely based analysis of fiscal results without a direct connection drawn between monopoly policies and the outcomes of those policies. The overall evolution of monopoly policies suggests that the Bourbons were, in fact, quite aware of organizational problems that plague hierarchies, and that they had a solid understanding of the importance of transaction costs for the sustenance of bureaucracy. This is evidenced in the design of the factory system, which helped vertically integrate much of the market and also helped reduce costs associated with controlling illegal markets. The closing of tobacco factories and similarly perceived ‘failures’ at the end of the 18th century should be read with an understanding of the limitations of the political economy of colonialism and in light of policy changes in Madrid that happened in the context of a tumultuous Europe. Monopoly policies were relaxed in areas where the most conflict arose in response to such policies.

2004:, led by a Criollo, presented demands in Bogota that would benefit the Criollos and Indians but it was not successful. The inhabitants of New Spain, especially the peasant class, experienced the oppression of Bourbons but did not turn to revolt in the same way as their southern neighbors. Rising costs of land, disease, crime and agricultural crises increased tensions in New Spain. Perhaps due to the lack of Aztec identity, the circumstances did not produce a united response like that of the Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II and Revolt of the Comuneros. It is important to note that while a threat, the Tupac Amaru II revolt did not intend to overthrow the Spanish crown. Tupac Amaru himself claimed to have been loyal and merely carrying out the king's will. The unrest in the late 18th century was not motivated by the prospect of independence or enlightenment thinking, and often used traditional Spanish law and Catholic theology in its justifications and reasoning. However, it is seen by some scholars as a precursor to the eventual 1744:. In New Spain alone, there was 6000 Spanish soldiers to 23,000 militia. Some believe that militias were often created along race lines, with militias for whites, blacks and mixed race people. However, other studies indicate that the men in militias were from all races, most of them being mixed-race. These militias aided the supplement of a standing Spanish army, which, at the time, was occupied with conflicts on the home front. Eventually, the militias formed the base for independent armies, and turned on the Spanish. Outnumbered and already indulged in conflict abroad, Spain was put in a difficult situation that they created themselves. However, this begs a crucial thought; was the Spanish crown foolish to encourage the creation of these militias? While on the surface this seemed to be a failure from the beginning, the reality was Spain did not have much of a choice but to trust the Creoles. The reality was the Spanish Empire was tied down in to many places, and naturally they ran out of resources. 1150:, the reforms were designed to make the administration more efficient and to promote its economic, commercial and fiscal development. When looking at the material effects of how the Bourbon Reforms aimed to change the relationship between the Spanish American colonies and the Crown, it can be said that the reforms functionally aimed to transform juridically semi-autonomous groups into proper colonies. Specifically, the reforms sought to increase commercial agriculture and mining and increase trade. The system was intended to be much more hierarchal, forcing the colonies to become more dependent on Spain and serve as a market for their manufactured goods. The crown ordered these changes in hopes that it would have a positive effect on the economy of Spain. Furthermore, the Bourbon Reforms were intended to limit the power of 1740:, and compositions of councils chosen by the wealthy creoles. Due to a fear amongst the Bourbons of a potential penetration of their empire by other European empires, they engaged in the construction of fortresses and garrisons and created and heavily promoted militias composed of people of a variety of backgrounds and races to supplement their army. The military was a place where creoles still enjoyed a political space within the bourbon reforms. In fact, the Bourbons encouraged the creation of militia under Creole control. The Creoles were also tasked with founding municipalities and collecting revenue in order to support their militias and build fortifications. Shortly, the militias soon became significantly larger and more powerful than the standing 1452:

center. During the period of the Bourbon reforms, the Spanish crown wanted to switch from the Plaza Mayor model, in which the plaza was a central square that was a daily market and a space for public festivities, to the Plaza de Armas model, in which the plaza space would be cleared and devoted to martial activities. These reforms were characterized by a mixture of construction projects, relocations, and unfinished or unsuccessful projects. Although they were only partially applied, some aspects of these reform projects actually spilled over from colonial to republican times, post- independence. In fact, in both Mexico and Peru, the independent regimes assumed features of the Bourbon reform program in terms of the use and understanding of the plaza.

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principle to be one of the cornerstone principles of the Bourbon reforms. The Free Trade decree opened all ports in the colonies to trade with Spanish controlled ports, the colonies, or Spain. This act, in tandem with the crucial decision preceding it to open the islands of the Spanish Caribbean to all nine peninsular Spanish ports in 1765, helped establish the notion that the special privilege of trade that only a few ports had enjoyed earlier was to be no more. It is important to understand that the ‘free’ trade that was established by the Free Trade Decree was only free in a limited sense. There were geographic limitations both in Spain and in the Americas, most notably being the exclusion of Venezuela and New Spain.

1560:, implemented several new strategies aimed at streamlining the production and importation of Spanish American goods to Spain. One such strategy that proved highly profitable was the establishment of royal monopolies and trading companies as early as 1717 that controlled the production of export crops such as tobacco and sugar in Cuba and cacao in Venezuela. By charging higher prices for Spanish imports and paying lower prices for exports from Spanish America, these companies used their monopolies to generate rents that disproportionately benefited the Spanish mainland over its Spanish American colonies. For example, during the 1750s, the royal monopoly on Cuban tobacco generated a profit of more than 500 million pesos. 1656:

themselves afterwards. However, with the elimination of this practice and the transition to direct tax collection, tax rates were thus higher and were also now set at an unnegotiable and inflexible rate. Changes like this were part and parcel of the move on behalf of the Crown to try to regain control of administrative power in the American colonies. Administrative powers had, in the mind of the Crown, previously been too porous for Creoles via mechanisms such as the sale of office and tax-farming. However, as Bourbon reforms were put into effect, many colonial officials were condemned for corrupt practices, such as taking bribes and neglecting tax collection without considering the Crown's interest.

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removal of taxes on Spanish wine and the blocking of local mechanisms of production was intended to encourage the purchase of Spanish products. During this time as local production suffered, the flow of wealth increasingly moved towards the Criollo and bureaucratic elites and away from the lower classes. While in certain regions, such as Buenos Aires, the reforms led to growth and productivity, in other places, particularly in smaller towns or rural regions, the lack of presence of wealthy Criollo elites and the massive disparities in distribution of wealth led to unrest, which eventually manifested itself in complaints, and eventually riots and revolts.

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the movements for independence. However, it is necessary to be wary of reading this history as a linear process in which the Bourbon reforms created an unrest that just grew and grew until finally tensions finally snapped and revolts ignited through Spanish America. For example, although it is true that the militias that were created in this era eventually became the base of independence armies, it does not become a significant issue until a while later. There were a series of riots. However, they generally did not threaten the system in place, they rarely made demands, and they were usually in response to something specific.

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transforming them into consumable final products. Through this entire process, the crown was focused on capturing tax revenue. Additionally, Spanish merchants were pushed upwards as a result of these changes. This shift to a focus on export crops and commercial agriculture further altered and limited the autonomy and functionality of the colonies, as they became resources in a system of direct extraction for the Spanish Empire. This boosted a need for trade between Spain and the colonies as they exported raw goods and needed to receive back the processed and manufactured resources of Spain.

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reforms, missionaries still played an active part in the Spanish-American colonial empire. Missionaries often were sent with presidial soldiers into the wilderness of the moving frontier as an arguably more human and, to the crown, less expensive method of converting, subjugating, and incorporating new indigenous peoples. Although the prevalence of missionary groups might have declined in most areas, there still existed a rhythmic and constantly fluctuating relationship in which missions, the military, and civil settlement in frontier society.

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maps were created to display terrain, mineral deposits, bridges and canals, forts, and other important features like mines. Mine-based maps and plans showed plans of mining towns and technical drawings of equipment like winches and ovens which were used in mine production. These maps were used to help the Bourbons fulfil their other reform goals, such as revitalizing old mines and creating new ones. They also used these maps to be able to levy more efficient taxes upon their colonies based on what they consumed and produced in abundance.

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became more expensive and time-consuming to extract mineral ores. Therefore, the Spanish Crown attempted to revitalize the mines and create new ones through a series of reforms. These included giving the mine owners control over labor costs through lower salaries, lowering the prices of gunpowder and organizing its supply more efficiently, as well as a steadier and cheaper supply of mercury which was used for refining silver ores. The reforms also gave tax exemptions to mine production. In 1787, mining ordinances of New Spain and the

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recognition (as early as the 16th century) that the northern area of South America had certain challenges of distance from Peru. There had been earlier creations of captaincies general in Guatemala and Venezuela, marking an increase in their importance. The addition of the viceroyalties in order to compensate for challenges of distance between northern South America and Peru also came about as a result of the need to protect the vital trade routes that existed between these regions. In 1776, a second jurisdiction, the

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of the time. The expulsion represented aspects of liberal ideology as a need to break away from colonial past, progress and civilization as attainable objectives, education as a neutral term of religious instruction, and the separation of the Catholic Church and state. These factors played a major role in the modernization of Spanish America. Spanish soldiers went to Mexico and rounded up the Jesuits to be exiled to Italy. The Jesuits were then placed on Spanish warships and sent to the Italian port of

1336: 1295: 1698:. The intendancies had the intended effect of further decentralizing the administration at the expense of viceroys, captains general and governors, since intendants were directly responsible to the Crown and were granted large powers in economic and political matters. The intendancy system proved to be efficient in most areas and led to an increase in revenue collection. Intendency seats were mainly based in large cities and successful mining centers. Almost all of the new intendants were 984: 2012:

Vizcayans. Even at its height "the rebellion remained a moderate movement, basically a peaceful protest, led by a man who in no way was in no way a revolutionary." In the end, while the leader was executed, there was limited action and the revolt reduced privileges for the Caracas company. Therefore, while some of the information in this section is essential, it is important to present the example of the Venezuelan revolt to show that not all of the revolts were bloody.

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militia which was ordered to muster frequently for training. They were also liable to serve actively in peacetime if the situation required it. This system of organisation in Havana was expanded to New Orleans, Louisiana, Puerto Rico, St Louis, St Genevieve, Pensacola. By 1784 the militia of New Spain had grown to 18,000 in a well-organised manner with an additional 15,000 less organised troops with hundreds more in the Provincias Internas, in Central America the

1311:, a Spanish import, was an essential resource for extracting silver in the mining process, but the French naval blockade dramatically limited imports in Spanish America. As a result, silver plunged downward and mining slumped, which caused revenue to decrease. Ultimately, in 1805, the highland mining districts exploded in revolt. Therefore, it was not the Bourbon reforms that failed, but rather the role of the conflicts at home that resulted in failure. 1253:, the first king of the House of Bourbon, took measures intended to counter the decline of Spanish power called the Bourbon Reforms. Even before the war, the state of the empire was precarious. When Charles II died, the military was practically nonexistent, consisting of only one division; the treasury was bankrupt; and there was no state promotion of commerce or industry. Philip V and his ministers needed to act quickly to reconstruct the empire. 1303:

tightening noose of imperial rivalry abroad with the British, the French, and the Portuguese. They were all fighting for domination in the Atlantic trade. Spain's problems with its neighbor were the biggest concern, and the Spanish Bourbons made constant short-term adjustments to colonial and increasingly, continental war-making. War was inevitable as the hegemonic powers were pinned against each other in a quest for expansion. This hindered the

1819:

they were profit-pursuing when purchasing the rights of mita, while also seeking profit in the forcible sale of goods to the indigenous. However, to clarify, ‘forcible sale’ is a phrase that ought to be read with caution. The evidence indicates that there were indigenous peoples who would participate in the purchase of goods from these merchants willingly, and that mules used in mule trains helped to facilitate their own internal economy.

1887:. In the sixteenth century, missionizing native peoples was seen as a moral conquest. It was used as a tool of pacification among Africans who escaped slavery and made their home in Spanish America. In Ecuador, Santo Domingo, Mexico, and Panama, imprinting and "pacifying" maroon societies was very dependent on the spread of Spanish Catholicism. Pacification is an attempt to create or maintain peace through agreements and diplomacy. 1394:, who was later named Minister of the Indies. Upon his inspection, he found the viceroyalty in a shambles and then reorganized the tax collection system, rewarded loyal Spanish merchants, jailed corrupt tax collectors, and steered the local economy towards mining. The reforms attempted in New Spain were implemented elsewhere in Spanish America subsequently. There had been one earlier reform in the creation of the new 1706:, who wished to retain some control of local administration. The installation of the intendancy system contributed to the further marginalization of the creole elite. It changed the question of who would occupy the positions of Crown officials and shifted the center of influence from landed Creole elites to peninsular Spaniards. Creoles were largely pushed out in favor of peninsular administrators. 1347: 1415:

the crown was able to collect tax revenues from those circuits of trade that had previously eluded it. Although some analyze the Bourbon reforms by arguing that the purpose of the reform was to eliminate contraband trade and other illicit circuits of trade, a closer analysis of the material evidence available indicates that many of these circuits did not disappear, but were simply incorporated.

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changes made by the crown, the consulados also functioned to shift power away from the creole elite and into the hands of peninsular Spaniards. As the consulados controlled internal economic circuits, when the Creoles lost control of these roles in government they also lost much of their control of trade and economic systems, further destabilizing their established power in the colonies.

899: 913: 1362:(New System of Economic Government for America) (1743) was a key text that shaped the reforms. He compared the colonial systems of Britain and France to that of Spain, as the first two nations reaped far greater benefits from their colonies than Spain. He advocated reforming Spain's economic relations with its overseas territories to a system more like the 1966:

hesitant to join forces with the state because they feared the state would gain too much power and try to alter the preexisting ideals and beliefs of the Catholic Church. With the formation of Spanish America, the Catholic Church and the Spanish Crown formed an alliance that lasted for centuries both in the Iberian Peninsula and Spanish America.

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largely supported, notably by important ministers like Gálvez, a Spanish Visitador general, who argued for more commercial deregulation and the end of the monopoly of Cádiz in his paper entitled "Discurso y reflexiones de un vasallo sobre la decadencia de nuestras Indias españoles". Another supporter of free trade was

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tax on silver from one-fifth to one-tenth in order to encourage silver production to be reported. Over the course of the 18th century, the market for silver led the port city of Buenos Aires to prominence, and between 1776 and 1783, 80% of the exports leaving the port at Buenos Aires were shipments of silver.

1222:, which ended the War of Spanish Succession and placed Philip V securely on the Spanish throne, the new Bourbon dynasty was forced to make several territorial concessions to outside powers. This included, in compromise with the Austrian Habsburgs, most of the Spanish Empire's European territories, and with 1901:

colonial Ecuador will allow us to see in three acts, or phases, how clerical intervention and the discourse of Christian conversion shaped colonization over time: ultimately yielding a modus vivendi between rebel African slaves and Spanish colonial authorities." (Bryant, O'Toole, Vinson, 2012: 96–97).

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was still in place, but through purchasing the rights of mita from miners who had been given mita quotas and incorporating themselves into the infrastructure of forcible sale of goods to the indigenous, merchants were still able to participate in mining. These merchants were income-pursuing more than

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Cartographical pushes resulted in massive output with extremely specific indications on maps in a manner that was extremely modern. In tandem with this were data-gathering expeditions that were sponsored and sent out to develop a deeper understanding of the colonies. Quantitative and qualitative data

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An important goal of the Bourbon Reforms was to increase legal, registered trade with Spanish America in order to collect more tax revenue for the Crown, an aim that was frequently undercut both by the prevalence of contraband and the increasing presence of foreign merchants. One strategy to diminish

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of the Spanish crown. This is not to say that a clean and straight line can be drawn from the Bourbon reforms to the movements for independence, but rather that the period of unrest that came in the wake of the reforms helped encourage the conditions necessary for local riots, and eventually revolts.

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The tensions continued to grow and widespread discontent lead to an increasing number of revolts in the Andean region. In the middle of the 18th century, the number of insurrections rose steadily so there were a dozen or more per decade. From 1750 to 1759 there were 11 recorded, while 20 years later

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There are various historical interpretations on the success of the Bourbon reforms. Nevertheless, though the legislation passed by the Bourbons did much to reform the Empire, it was not enough to sustain it. Many of these reforms laid the groundwork of unrest that continued to develop and grow until

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The Bourbon reforms succeeded in raising revenue and increasing silver production in Spanish America. While the changes in tax collection and trade policy had a significant impact on the economic success of the colonies, the domestic industries suffered under the Bourbon reforms. Changes such as the

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However, the relationship between the Church and the implementation of the Bourbon reforms in Spanish America should not be treated as if it were monolithic and singular. While the above-mentioned trends can be seen when looking at the core areas of Spanish America, even at the height of the Bourbon

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whilst in Havana and added to by instructions from Madrid. Colonial Militias were to contain men between 16-45 years of age with the men being conscripted if volunteers were insufficient. The wealthy and educated were to be the officers of the militia with regular army officers seconded to train the

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were expanded from 734 men in 1729 to 2,187 men in 1777 and then again to 3,087 in 1787. The line of forts and the intervening patrols were not to provide a concrete line of protection or to eradicate the threat to Mexico but it was to create general safety as there were troops further south in this

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in the 7 years war prompted the formation of a secret commission in Madrid to discuss and implement military reform. The Commission decided firstly, to strengthen fortifications, secondly to reinforce colonial regulars with metropolitan regulars and to raise new colonial units so that reinforcements

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Another part of the Bourbon reforms targeted the set-up of the municipio itself. Specifically, the main plaza was a central figure in Hispanic colonial urbanism. In Spanish America, cities were planned around a central public square, and much of colonial life emanated from or was planned around that

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Emphasis on the dominant role of the state in ecclesiastical reform sometimes made the church seem defensive and resistant to change and modern ideas. Many nuns of the eighteenth century were resistant and even rebelled against the thought of the church and state joining. Many priests and nuns were

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The expulsion of the Jesuits which was frowned upon among many colonists. Many historians believe that the Bourbon Reforms would bring forth self-confidence for American-born Spaniards. The expulsion of the Jesuits confronted the liberal ideology of the nineteenth century and conservative positions

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functioned to imprint submission to religious practices. Maroons, as well as other Africans, rapidly learned that Catholicism was necessary for political legitimation. However, bringing Christianity to light did not interrupt the development of localized practices that observed religious traditions

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mining industry as part of the Crown's attempts to stimulate silver production, which had plummeted throughout Spanish America at the beginning of the 1700s. Spain relied heavily on the silver industry for tax revenue, particularly on the mines at Potosí in the Andes. In 1736, the Crown reduced the

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seeking travel to Cordoba or Paraguay and the port could also be described as a "back-door" to the Andes. Regardless of Buenos Aires having a positive correlation with the Bourbon reforms due its heavy reliance on the flow of silver and Spain's commerce, its reign eventually fell victim to Spain's

1583:

In addition to changes to production, the nature of trade under the Bourbons, especially after 1740, also shifted – away from the Habsburg fleet system for shipping, which had many inefficiencies and was vulnerable to attack, and towards a single-ship system, which was more competitive with foreign

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A key reason for freeing trade was that King Charles III wanted to remove the monopoly of Cádiz, a Spanish port, over trade with the Americas. Cádiz could not supply for the large demand in the Americas. He also wanted to end the Spanish Crown's financial dependence on this monopoly. Free trade was

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Establishment of new viceroyalties also revealed a new revelation on the part of the Spanish crown: that there were huge circuits of illicit trade in Spanish America, and that it was in the best interest of the crown to incorporate these circuits of trade into the existing infrastructure. This way,

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fleets. Spain turned to France for help with the export of its goods, which was the first time in Spanish colonial history that legal trade occurred with a foreign nation. Prior to this, trade between Spanish-American colonies and other European countries had all occurred on illicit trade circuits.

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movement. They came to be functionally as soldiers of the church and therefore had a special allegiance to the papacy. Thus, it was likely in the best interest of the Crown to make sure that the people on the ground in the American colonies would have a stronger allegiance to the Crown than to any

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The Bourbons launched large projects of information gathering to investigate and record the natural endowments in their American colonies to enable more efficient exploitation of their colonies’ resources. These projects included censuses and large cartographical efforts. Various types of detailed

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With regards to the economy, collection of taxes was more efficient under the intendancy system. In 1778, Charles III established the "Decree of Free Trade," which allowed the Spanish American ports to trade directly with one another and most ports in Spain. Therefore, "commerce would no longer be

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ended. Prior to the Bourbon reforms, the practice of tax-farming allowed people, specifically members of the Creole elite, to purchase the right of tax collection from the crown. These people would then pay the crown ahead of time what the expected tax revenue would be, and then they collect taxes

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Merchants in Cadiz benefited enormously as a result of these changes. Much wealth accumulated in the hands of the already wealthy peninsular Spaniards. Creole merchants, on the other hand, saw much of their profit decrease with the demolition of monopolies. However, these criollo merchants did not

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throughout the Spanish world. Imperial rivalry and competition was also a large factor of the Bourbon reforms, and since France was the more dominant power, the Spanish tried to compete with their intellectual power. In a sense, all things French came into fashion during the subsequent century and

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The new Bourbon kings kept close ties with France and used many Frenchmen as advisors. French innovations in politics and social manners never fully replaced Spanish laws and traditions but became an important model in both areas. As a result, there was an influx of French goods, ideas, and books,

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These changes are all part of the movement to subjugate the church to the state. Eliminating the fuero also eliminated what the Crown would have likely seen as unnecessary intermediaries, and thus, the bypassing of these intermediaries would make the state stronger. Moreover, ideologically, while

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in New Spain and later Minister of the Indies, implemented labor regulation through his "Regulation on Wage and Peonage" (1769). This decree specified wages for free labor workers and set conditions for contract fulfillment and circumstances such as debt repayment. Under the Bourbons, the further

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Then in 1778, the Free Trade Decree (Reglamento para el comercio libre) was passed. The crown believed that free and protected trade between Spain and the Americas was the best way to restore all sectors of the Spanish dominion to their former glory. Traditionally, many identify this act and this

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demonstrated an effort on the part of Spain that, unlike other Atlantic empires, seemed to make a real effort to integrate its American colonies as essential parts of not just Spain's colonial empire, but also as provinces of the monarchy and not simply faraway lands. Just as in many of the other

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with Great Britain (1756–1763). Charles III's counselors sought more detailed reports of Spain's overseas territories/and now understood the need to take them fully into account. The new wave of reforms included larger exploitation of resources in the colonies, increased taxes, the opening of new

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In terms of agriculture, the Bourbons established state monopolies over crops and established state monopoly over purchases, too. They specifically focused on commercial export crops like sugar, indigo, cochineal, tobacco, and cacao. The State was the one in charge of taking primary products and

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The early reforms were aimed at improving the economic and political structure of Spain. They sought to modernize agriculture, construction of ships, and infrastructure to monitor and incite economic integration and development on a regional and national level. The Spanish were caught in an ever

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It is important when studying the process of these reforms, particularly the economic reforms, that one pays close attention to where the money being generated is going. Much of it went to the creole elites in the cities, and to bureaucratic elites, and to the Spanish treasure in the Americas.

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The Bourbons implemented a range of mining reforms to reverse the decline of mines in New Spain and in accordance with the Bourbon's goals to increase the wealth of Spain. The mines had been declining due to technological issues and high costs: as tunnels deepened, flooding became easier and it

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An examination of Bourbon intervention in the Peruvian tobacco industry from the mid-18th century to the beginning of the 19th century helps reveal a little more about the nature of the Bourbon administration and its relationship to monopoly policies. Although it is widely accepted that Bourbon

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The War of Succession's main objective was to determine which European powers would dominate over the Atlantic trade. In 1713, the war ended with the Treaty of Utrecht which had significant impact on Spain's economic holdings. Spain lost some of its primary European possessions to the Austrian

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The Bourbon reforms have been termed "a revolution in government" for their sweeping changes to the structure of the administration, which sought to strengthen the power of the Spanish state, decrease the power of local elites in favor of office holders from the Iberian peninsula, and increase

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Not all rebellions were violent. In Venezuela, the movement was essentially an economic protest which the government by its response turned into a rebellion; its social base was among smaller farmers and merchants, many of them criollos, and their cry was ‘long live the King and death to the

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and elsewhere in Spain arising from his reforms. Charles created a commission which blamed the unrest in Madrid on the Jesuits. Along this line of reasoning, historians Kenneth Andrien and Allan Kuethe argue that "claims of a Jesuit-led conspiracy allowed the crown to find a scapegoat without

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world. "While an Afro-Christian diasporic identity may have been in its formative stage during the sixteenth century, transfers of knowledge between the old world and the new were readily apparent in European interactions with Maroons on the Esmeraldas coast. This case study of the Maroons of

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The intendancy system was part of the new attitude on the part of the Bourbons to push the economic development of the mother country. The intendants were meant to be promoters of export-oriented economic activity. They were meant to focus on extractive activities, and not manufacturing ones.

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to improve the administration of the overseas possessions. The new viceroyalty was created initially in 1717, suppressed just six years later, and then permanently established in 1739, still earlier than the reforms of the late 18th century. It was an administrative change that reflected the

1811:, a mining region with huge turnover in mining production, historian Enrique Tandeter argues that "There the rise of the first quarter of the century can be attributed to individual entrepreneurs." Entrepreneurial investments allowed for improvements in mining technology and lower costs. 1991:

Wealth being generated was not being redistributed to lower classes. This coupled with a general increase in regulations and obligations, especially for the indigenous, contributed to a societal foundation that was untenable for the plebeians of colonial Spanish-American society.

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not only led to a significant loss of revenue for the Spanish Crown, it also provided channels through which British merchants could deal in contraband trade. With these losses, Spain relied primarily on its American colonies to maintain its position as a European power.

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these reforms were being implemented, there was a parallel movement happening in Europe to move towards a harder line of separation between Church and State. The Bourbons were, in fact, quite modern in their understanding of the separation between Church and State.

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and the Caribbean despite the fact that most of this trade was considered contraband since it was not carried on Spanish ships. Most of the Bourbon kings tried to outlaw this trade through various programs like increasing the customs receipts, with little avail.

1567:. Frustrations with this company's monopoly were felt among the majority of Venezuela's population and culminated in a revolt against the company in 1749, led by Juan Francisco de León. The revolt created a temporary alliance between elite creoles, 2340:

Nuevo sistema de gobierno economico para la América: con los males y daños que le causa el que hoy tiene, de los que participa copiosamente España, y remedios universales para que la primera tenga considerables ventajas, y la segunda mayores

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However, the Jesuits also were more than just a missionary group. They were very clever and influential businessmen and had control over significant portions of the American colonies. Moreover, the Jesuits were a group that emerged from the

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would not need to be dispatched from Spain during emergency. Thirdly, the artillery was integrated under the metropolitan Royal Artillery Corps, fourthly, the existing colonial militias were completely reformed and expanded dramatically.

1521:, an economic policy in which countries maximize their exports and minimize their imports to secure greater portion of wealth from a fixed amount in the world. This wealth was measured in the quantity that ended up in imperial treasuries. 1916:

broke out in 1762. In 1767, Charles III of Spain ordered the expulsion of 2,200 Jesuits from the vice royalties. Of the 2,200 that were exiled, 678 were from Mexico (New Spain) with 75% of the Jesuits from Mexico being Mexican-born.

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natives, and free blacks. While these efforts were quickly extinguished by Spanish forces, the Bourbons did put limits on the power of the Guipuzcoana company following the revolt. However, these limits primarily benefited the

1186:, who left no successor. Even before his death in 1700, the European powers were already positioning themselves to see which royal house would succeed in placing someone on the Spanish throne and thereby gain its vast empire. 1411:. Even after his time in the colonies, José de Gálvez joined the Council of the Indies and eventually rose to the top of that, effectively becoming the most influential figure in the legislation of colonial Americas. 3420: 1908:. The Society of Jesus, the members being the Jesuits, had become one of the most powerful organizations in the colonies at the time and had a distinct amount of power until the Bourbon Reforms. First, under the 1465:) had made in the local bureaucracy in the past century and a half, usually through the sale of offices, were checked by the direct appointment of (supposedly more qualified and disinterested) Spanish officials. 1912:, which orchestrated a land exchange between Spain and Portugal in South America, Spain's intention to give Portugal territory containing a total of seven Jesuit missions sparked intense Jesuit resistance, and 1806:

in Mexico alone. Some historians attribute this growth to the Bourbon reforms, whereas others attribute it more to the rising investments of entrepreneurs into mining during this period. For example, regarding

1868:, any civil crime or criminal offense would be heard in front of the ecclesiastical instead of the royal or local court. This privilege was then extended to all clerics, nuns, priests, monks, and friars. This 1999:

drew mainly upon the frustrations of the indigenous community but also included black slaves and Criollos. The cross-class alliance was fleeting, and the insurrection was squashed by the Spanish army. The

1634:. Silver would be easily dispatched to the peninsula. Buenos Aires was not solely a beneficial port for the Spanish as it was often the center of illicit contraband along the Atlantic. Buenos Aires housed 1896:

of Africans and indigenous Americans. Maroon communities on the coast of colonial Ecuador learned how Christianization became a tool for Afro-Amerindian rebels in Spain's empire and in the African

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Buenos Aires provided the perfect opportunity to integrate the products of the New World into peninsular Spain. The port city was essential to the process of extraction due to its proximity to the

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Havana was fortified heavily with a regiment being formed in the city and Metropolitan ones being rotated through the city with at least 2 at all times within the city occasionally rising to 3.

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was also carved out of the Viceroyalty of Peru in 1776 as part of José de Gálvez's comprehensive administrative reform. In the same year, an autonomous captaincy general was also established in

1590:

proved to be a successful crop after state monopolies were expanded. Also, many of the colonies began to produce an abundance of resources, which became vital to many European powers and the

1556:

Another goal was to more efficiently extract raw materials from Spanish America and create a captive Spanish American market for Spanish goods. The Bourbons, with the help of administrator

1146:

The reforms resulted in significant restructuring of administrative structure and personnel. The reforms were intended to stimulate manufacturing and technology to modernise Spain. In

1131:, mainly in the 18th century. The beginning of the new Crown's power with clear lines of authority to officials contrasted to the complex system of government that evolved under the 102: 5644: 1618:

systematization of wages impacted the lower economic classes directly and created the organization within society that the Spanish needed for greater economic success and control.

1350:

Palacio de Minería, Mexico City. The crown sought to make silver mining more productive and the silver magnates ennobled; it created the College of Mines and the Royal Mining Court

1957:

Another historical view is that the Jesuits were expelled primarily due to the Bourbons’ need for a scapegoat, following King Charles’ failures in the Seven Years' War and due to

650: 4250:

Premo, Bianca, "Children of the Father King: Youth, Authority and Legal Minority in Colonial Lima," Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 2005 ISBN 978-0-8078-5619-2

1799:

in Lima were created, to handle and make more efficient mining production. In 1792, the Tribunal opened a new mining school, the Royal Mining Seminary, with limited success.

1194:, a great-nephew of Charles, to take the throne. On his deathbed, Charles willed the crown to the French-born successor, but an international conflict ensued, known as the 5664: 1091: 6582: 1546: 1771:

In 1768 a Regiment of infantry was regulated so as to possess 1 grenadier company (76 men) and 9 fusilier companies (720 men with 80 per company)a total of 796 men.

6129: 5624: 1954:

back to Naples. Historian Charles Gibson stated that the expulsion of the Jesuits was a "sudden and devastating move" by the Spanish Crown to assert royal control.

4076:

Marichal, Carlos and Matilde Souto Mantecón, "Silver and Situados: New Spain and the Financing of the Spanish Empire in the Caribbean in the Eighteenth Century,"

3358: 3309: 3257: 3208: 6666: 6587: 5674: 5279: 2210: 2879:

Cuello, José (1988). "The Economic Impact of the Bourbon Reforms and the Late Colonial Crisis of Empire at the Local Level: The Case of Saltillo, 1777-1817".

4637: 1607: 1904:

The reforms caused many religious tensions as well as social tensions. One of the most major modifications in the Bourbon Reforms was the expulsion of the

460: 444: 6514: 2416:

Tavárez, Fidel J. (2018-11-01). "Colonial Economic Improvement: How Spain Created New Consulados to Preserve and Develop Its American Empire, 1778–1795".

1023: 2635: 2180: 2031: 1879:

Missionizing in maroon societies in Spanish America became essential for the nature of politics of African resistance in the Iberian Atlantic world. The

1563:

One of the testing grounds for this reformation of trade was in Venezuela. Starting in the 1730s, the monopoly on Venezuelan trade was held by the Royal

945: 6626: 3583:"Social interaction between civil, military, and mission communities in Spanish colonial Texas during the height of the Bourbon reforms, 1763 - 1772" 6494: 5598: 4276: 706: 1796: 1736:

The Bourbon reforms brought a different stratagem to military organization in Latin America. The reforms focused on a strong relationship with the

5578: 130: 3554:

Chowning, Margaret (Feb 2005). "Convent Reform, Catholic Reform, and Bourbon Reform in Eighteenth-Century New Spain: The View from the Nunnery".

2931: 813: 521: 1084: 800: 737: 6352: 5314: 5183: 4810: 4806: 4463: 4245: 4231: 4208: 4194: 4171: 4157: 4143: 4129: 4106: 4092: 4061: 4030: 4016: 4002: 3988: 3974: 3951: 3924: 3910: 3896: 3882: 3868: 3854: 3840: 3826: 3812: 3798: 3776: 3735: 3702: 3669: 3480: 3398: 3334: 3285: 3233: 3184: 3124: 3018: 2941: 2805: 2772: 2681: 2653: 2238: 2140: 2005: 2001: 1684:

Charles III also initiated the difficult process of changing the complex administrative system practiced under the former ruling family, the

1170: 1053: 576: 5810: 1182:

At the end of the 17th century, Spain was an ailing empire, facing declining revenues and the loss of military power, ruled by a weak king,

6447: 6442: 5216: 4859: 4312: 993: 275: 1537:. However, this effort did not prove highly effective, as the trade of contraband simply moved with the Casa de la Contratación to Cádiz. 777: 6509: 5629: 1163:

The reforms achieved mixed results administratively but succeeded in alienating the local elites of the Americas (who called themselves

823: 666: 5745: 4401: 6641: 6276: 5593: 5529: 5251: 5231: 4706: 4438: 2077: 1909: 624: 4746: 4376: 6681: 6251: 5649: 5193: 3455: 3430: 3377:

Tandeter, Enrique; Couriel, John; Karl, Robert (2005-12-30), Bulmer-Thomas, Victor; Coatsworth, John; Cortes-Conde, Roberto (eds.),

2747: 2719: 2564: 2516: 2196: 1077: 6342: 5918: 4488: 402: 307: 3149: 1606:

Within New Spain, economic reforms aimed to not just increase revenue, but also to make the Crown essential in the local economy.

6542: 5858: 5853: 5226: 4710: 1568: 1033: 983: 6058: 65: 6479: 6271: 5407: 5357: 5342: 5241: 4928: 4830: 784: 616: 5913: 5654: 1549:'s commercial policy commission, which on February 14, 1765, submitted a report advocating imperial free trade to replace the 6671: 6499: 6437: 6236: 5367: 5347: 5319: 5236: 5211: 5071: 4879: 4786: 4716: 4693: 2026: 1783: 1408: 1404: 938: 35: 6462: 6291: 6048: 5735: 1996: 1478:

positions to Criollos. The Bourbon kings ended this policy. By 1807, "only twelve out of ninety-nine judges were creoles."

1003: 6592: 6547: 6489: 6467: 6281: 6053: 5848: 5843: 5524: 5509: 4594: 4458: 4411: 1564: 1274: 1195: 998: 963: 682: 437: 315: 1891:

often conflicted with the relationships the Maroons created with Catholic clerics and created tensions. Spanish cultural

6484: 6472: 6452: 5983: 5805: 5284: 4664: 4473: 4269: 3378: 1938:

refused to let the prisoners set foot on papal territory. The warships then went to the island of Corsica, but due to a

1491:, which brought the Portuguese in close proximity to Buenos Aires. In addition to its lost territory, Spain granted the 1013: 1008: 370: 354: 210: 6457: 6357: 5988: 5440: 5372: 4341: 1065: 884: 496: 5908: 5815: 5755: 2207: 1831:

played a major role in the Bourbon Reforms, specifically in the viceroyalties. The Catholic Church was the official

6686: 6392: 5775: 5730: 5402: 5289: 5201: 5173: 4800: 4770: 4406: 2105: 2057: 1395: 831: 805: 259: 4391: 4361: 1435:. These consulados would resolve commercial disputes and develop the infrastructure of the colony. Moreover, the 1048: 6311: 6261: 6119: 6018: 5514: 5387: 5352: 5304: 5206: 4818: 4702: 4356: 931: 867: 852: 745: 690: 45: 4483: 4468: 3067:"Taking the Enlightenment Underground: Mining Spaces and Cartographic Representation in the Late Colonial Andes" 1768:

regard the Cueros performed well and they managed to keep a relative atmosphere of safety in Northern Mexico.

1283: 592: 6676: 6256: 6139: 6038: 6033: 5973: 5392: 5382: 5168: 4871: 4782: 1506: 1223: 857: 600: 236: 203: 164: 146: 6099: 5898: 5800: 5715: 2177: 1802:

There was much growth in mine production under the Bourbons, with silver output increasing by over 15 million

3932:"Bureaucracy and Business in the Spanish Empire, 1759–1804: Failure of a Bourbon Reform in Mexico and Peru," 1139:, pushed economic reforms, and placed power solely into the hands of civil officials, paving the way for the 6306: 6164: 6008: 5948: 5499: 5397: 5362: 5309: 4814: 4778: 4508: 4381: 4366: 4262: 1752: 1526: 1455:

Under Charles III, colonial matters were concentrated in a single ministry, which took powers away from the

1028: 643: 6597: 6169: 6104: 5740: 5608: 5494: 5377: 5337: 4981: 4774: 4433: 4423: 4071:

Spanish Colonial Administration, 1782–1810: The Intendant System in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata

4066: 4035: 2021: 1652: 1488: 1335: 1294: 1140: 818: 545: 513: 346: 31: 4940: 1835:

among the vice royalties of Spanish America, and the new colonies brought forth an opportunity to spread

6397: 6043: 5453: 5274: 5163: 5102: 5030: 4641: 4321: 1690: 1603:

necessarily lose out. Many of them simply shifted their investments to mining, especially in New Spain.

1591: 1456: 1367: 862: 792: 584: 6577: 5978: 5888: 5765: 5725: 5684: 4653: 2459:

Ramón, Gabriel (2017). "Bourbon manoeuvres in the plaza: Shifting urban models in late colonial Lima".

1778: 378: 3582: 2982:

London: Macmillan in association with Institute of Latin American Studies, University of London, 1996.

1962:

confronting directly the broad array of popular and conservative political forces opposed to reform".

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The bulk of the changes in Spanish America came in the second half of the 18th century following the

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were gathered so that systems of taxation could be modified to maximize tax revenue for the crown.

1429:(free internal trade) by Jose de Gálvez, merchants in Spanish America petitioned the crown for new 1399: 1319: 1187: 1183: 1118: 1038: 561: 151: 107: 5833: 6382: 6372: 6347: 6301: 6266: 6124: 5710: 5583: 5081: 5061: 4721: 4609: 4498: 4336: 3637: 3422:

The history of the Catholic Church in Latin America : from conquest to revolution and beyond

3352: 3303: 3251: 3202: 3094: 2912: 2904: 2858: 2613: 2605: 2476: 2441: 2109: 1862:, or clerical immunity, granted clergy members immunity from the royal courts. According to this 1468:

Charles III and Charles IV also reversed the advances that Criollos had made in the high courts (

1203: 1018: 674: 487: 478: 291: 179: 82: 5705: 5634: 1529:. This was the House of Trade which oversaw Spanish trade with its colonies, and was moved from 469: 362: 2841:

Vizcarra, Catalina (2007). "Bourbon Intervention in the Peruvian Tobacco Industry, 1752-1813".

6636: 6562: 6504: 6337: 6109: 6083: 6073: 6063: 5998: 5953: 5883: 5863: 5838: 5785: 5760: 5025: 4579: 4575: 4552: 4493: 4448: 4307: 4241: 4227: 4204: 4190: 4167: 4153: 4139: 4125: 4102: 4088: 4057: 4026: 4012: 3998: 3984: 3970: 3947: 3920: 3906: 3892: 3878: 3864: 3850: 3836: 3822: 3808: 3794: 3772: 3741: 3731: 3708: 3698: 3675: 3665: 3629: 3594: 3513: 3486: 3476: 3451: 3426: 3394: 3340: 3330: 3291: 3281: 3239: 3229: 3190: 3180: 3130: 3120: 3086: 3024: 3014: 2937: 2896: 2811: 2801: 2778: 2768: 2743: 2715: 2687: 2677: 2649: 2597: 2560: 2512: 2433: 2244: 2234: 2192: 2146: 2136: 2073: 1947: 1939: 1935: 1884: 1850:

to thrive. As in Spain itself, there was a clear alliance between the Church and the Crown in

1737: 1685: 1557: 1493: 1308: 1250: 1239: 1199: 1191: 1132: 872: 698: 537: 529: 452: 3944:

Hacienda and Market in Eighteenth Century Mexico: The Rural Economy of Guadalajara, 1675–1820

3540: 1123:'Borbonic reformism') consisted of political and economic changes promulgated by the 6572: 6194: 6189: 6154: 6134: 5893: 5770: 5669: 5573: 5035: 4875: 4726: 4658: 4604: 3929: 3621: 3563: 3505: 3386: 3078: 2888: 2850: 2828: 2641: 2637:

The Spanish Atlantic World in the Eighteenth Century: War and the Bourbon Reforms, 1713–1796

2589: 2468: 2425: 2339: 1958: 1943: 1888: 1219: 1207: 1128: 1124: 1109: 252: 95: 75: 54: 6387: 6327: 6241: 6149: 6023: 6003: 5968: 5750: 5720: 5659: 5269: 5259: 5040: 4932: 4889: 4649: 4557: 3847:

Commercial Relations between Spain and Spanish America in the Era of Free Trade, 1778–1796

2214: 2184: 1880: 1851: 1828: 1748: 1502: 1304: 1147: 1136: 761: 722: 412: 6296: 3833:

Bureaucrats, Planters, and Workers: The Making of the Tobacco Monopoly in Bourbon Mexico

3045:

Adelman, Jeremy (1999). "Imperial Reconstitution and the Limits of Political Property".

6614: 6231: 6144: 6028: 5780: 5603: 5588: 5489: 5463: 5448: 5329: 4924: 4918: 4822: 4589: 4503: 4453: 4331: 4285: 3939: 2072:. It was settled by the Portuguese in the early 18th century and incorporated into the 2069: 1855: 1832: 1703: 1470: 1461: 1278: 1165: 1151: 917: 729: 658: 421: 339: 283: 4201:

Crown and Clergy in Colonial Mexico, 1759–1821: The Crisis of Ecclesiastical Privilege

3475:. Johnson, Lyman L. (Tenth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 300. 3119:. Johnson, Lyman L. (Tenth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 305. 3013:. Johnson, Lyman L. (Tenth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 283. 2800:. Johnson, Lyman L. (Tenth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 287. 2767:. Johnson, Lyman L. (Tenth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 286. 2676:. Johnson, Lyman L. (Tenth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 285. 2403: 2233:. Johnson, Lyman L. (Tenth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 280. 2135:. Johnson, Lyman L. (Tenth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 316. 6660: 5795: 4645: 4562: 4371: 4238:

To Love Honor and Obey in Colonial Mexico: Conflicts Over Marriage Choice, 1574–1821.

4009:

From Impotence to Authority: The Spanish Crown and the American Audiencias, 1687–1808

3533: 3098: 2916: 2862: 2617: 2480: 2445: 1931: 1913: 1873: 1843: 1424: 753: 394: 299: 3047:

Republic of Capital: Buenos Aires and the Legal Transformation of the Atlantic World

2966:

Republic of capital: Buenos Aires and the legal transformation of the Atlantic world

2539:

Republic of Capital: Buenos Aires and the Legal Transformation of the Atlantic World

2327:

Republic of Capital: Buenos Aires and the Legal Transformation of the Atlantic World

1702:, people who were born in Spain, exacerbating the conflict between Peninsulares and 1282:

The new commercial relationship stimulated the colonial economy, especially that of

6567: 6557: 6286: 5825: 5679: 5504: 5020: 4796: 4478: 4326: 3730:. Lyman L Johnson (10th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 330. 3697:. Lyman L Johnson (10th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 331. 3664:. Lyman L Johnson (10th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 306. 2061: 1951: 1847: 1741: 1699: 1518: 1363: 1156: 903: 5878: 4948: 3390: 2580:

Fisher, John (1981). "Imperial 'Free Trade' and the Hispanic Economy, 1778-1796".

1346: 6637:

Law of coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others)

3612:

Barbier, Jacques A. (1977). "The Culmination of the Bourbon Reforms, 1787-1792".

5468: 5458: 5294: 4863: 1836: 1673: 1269: 267: 226: 4085:

Colombia before Independence: Economy, Society, and Politics under Bourbon Rule

1872:

extended to the land owned by the individuals and institutions which meant the

1323:

ports allowed to trade only with Spain, and the establishment of several state

17: 6332: 5066: 4736: 4346: 3490: 3134: 3028: 2854: 2815: 2782: 2691: 2593: 2472: 2293:

Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.

2248: 2150: 1627: 218: 3745: 3712: 3679: 3633: 3598: 3517: 3506:"The expulsion of Jesuits from Nueva Granada in 185Oas key for understanding" 3344: 3295: 3243: 3194: 3090: 2900: 2645: 2601: 2437: 2429: 1950:

and the Jesuits were threatened with death if they crossed the border of the

1441:

would be in charge of trying to implement innovative economic projects. The

5299: 5056: 4956: 4633: 4567: 3875:

Trade, War, and Revolution: Exports from Spain to Spanish America, 1797–1820

3567: 2930:

Mills, Kenneth; Taylor, William B.; Graham, Sandra Lauderdale (2002-08-01).

1897: 1808: 1695: 1584:

merchants and opened up more Spanish American ports to transatlantic trade.

1517:

The Bourbon Reforms transitioned Spain's economic policy to be increasingly

1387: 1231: 1631: 3324: 3275: 3223: 3174: 3082: 1995:

the decade of 1770-1779 witnessed more than 20. The following decade, the

1487:

Habsburgs in addition to losing other territories such as the fortress of

5473: 4583: 4351: 3446:

Bryant, Sherwin K.; O'Toole, Rachel Sarah; Vinson III, Ben, eds. (2012).

2640:. New Approaches to the Americas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2291:

Enlightenment, Governance, and Reform in Spain and Its Empire, 1759-1808.

2039:

issued by Philip V, 1707–1716, reorganizing the royal government of Spain

1892: 1815: 1760: 1661: 1577: 1534: 1324: 138: 123: 4023:

Government and Society in Colonial Peru: The Intendant System, 1784–1814

3769:

Enlightenment, Governance, and Reform in Spain and its Empire, 1759-1808

2992: 1846:

Many missionaries came to the Americas for a fresh, new environment for

6631: 6602: 5155: 5112: 5097: 4741: 4187:

Church and State in Bourbon Mexico: The Diocese of Michoacán, 1749–1810

4047:

The Bourbon Reformers and Spanish Civilization; Builders or Destroyers?

3641: 2908: 1905: 1777:

The reform of the Colonial militia was along the pattern introduced by

1635: 1587: 1530: 1227: 608: 3066: 2609: 1135:

monarchs. For example, the crown pursued state predominance over the

5568: 5122: 5117: 4894: 2831:. Encyclopædia Britannica Presents Hispanic Heritage in the Americas. 1883:

were Africans who escaped slavery in America and then mixed with the

1677: 1669: 187: 4099:

Pre-Revolutionary Caracas: Politics, Economy, and Society, 1777–1811

3625: 2892: 1298:

Charles III of Spain, who initiated the vigorous programs of reform.

3995:

Bourbons and Brandy: Imperial Reform in Eighteenth-Century Arequipa

3967:

The Kingdom of Quito, 1690–1830: The State and Regional Development

1580:

elites who were creoles that profited highly from the cacao trade.

6609: 4936: 4883: 4731: 4547: 1864: 1345: 1342:, Visitador general in New Spain and later Minister of the Indies. 1334: 1293: 1059: 4254: 4952: 4944: 4867: 3889:

Atlantic Empires: The Network of Trade and Revolution, 1713–1826

2559:. New York ; Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 281. 1803: 1314:

The failure of reform measures became evident when Spain, under

6531: 6426: 5550: 5428: 5143: 5002: 4970: 4907: 4844: 4759: 4682: 4622: 4536: 4525: 4296: 4258: 2497:. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc., 2007. 1307:

of industries and so disrupted the class system. For example,

3917:

The Merchants of Buenos Aires, 1778–1810: Family and Commerce

1277:, the ports of Spanish America were blockaded by British and 3385:(1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 315–356, 1858:

institutions were allotted some freedom from the Crown. The

1190:

asked for and received the Pope's consent for his grandson,

3791:

Haciendas and Ranchos in the Mexican Bajío: León, 1700–1860

1946:, adviser to Charles III, did not welcome the Jesuits into 1525:

this trade in contraband was the relocation in 1717 of the

3861:

Silver Mines and Silver Miners in Colonial Peru, 1776–1824

3049:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. pp. 20–30. 2714:. Johnson, Lyman L. Oxford University Press. p. 284. 2404:"Reformas Borbónicas en el Virreinato del Río de la Plata" 1273:, who welcomed the new influence. In addition, during the 3448:

Africans to Spanish America : expanding the diaspora

1876:

could not exercise justice physically nor collect taxes.

3425:. New York: New York University Press. pp. 13–16. 2178:"Las reformas borbónicas y la Independencia, 1767–1821" 1814:

The city of Potosí saw increases in silver production.

4138:. Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society, 1978. 3110: 3108: 2667: 2665: 2541:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 27. 2329:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 22. 1942:, it took a while to let the Jesuits onto the island. 4600:

Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France

4150:

Military Reform and Society in New Granada, 1773-1808

4124:. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press, 1977. 3997:. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press, 1986. 3510:

Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura

2394:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1983, p. 348. 2167:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1983, p. 347. 4136:

The Military and Society in Colonial Peru, 1750–1810

3150:"The Military Institution in Colonial Latin America" 2999:. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1996. 2355:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1971, p. 27. 2116:. New York: Cambridge University Press 1983, p. 347. 6320: 6214: 6207: 6092: 5941: 5934: 5927: 5824: 5693: 5617: 5561: 5482: 5439: 5328: 5250: 5192: 5154: 5090: 5049: 5013: 1694:were to be replaced with a French institution, the 1533:, where traders frequently dealt in contraband, to 1418:Additionally, in the wake of the implementation of 1360:

Nuevo Sistema de gobierno económico para la América

4166:. Knoxville, University of Tennessee Press, 1986. 4152:. Gainesville, University of Florida Press, 1978. 3903:Spain, Europe and the "Spanish Miracle," 1700–1900 3532: 2511:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 389. 1206:, and other European countries against the French 4042:. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1929. 3805:Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico, 1763–1810 2980:Political Corruption in Europe and Latin America. 2353:Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico, 1763–1810 4054:Politics and Trade in Southern Mexico, 1750–1821 4011:. Columbus, University of Missouri Press, 1977. 3807:. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1971. 2733: 2731: 1842:The Catholic Church arrived in America with the 1547:Leopoldo de Gregorio, 1st Marquess of Esquilache 4224:The Mexican Nobility at Independence, 1780–1826 4189:. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994. 4087:. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993. 4056:. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1971. 3981:Reform and Politics in Bourbon Chile, 1755–1796 3969:. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995. 3905:. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996. 3383:The Cambridge Economic History of Latin America 2555:Burkholder, Mark A.; Johnson, Lyman L. (2019). 4101:. Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 1985. 3504:Guerrero, José David Cortés (1 January 2003). 2634:Kuethe, Allan J.; Andrien, Kenneth J. (2014). 1247:to Spanish America to the British government. 4789:, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon) 4270: 2933:Colonial Latin America: A Documentary History 1442: 1436: 1430: 1085: 939: 8: 4464:Independence of Spanish continental Americas 4164:Cuba, 1753–1815: Crown, Military and Society 3983:. Ottawa, University of Ottawa Press, 1980. 3877:. Liverpool, University of Liverpool, 1992. 3849:. Liverpool, University of Liverpool, 1985. 1198:, which lasted from 1702 to 1713 and pitted 4240:Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1988. 3835:. Austin, University of Texas Press, 1992. 3326:The Spanish Army in North America 1700-1793 3277:The Spanish Army in North America 1700-1793 3225:The Spanish Army in North America 1700-1793 3176:The Spanish Army in North America 1700-1793 1786:possessed an additional 21,136 militiamen. 1639:peninsular conflicts, particularly France. 1474:). Under the Habsburgs, the Crown had sold 6528: 6423: 6211: 5938: 5931: 5558: 5547: 5436: 5425: 5151: 5140: 5010: 4999: 4967: 4904: 4841: 4756: 4679: 4619: 4533: 4522: 4293: 4277: 4263: 4255: 3587:Revista Complutense de Historia de América 3357:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3308:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3256:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3207:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2032:Historiography of Colonial Spanish America 1092: 1078: 957: 946: 932: 39: 6583:Colonial universities in Hispanic America 2991:Merrill, Tim L. and Ramón Miró, editors. 2978:Walter Little, and Eduardo Posada Carbó. 2493:Burns, E. Bradford and Julie A. Charlip. 6588:Colonial universities in the Philippines 4007:Burkholder, Mark A. and D. S. Chandler. 3821:. Ann Arbor, Syracuse University, 1981. 3450:. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 2495:Latin America: An Interpretative History 2306:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. 2302:Skidmore, Thomas E. and Peter H. Smith. 5579:Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia 4040:The Intendant System in Spanish America 3819:The Mining Society of Potosí, 1776–1810 3614:The Hispanic American Historical Review 3148:Archer, Christon I. (28 October 2011). 2936:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 2740:Latin America between Colony and Nation 2098: 2064:, and was formerly part of the Spanish 2049: 1459:. Furthermore, the advances Americans ( 1267:gave rise to a new type of person, the 971: 960: 53: 42: 3372: 3370: 3368: 3350: 3301: 3269: 3267: 3249: 3200: 3040: 3038: 2705: 2703: 2701: 2629: 2627: 2379:Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico 2366:Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico 1171:independence of all overseas dominions 1024:History of the Philippines (1565–1898) 675:Revolution and Asturian miners' strike 4122:The Army in Bourbon Mexico, 1760–1810 3655: 3653: 3651: 3539:. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 3060: 3058: 3056: 2959: 2957: 2955: 2953: 2874: 2872: 2550: 2548: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2320: 2318: 2316: 2314: 2312: 2006:independence of the American colonies 1676:)." Tax reductions were given to the 1262:which helped spread the ideas of the 1054:Spanish American wars of independence 7: 6667:Spanish colonization of the Americas 4860:Captaincy General of the Philippines 4352:New Laws in favour of the indigenous 2509:Colonial Latin America Tenth Edition 2390:James Lockhart and Stuart Schwartz, 2260: 2258: 2224: 2222: 2163:James Lockhart and Stuart Schwartz, 2126: 2124: 2122: 994:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire 6563:Indochristian painting in New Spain 4078:Hispanic American Historical Review 3934:Hispanic American Historical Review 3556:Hispanic American Historical Review 3071:Journal of Latin American Geography 2418:Hispanic American Historical Review 1759:The Cueros or the garrisons of the 1660:restricted to four colonial ports ( 824:Catalan declaration of independence 5530:Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires 3419:Schwaller, John Frederick (2011). 3329:. Botley, Oxford. pp. 53–55. 3280:. Botley, Oxford. pp. 40–46. 3228:. Botley, Oxford. pp. 34–39. 3179:. Botley, Oxford. pp. 25–27. 2742:. New York: Palgrave. p. 63. 2093:In Spanish unless otherwise noted. 2078:Treaty of Madrid (13 January 1750) 1747:Following the disastorous loss of 1230:and the continental stronghold of 25: 4504:Independence of Equatorial Guinea 3581:Almaraz, Félix Jr. (1995-01-01). 2843:Journal of Latin American Studies 2582:Journal of Latin American Studies 2406:Historia Argentina-Planeta Senda. 1592:British colonies in North America 6615:Criollos in the colonial society 6543:Spanish missions in the Americas 5665:Charles Bonaventure de Longueval 3771:. Palgrave Macmillan 2008, 2011. 1034:Spanish missions in the Americas 982: 911: 897: 64: 6642:Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649 4203:. London, Athlone Press, 1968. 4025:. London, Athlone Press, 1970. 617:Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera 4694:Captaincy General of Guatemala 4402:Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659) 4073:. London, Athlone Press, 1958. 3065:Scott, Heidi V. (2015-10-08). 2027:Spanish American Enlightenment 1914:war between Spain and Portugal 1405:Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata 1237:It also included granting the 36:Spanish American Enlightenment 1: 6593:General Archive of the Indies 5854:Francisco Vázquez de Coronado 5525:Camino Real de Tierra Adentro 5510:Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas 4459:Third Treaty of San Ildefonso 4412:War of the Spanish Succession 4377:Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) 4080:74(4) 1994, pp. 587–613. 3391:10.1017/chol9780521812894.011 1565:Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas 1275:War of the Spanish Succession 1196:War of the Spanish Succession 1160:supremacy over the colonies. 999:Spanish conquest of Guatemala 316:War of the Spanish Succession 27:18th century reforms in Spain 4665:Captaincy General of Yucatan 4595:Union with Holy Roman Empire 4574:Southern Italy (Kingdoms of 4489:German–Spanish Treaty (1899) 3471:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 3154:www.oxfordbibliographies.com 3115:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 3009:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 2796:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 2763:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 2710:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 2672:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 2507:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 2229:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 2131:Burkholder, Mark A. (2019). 1784:Captain-General of Guatemala 1398:(1717), carved out from the 1169:) and eventually led to the 1014:Spanish conquest of the Maya 276:Colonisation of the Americas 5145:Administrative subdivisions 4342:War of the League of Cognac 2274:The Pacification of Utrecht 1997:Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II 1127:under various kings of the 1066:Mexican War of Independence 1004:Spanish conquest of Yucatán 6703: 5859:Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar 5844:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada 5746:Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca 4644:), Western United States ( 4407:Portuguese Restoration War 2829:"History of Latin America" 2183:November 25, 2005, at the 1651:Moreover, the practice of 1396:Viceroyalty of New Granada 814:2008–2014 financial crisis 29: 6627:Slavery in Spanish Empire 6538: 6527: 6433: 6422: 5914:Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor 5655:Álvaro de Bazán the Elder 5557: 5546: 5515:Barcelona Trading Company 5435: 5424: 5280:New Andalusia (1501–1513) 5150: 5139: 5009: 4998: 4977: 4914: 4855: 4787:Venezuela, part of Guyana 4766: 4689: 4640:, Central United States ( 4629: 4543: 4532: 4521: 4372:Bruneian–Spanish conflict 4357:Expulsion of the Moriscos 4303: 4292: 3726:Burkholder, Mark (2019). 3693:Burkholder, Mark (2019). 3660:Burkholder, Mark (2019). 3323:Chartrand, René. (2011). 3274:Chartrand, René. (2011). 3222:Chartrand, René. (2011). 3173:Chartrand, René. (2011). 2968:. ALCS Humanities E-Book. 2855:10.1017/S0022216X07002842 2594:10.1017/S0022216X00006155 2473:10.1017/S0963926816000535 2213:October 26, 2015, at the 2189:Breve historia de Sinaloa 1497:, a monopoly contract on 1356:José del Campillo y Cosío 1243:, a monopoly contract on 1009:Spanish conquest of Petén 746:Spain during World War II 577:Regency of María Cristina 445:Regency of María Cristina 6682:House of Bourbon (Spain) 6568:Quito painting tradition 6558:Cusco painting tradition 5919:García López de Cárdenas 5909:Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera 5816:Felipe González de Ahedo 5736:Pedro Menéndez de Avilés 4313:Conquest of the Americas 3531:Gibson, Charles (1966). 2964:Adelman, Jeremy (1999). 2646:10.1017/cbo9781107338661 2537:Adelman, Jeremy (1999). 2430:10.1215/00182168-7160336 2325:Adelman, Jeremy (1999). 2176:Ortega Noriega, Sergio. 1386:(general inspection) of 1374:revenues for the crown. 1214:Beginning of Bourbon era 801:1981 coup d'état attempt 601:Spain during World War I 180:Kingdom of the Visigoths 6353:Comuneros (New Granada) 6130:Balearic Islands (1558) 5849:Hernán Pérez de Quesada 5776:Ruy López de Villalobos 5731:Miguel López de Legazpi 5645:García de Toledo Osorio 4509:Western Sahara conflict 4499:Independence of Morocco 4439:Treaty of Madrid (1750) 4382:Piracy in the Caribbean 4367:French Wars of Religion 4036:Fisher, Lillian Estelle 3915:Socolow, Susan Migden. 3568:10.1215/00182168-85-1-1 2997:Mexico: A Country Study 2002:Revolt of the Comuneros 1218:Under the terms of the 1029:Piracy in the Caribbean 785:Transition to democracy 6598:Colonial Spanish Horse 6272:Colonia del Sacramento 5495:Spanish treasure fleet 5072:Royal Decree of Graces 4097:McKinley, P. Michael. 4045:Floyd, Troy S. (ed.). 3817:Buechler, Rose Marie. 3728:Colonial Latin America 3695:Colonial Latin America 3662:Colonial Latin America 3473:Colonial Latin America 3117:Colonial Latin America 3011:Colonial Latin America 2993:"Road to Independence" 2798:Colonial Latin America 2765:Colonial Latin America 2712:Colonial Latin America 2674:Colonial Latin America 2557:Colonial Latin America 2231:Colonial Latin America 2133:Colonial Latin America 2022:Enlightenment in Spain 1926:other external group. 1443: 1437: 1431: 1351: 1343: 1299: 1141:Enlightenment in Spain 1113: 819:2017 Barcelona attacks 651:Provisional Government 522:Provisional Government 395:Absolutist restoration 347:Abdications of Bayonne 32:Enlightenment in Spain 6672:18th century in Spain 5756:Vasco Núñez de Balboa 5716:Juan Sebastián Elcano 5031:Council of the Indies 4392:Spanish–Moro conflict 4362:Ottoman–Habsburg wars 4322:Treaty of Tordesillas 3767:Paquette, Gabriel B. 3379:"The Mining Industry" 3083:10.1353/lag.2015.0039 2289:Paquette, Gabriel B. 2208:"The Bourbon Reforms" 1910:1750 Treaty of Madrid 1482:Trade and the economy 1457:Council of the Indies 1368:Jean-Baptiste Colbert 1349: 1338: 1297: 1192:Philip, Duke of Anjou 1049:Spanish–Moro conflict 806:Madrid train bombings 683:1936 general election 585:Reign of Alfonso XIII 371:Constitution of Cádiz 6553:Mesoamerican Codices 6277:Comuneros (Paraguay) 6115:Siege of Castelnuovo 5701:Christopher Columbus 5520:Consulate of the Sea 5500:Casa de Contratación 5091:Titles and positions 4484:Spanish–American War 4474:Liberal constitution 4317:Asia and the Pacific 4120:Archer, Christon I. 4083:McFarlane, Anthony. 4049:Boston: Heath, 1966. 3979:Barbier, Jacques A. 3965:Andrien, Kenneth J. 3831:Deans-Smith, Susan. 2738:Lynch, John (2001). 2304:Modern Latin America 2037:Nueva Planta decrees 1527:Casa de Contratación 1354:In Spanish America, 1114:Reformismo borbónico 832:Coronavirus pandemic 793:Current constitution 778:Contemporary history 593:Spanish–American War 569:Reign of Alfonso XII 461:Regency of Espartero 438:Reign of Isabella II 324:Nueva Planta Decrees 172:Kingdom of the Suebi 6282:Cartagena de Indias 5904:Diego de Mazariegos 5874:Pere Fages i Beleta 5741:Sebastián de Ocampo 5222:Provincias Internas 5194:Captaincies General 5108:Municipal president 5077:School of Salamanca 4848:Spanish East Indies 4827:Misiones Orientales 4699:Spanish West Indies 4663:, Central America ( 4610:Pyrénées-Orientales 4563:Union with Portugal 4454:Napoleonic invasion 4434:War of Jenkins' Ear 3891:. Baltimore, 1983. 3863:. Liverpool, 1977. 3793:. Cambridge, 1978. 2392:Early Latin America 2165:Early Latin America 2114:Early Latin America 2066:Viceroyalty of Peru 2060:is named after the 1923:Counter-Reformation 1823:The Catholic Church 1797:Tribunal de Minería 1765:Provincias Internas 1400:Viceroyalty of Peru 1188:Louis XIV of France 1178:End of Habsburg era 707:Nationalist victory 628:of Dámaso Berenguer 514:Sexenio Democrático 497:Glorious Revolution 403:Sexenio Absolutista 253:Early modern period 152:Diocese of Hispania 6578:Academia Antártica 6533:Other civil topics 5899:Pánfilo de Narváez 5801:Sebastián Vizcaíno 5766:Andrés de Urdaneta 5726:Juan Ponce de León 5711:Ferdinand Magellan 5685:Bernardo de Gálvez 5584:Indian auxiliaries 5082:Trial of residence 5062:Laws of the Indies 4846:Asia and Oceania ( 4707:Dominican Republic 4134:Campbell, Leon G. 4052:Hamnett, Brian R. 3993:Brown, Kendall W. 3946:. Berkeley, 1981. 3919:. Cambridge 1978. 2276:, 460; Trevelyan: 2110:Stuart B. Schwartz 2068:, a region called 1940:rebellion on shore 1860:fuero eclesiástico 1779:Alejandro O'Reilly 1352: 1344: 1300: 1019:Columbian exchange 918:History portal 488:Bienio progresista 479:Second Carlist War 379:Treaty of Valençay 237:Christian kingdoms 108:Carthaginian Spain 83:Prehistoric Iberia 6687:Philip V of Spain 6654: 6653: 6650: 6649: 6523: 6522: 6428:Spanish conquests 6418: 6417: 6414: 6413: 6410: 6409: 6406: 6405: 6203: 6202: 5884:Pedro de Alvarado 5869:Gaspar de Portolà 5864:Pedro de Valdivia 5839:Francisco Pizarro 5791:Nicolás de Ovando 5786:Alonso de Ercilla 5761:Alonso de Salazar 5594:Ships of the line 5542: 5541: 5538: 5537: 5420: 5419: 5416: 5415: 5135: 5134: 5131: 5130: 4994: 4993: 4990: 4989: 4966: 4965: 4923:Northern Africa ( 4919:Equatorial Guinea 4903: 4902: 4840: 4839: 4755: 4754: 4678: 4677: 4669:Spanish Caribbean 4642:Spanish Louisiana 4618: 4617: 4553:Crown of Castille 4517: 4516: 4494:Spanish Civil War 4469:Adams–Onís Treaty 4449:Nootka Convention 4397:Thirty Years' War 4387:Eighty Years' War 4308:Catholic Monarchs 4298:Timeline–immersed 4246:978-0-8047-1457-0 4232:978-0-292-75027-2 4209:978-0-485-13121-5 4199:Farris, Nancy M. 4195:978-0-521-46092-7 4172:978-0-87049-487-1 4162:Kuethe, Allan J. 4158:978-0-8130-0570-6 4148:Kuethe, Allan J. 4144:978-0-87169-123-1 4130:978-0-8263-0442-1 4107:978-0-521-30450-4 4093:978-0-521-41641-2 4062:978-0-521-07860-3 4031:978-0-485-13129-1 4017:978-0-8262-0219-2 4003:978-0-8263-0829-0 3989:978-2-7603-5010-6 3975:978-0-521-48125-0 3952:978-0-520-04161-5 3930:Stein, Stanley J. 3925:978-0-521-21812-2 3911:978-0-585-04069-1 3901:Ringrose, David. 3897:978-0-8018-2742-6 3883:978-0-902806-22-1 3869:978-0-902806-06-1 3855:978-0-902806-12-2 3841:978-0-292-70786-3 3827:978-0-8357-0591-2 3813:978-0-521-07874-0 3799:978-0-521-22200-6 3777:978-0-230-30052-1 3737:978-0-19-986588-8 3704:978-0-19-986588-8 3671:978-0-19-986588-8 3482:978-0-19-064240-2 3400:978-1-139-05394-5 3336:978-1-84908-597-7 3287:978-1-84908-597-7 3235:978-1-84908-597-7 3186:978-1-84908-597-7 3126:978-0-19-064240-2 3020:978-0-19-064240-2 2943:978-0-7425-7407-6 2807:978-0-19-064240-2 2774:978-0-19-064240-2 2683:978-0-19-064240-2 2655:978-1-107-04357-2 2240:978-0-19-064240-2 2142:978-0-19-064240-2 2074:Portuguese Empire 1936:Pope Clement XIII 1885:indigenous people 1686:House of Habsburg 1494:asiento de negros 1290:In Mainland Spain 1251:Philip V of Spain 1240:asiento de negros 1220:Treaty of Utrecht 1154:and re-establish 1122: 1102: 1101: 956: 955: 873:Religious history 562:Restoration Spain 538:Third Carlist War 530:Reign of Amadeo I 453:First Carlist War 260:Catholic Monarchs 165:Early Middle Ages 103:Pre-Roman peoples 16:(Redirected from 6694: 6529: 6495:Chibchan Nations 6424: 6393:Santiago de Cuba 6252:Guadalupe Island 6212: 5939: 5932: 5894:Diego de Almagro 5771:Antonio de Ulloa 5675:Ambrosio Spinola 5670:Pedro de Zubiaur 5640:Alfonso d'Avalos 5630:Antonio de Leyva 5574:Army of Flanders 5559: 5548: 5437: 5426: 5152: 5141: 5011: 5000: 4968: 4941:Peñón of Algiers 4905: 4842: 4757: 4680: 4662: 4620: 4534: 4523: 4444:Seven Years' War 4417:Queen Anne's War 4294: 4279: 4272: 4265: 4256: 4236:Seed, Patricia. 4226:. Austin, 1976. 4021:Fisher, John R. 3873:Fisher, John R. 3859:Fisher, John R. 3845:Fisher, John R. 3750: 3749: 3723: 3717: 3716: 3690: 3684: 3683: 3657: 3646: 3645: 3609: 3603: 3602: 3578: 3572: 3571: 3551: 3545: 3544: 3538: 3535:Spain in America 3528: 3522: 3521: 3501: 3495: 3494: 3468: 3462: 3461: 3443: 3437: 3436: 3416: 3410: 3409: 3408: 3407: 3374: 3363: 3362: 3356: 3348: 3320: 3314: 3313: 3307: 3299: 3271: 3262: 3261: 3255: 3247: 3219: 3213: 3212: 3206: 3198: 3170: 3164: 3163: 3161: 3160: 3145: 3139: 3138: 3112: 3103: 3102: 3062: 3051: 3050: 3042: 3033: 3032: 3006: 3000: 2989: 2983: 2976: 2970: 2969: 2961: 2948: 2947: 2927: 2921: 2920: 2876: 2867: 2866: 2838: 2832: 2826: 2820: 2819: 2793: 2787: 2786: 2760: 2754: 2753: 2735: 2726: 2725: 2707: 2696: 2695: 2669: 2660: 2659: 2631: 2622: 2621: 2577: 2571: 2570: 2552: 2543: 2542: 2534: 2523: 2522: 2504: 2498: 2491: 2485: 2484: 2456: 2450: 2449: 2413: 2407: 2401: 2395: 2388: 2382: 2375: 2369: 2362: 2356: 2349: 2343: 2337: 2331: 2330: 2322: 2307: 2300: 2294: 2287: 2281: 2262: 2253: 2252: 2226: 2217: 2205: 2199: 2191:. Mexico, 1999. 2174: 2168: 2161: 2155: 2154: 2128: 2117: 2103: 2081: 2054: 1944:Bernardo Tanucci 1934:. Upon arrival, 1889:Christianization 1446: 1440: 1434: 1428: 1320:Seven Years' War 1257:French influence 1208:House of Bourbon 1129:House of Bourbon 1117: 1094: 1087: 1080: 1039:Queen Anne's War 986: 976: 958: 948: 941: 934: 916: 915: 914: 904:Spain portal 902: 901: 900: 868:Military history 853:Economic history 836: 828: 810: 797: 789: 766: 758: 750: 742: 738:Republican exile 734: 711: 703: 695: 691:1936 coup d'état 687: 679: 671: 663: 655: 632: 621: 613: 605: 597: 589: 581: 573: 550: 542: 534: 526: 501: 493: 483: 475: 465: 457: 449: 426: 418: 408: 383: 375: 367: 359: 355:Napoleonic Spain 351: 328: 320: 312: 304: 296: 288: 280: 272: 264: 241: 233: 223: 215: 192: 188:Byzantine Spania 184: 176: 143: 142:(218 BCE–472 CE) 135: 112: 68: 58: 40: 21: 6702: 6701: 6697: 6696: 6695: 6693: 6692: 6691: 6677:Reform in Spain 6657: 6656: 6655: 6646: 6622:Old inquisition 6534: 6519: 6429: 6402: 6358:Trinidad (1797) 6328:La Noche Triste 6316: 6312:San Juan (1797) 6262:San Juan (1595) 6199: 6088: 5928:Notable battles 5923: 5889:Martín de Ursúa 5820: 5751:Alonso de Ojeda 5721:Juan de la Cosa 5706:Pinzón brothers 5689: 5660:John of Austria 5635:Martín de Goiti 5613: 5553: 5534: 5478: 5431: 5412: 5324: 5320:Terra Australis 5315:Río de la Plata 5260:Castilla de Oro 5246: 5188: 5184:Río de la Plata 5146: 5127: 5086: 5045: 5041:Santa Hermandad 5005: 4986: 4982:Terra Australis 4973: 4962: 4929:Spanish Morocco 4910: 4899: 4890:Northern Taiwan 4851: 4836: 4807:Río de la Plata 4762: 4751: 4685: 4684:Central America 4674: 4656: 4625: 4614: 4558:Crown of Aragon 4539: 4528: 4513: 4429:Bourbon Reforms 4299: 4288: 4283: 4253: 4222:Ladd, Doris M. 4218: 4213: 4185:Brading, D. A. 4181: 4176: 4116: 4111: 3961: 3956: 3940:Van Young, Eric 3887:Liss, Peggy K. 3803:Brading, D. A. 3789:Brading, D. A. 3785: 3764: 3759: 3757:Further reading 3754: 3753: 3738: 3725: 3724: 3720: 3705: 3692: 3691: 3687: 3672: 3659: 3658: 3649: 3626:10.2307/2513542 3611: 3610: 3606: 3580: 3579: 3575: 3553: 3552: 3548: 3530: 3529: 3525: 3503: 3502: 3498: 3483: 3470: 3469: 3465: 3458: 3445: 3444: 3440: 3433: 3418: 3417: 3413: 3405: 3403: 3401: 3376: 3375: 3366: 3349: 3337: 3322: 3321: 3317: 3300: 3288: 3273: 3272: 3265: 3248: 3236: 3221: 3220: 3216: 3199: 3187: 3172: 3171: 3167: 3158: 3156: 3147: 3146: 3142: 3127: 3114: 3113: 3106: 3064: 3063: 3054: 3044: 3043: 3036: 3021: 3008: 3007: 3003: 2990: 2986: 2977: 2973: 2963: 2962: 2951: 2944: 2929: 2928: 2924: 2893:10.2307/1006909 2878: 2877: 2870: 2840: 2839: 2835: 2827: 2823: 2808: 2795: 2794: 2790: 2775: 2762: 2761: 2757: 2750: 2737: 2736: 2729: 2722: 2709: 2708: 2699: 2684: 2671: 2670: 2663: 2656: 2633: 2632: 2625: 2579: 2578: 2574: 2567: 2554: 2553: 2546: 2536: 2535: 2526: 2519: 2506: 2505: 2501: 2492: 2488: 2458: 2457: 2453: 2415: 2414: 2410: 2402: 2398: 2389: 2385: 2376: 2372: 2363: 2359: 2350: 2346: 2338: 2334: 2324: 2323: 2310: 2301: 2297: 2288: 2284: 2263: 2256: 2241: 2228: 2227: 2220: 2215:Wayback Machine 2206: 2202: 2185:Wayback Machine 2175: 2171: 2162: 2158: 2143: 2130: 2129: 2120: 2104: 2100: 2090: 2085: 2084: 2055: 2051: 2046: 2018: 1980: 1959:riots in Madrid 1852:Spanish America 1829:Catholic Church 1825: 1792: 1734: 1725: 1716: 1645: 1624: 1509:. Granting the 1503:Spanish America 1484: 1422: 1390:(1765–1771) by 1380: 1333: 1331:Spanish America 1305:nationalization 1292: 1259: 1216: 1180: 1148:Spanish America 1137:Catholic Church 1106:Bourbon Reforms 1098: 1044:Bourbon Reforms 974: 967: 952: 923: 912: 910: 898: 896: 878: 877: 858:Law enforcement 848: 840: 839: 834: 826: 808: 795: 787: 780: 770: 769: 764: 762:Basque conflict 756: 748: 740: 732: 725: 723:Francoist Spain 715: 714: 709: 701: 693: 685: 677: 669: 667:Second Biennium 661: 653: 646: 644:Second Republic 636: 635: 630: 619: 611: 603: 595: 587: 579: 571: 564: 554: 553: 548: 540: 532: 524: 517: 505: 504: 499: 491: 481: 473: 470:Década moderada 463: 455: 447: 440: 430: 429: 424: 416: 413:Trienio Liberal 406: 397: 387: 386: 381: 373: 365: 363:Cortes of Cádiz 357: 349: 342: 332: 331: 326: 318: 310: 302: 294: 286: 278: 270: 262: 255: 245: 244: 239: 231: 221: 213: 211:Muslim conquest 206: 196: 195: 190: 182: 174: 167: 157: 156: 141: 133: 126: 116: 115: 110: 98: 88: 87: 78: 56: 49: 38: 28: 23: 22: 18:Bourbon reforms 15: 12: 11: 5: 6700: 6698: 6690: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6659: 6658: 6652: 6651: 6648: 6647: 6645: 6644: 6639: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6619: 6618: 6617: 6607: 6606: 6605: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6539: 6536: 6535: 6532: 6525: 6524: 6521: 6520: 6518: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6476: 6475: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6450: 6445: 6440: 6438:Canary Islands 6434: 6431: 6430: 6427: 6420: 6419: 6416: 6415: 6412: 6411: 6408: 6407: 6404: 6403: 6401: 6400: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6360: 6355: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6324: 6322: 6318: 6317: 6315: 6314: 6309: 6304: 6299: 6294: 6292:Túpac Amaru II 6289: 6284: 6279: 6274: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6237:Bogotá savanna 6234: 6229: 6224: 6218: 6216: 6209: 6205: 6204: 6201: 6200: 6198: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6145:Spanish Armada 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6096: 6094: 6090: 6089: 6087: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6039:White Mountain 6036: 6034:Cape Celidonia 6031: 6029:English Armada 6026: 6021: 6016: 6011: 6006: 6001: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5951: 5945: 5943: 5936: 5929: 5925: 5924: 5922: 5921: 5916: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5830: 5828: 5822: 5821: 5819: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5806:Juan Fernández 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5781:Diego Columbus 5778: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5697: 5695: 5691: 5690: 5688: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5637: 5632: 5627: 5621: 5619: 5615: 5614: 5612: 5611: 5609:Army of Africa 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5589:Spanish Armada 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5565: 5563: 5555: 5554: 5551: 5544: 5543: 5540: 5539: 5536: 5535: 5533: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5490:Manila galleon 5486: 5484: 5480: 5479: 5477: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5445: 5443: 5433: 5432: 5429: 5422: 5421: 5418: 5417: 5414: 5413: 5411: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5334: 5332: 5326: 5325: 5323: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5256: 5254: 5248: 5247: 5245: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5198: 5196: 5190: 5189: 5187: 5186: 5181: 5176: 5171: 5166: 5160: 5158: 5148: 5147: 5144: 5137: 5136: 5133: 5132: 5129: 5128: 5126: 5125: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5094: 5092: 5088: 5087: 5085: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5053: 5051: 5047: 5046: 5044: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5023: 5017: 5015: 5007: 5006: 5004:Administration 5003: 4996: 4995: 4992: 4991: 4988: 4987: 4985: 4984: 4978: 4975: 4974: 4971: 4964: 4963: 4961: 4960: 4925:Western Sahara 4921: 4915: 4912: 4911: 4908: 4901: 4900: 4898: 4897: 4892: 4887: 4856: 4853: 4852: 4845: 4838: 4837: 4835: 4834: 4823:Banda Oriental 4804: 4790: 4767: 4764: 4763: 4760: 4753: 4752: 4750: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4696: 4690: 4687: 4686: 4683: 4676: 4675: 4673: 4672: 4638:Coastal Alaska 4630: 4627: 4626: 4623: 4616: 4615: 4613: 4612: 4607: 4602: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4572: 4571: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4544: 4541: 4540: 4537: 4530: 4529: 4526: 4519: 4518: 4515: 4514: 4512: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4476: 4471: 4466: 4461: 4456: 4451: 4446: 4441: 4436: 4431: 4426: 4421: 4420: 4419: 4409: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4329: 4324: 4319: 4310: 4304: 4301: 4300: 4297: 4290: 4289: 4286:Spanish Empire 4284: 4282: 4281: 4274: 4267: 4259: 4252: 4251: 4248: 4234: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4211: 4197: 4182: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4174: 4160: 4146: 4132: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4109: 4095: 4081: 4074: 4064: 4050: 4043: 4033: 4019: 4005: 3991: 3977: 3962: 3960: 3957: 3955: 3954: 3937: 3936:61(1)19812-28. 3927: 3913: 3899: 3885: 3871: 3857: 3843: 3829: 3815: 3801: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3780: 3779: 3763: 3760: 3758: 3755: 3752: 3751: 3736: 3718: 3703: 3685: 3670: 3647: 3604: 3589:(in Spanish). 3573: 3546: 3523: 3496: 3481: 3463: 3456: 3438: 3431: 3411: 3399: 3364: 3335: 3315: 3286: 3263: 3234: 3214: 3185: 3165: 3140: 3125: 3104: 3052: 3034: 3019: 3001: 2984: 2971: 2949: 2942: 2922: 2887:(3): 301–323. 2868: 2849:(3): 567–593. 2833: 2821: 2806: 2788: 2773: 2755: 2748: 2727: 2720: 2697: 2682: 2661: 2654: 2623: 2572: 2565: 2544: 2524: 2517: 2499: 2486: 2467:(4): 622–646. 2451: 2424:(4): 605–634. 2408: 2396: 2383: 2370: 2357: 2351:D.A. Brading, 2344: 2332: 2308: 2295: 2282: 2268:, 162–5; Wolf: 2254: 2239: 2218: 2200: 2169: 2156: 2141: 2118: 2106:James Lockhart 2097: 2096: 2089: 2086: 2083: 2082: 2070:Spanish Guyana 2048: 2047: 2045: 2042: 2041: 2040: 2034: 2029: 2024: 2017: 2014: 1979: 1976: 1856:Ecclesiastical 1833:state religion 1824: 1821: 1791: 1788: 1733: 1730: 1724: 1721: 1715: 1712: 1644: 1641: 1623: 1620: 1608:José de Gálvez 1499:African slaves 1483: 1480: 1420:comercio libre 1392:José de Gálvez 1384:visita general 1379: 1376: 1340:José de Gálvez 1332: 1329: 1291: 1288: 1258: 1255: 1245:African slaves 1215: 1212: 1179: 1176: 1100: 1099: 1097: 1096: 1089: 1082: 1074: 1071: 1070: 1069: 1068: 1063: 1056: 1051: 1046: 1041: 1036: 1031: 1026: 1021: 1016: 1011: 1006: 1001: 996: 988: 987: 979: 978: 969: 968: 961: 954: 953: 951: 950: 943: 936: 928: 925: 924: 922: 921: 907: 892: 889: 888: 880: 879: 876: 875: 870: 865: 860: 855: 849: 846: 845: 842: 841: 838: 837: 835:(2020–present) 829: 821: 816: 811: 803: 798: 790: 781: 776: 775: 772: 771: 768: 767: 759: 751: 743: 735: 730:Spanish Maquis 726: 721: 720: 717: 716: 713: 712: 704: 696: 688: 680: 672: 664: 659:First Biennium 656: 647: 642: 641: 638: 637: 634: 633: 622: 614: 606: 598: 590: 582: 574: 565: 560: 559: 556: 555: 552: 551: 546:First Republic 543: 535: 527: 518: 511: 510: 507: 506: 503: 502: 494: 484: 476: 466: 458: 450: 441: 436: 435: 432: 431: 428: 427: 422:Ominous Decade 419: 409: 398: 393: 392: 389: 388: 385: 384: 376: 368: 360: 352: 343: 340:Peninsular War 338: 337: 334: 333: 330: 329: 321: 313: 305: 297: 289: 281: 273: 265: 256: 251: 250: 247: 246: 243: 242: 234: 224: 216: 207: 202: 201: 198: 197: 194: 193: 185: 177: 168: 163: 162: 159: 158: 155: 154: 149: 144: 136: 131:Roman Conquest 127: 124:Roman Hispania 122: 121: 118: 117: 114: 113: 105: 99: 94: 93: 90: 89: 86: 85: 79: 74: 73: 70: 69: 61: 60: 51: 50: 43: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6699: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6664: 6662: 6643: 6640: 6638: 6635: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6616: 6613: 6612: 6611: 6608: 6604: 6601: 6600: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6573:Tapada limeña 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6540: 6537: 6530: 6526: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6455: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6439: 6436: 6435: 6432: 6425: 6421: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6361: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6325: 6323: 6319: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6219: 6217: 6213: 6210: 6206: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6165:Montes Claros 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6105:Vienna (1529) 6103: 6101: 6098: 6097: 6095: 6091: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5947: 5946: 5944: 5940: 5937: 5933: 5930: 5926: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5834:Hernán Cortés 5832: 5831: 5829: 5827: 5826:Conquistadors 5823: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5796:Juan de Ayala 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5698: 5696: 5692: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5650:Duke of Savoy 5648: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5622: 5620: 5616: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5566: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5549: 5545: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5487: 5485: 5481: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5449:Dollar (Peso) 5447: 5446: 5444: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5427: 5423: 5409: 5408:Santo Domingo 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5335: 5333: 5331: 5327: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5285:New Andalusia 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5257: 5255: 5253: 5249: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5232:Santo Domingo 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5199: 5197: 5195: 5191: 5185: 5182: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5172: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5161: 5159: 5157: 5156:Viceroyalties 5153: 5149: 5142: 5138: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5099: 5096: 5095: 5093: 5089: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5054: 5052: 5048: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5018: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5001: 4997: 4983: 4980: 4979: 4976: 4969: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4916: 4913: 4906: 4896: 4893: 4891: 4888: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4858: 4857: 4854: 4849: 4843: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4805: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4791: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4769: 4768: 4765: 4761:South America 4758: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4691: 4688: 4681: 4670: 4666: 4660: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4646:Spanish Texas 4643: 4639: 4635: 4632: 4631: 4628: 4624:North America 4621: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4605:Franche-Comté 4603: 4601: 4598: 4596: 4593: 4591: 4588: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4550: 4549: 4546: 4545: 4542: 4535: 4531: 4524: 4520: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4470: 4467: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4457: 4455: 4452: 4450: 4447: 4445: 4442: 4440: 4437: 4435: 4432: 4430: 4427: 4425: 4422: 4418: 4415: 4414: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4320: 4318: 4314: 4311: 4309: 4306: 4305: 4302: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4280: 4275: 4273: 4268: 4266: 4261: 4260: 4257: 4249: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4220: 4215: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4183: 4178: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4118: 4113: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4079: 4075: 4072: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4048: 4044: 4041: 4037: 4034: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3938: 3935: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3787: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3765: 3761: 3756: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3733: 3729: 3722: 3719: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3700: 3696: 3689: 3686: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3667: 3663: 3656: 3654: 3652: 3648: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3608: 3605: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3577: 3574: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3550: 3547: 3542: 3537: 3536: 3527: 3524: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3500: 3497: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3478: 3474: 3467: 3464: 3459: 3457:9780252036637 3453: 3449: 3442: 3439: 3434: 3432:9780814740033 3428: 3424: 3423: 3415: 3412: 3402: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3373: 3371: 3369: 3365: 3360: 3354: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3332: 3328: 3327: 3319: 3316: 3311: 3305: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3283: 3279: 3278: 3270: 3268: 3264: 3259: 3253: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3231: 3227: 3226: 3218: 3215: 3210: 3204: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3182: 3178: 3177: 3169: 3166: 3155: 3151: 3144: 3141: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3122: 3118: 3111: 3109: 3105: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3061: 3059: 3057: 3053: 3048: 3041: 3039: 3035: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3016: 3012: 3005: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2988: 2985: 2981: 2975: 2972: 2967: 2960: 2958: 2956: 2954: 2950: 2945: 2939: 2935: 2934: 2926: 2923: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2875: 2873: 2869: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2837: 2834: 2830: 2825: 2822: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2803: 2799: 2792: 2789: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2770: 2766: 2759: 2756: 2751: 2749:0-333-71476-8 2745: 2741: 2734: 2732: 2728: 2723: 2721:9780190642402 2717: 2713: 2706: 2704: 2702: 2698: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2679: 2675: 2668: 2666: 2662: 2657: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2638: 2630: 2628: 2624: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2576: 2573: 2568: 2566:9780190642402 2562: 2558: 2551: 2549: 2545: 2540: 2533: 2531: 2529: 2525: 2520: 2518:9780190642402 2514: 2510: 2503: 2500: 2496: 2490: 2487: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2461:Urban History 2455: 2452: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2412: 2409: 2405: 2400: 2397: 2393: 2387: 2384: 2380: 2374: 2371: 2367: 2361: 2358: 2354: 2348: 2345: 2342: 2336: 2333: 2328: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2315: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2299: 2296: 2292: 2286: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2266:Robert Harley 2261: 2259: 2255: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2236: 2232: 2225: 2223: 2219: 2216: 2212: 2209: 2204: 2201: 2198: 2197:968-16-5378-5 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2179: 2173: 2170: 2166: 2160: 2157: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2138: 2134: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2102: 2099: 2095: 2094: 2087: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2056:For example, 2053: 2050: 2043: 2038: 2035: 2033: 2030: 2028: 2025: 2023: 2020: 2019: 2015: 2013: 2009: 2007: 2003: 1998: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1977: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1960: 1955: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1932:Civitavecchia 1927: 1924: 1918: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1902: 1899: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1877: 1875: 1874:Spanish Crown 1871: 1867: 1866: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1844:Conquistadors 1840: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1812: 1810: 1805: 1800: 1798: 1789: 1787: 1785: 1780: 1775: 1772: 1769: 1766: 1762: 1757: 1754: 1750: 1745: 1743: 1739: 1731: 1729: 1722: 1720: 1713: 1711: 1707: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1692: 1687: 1682: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1657: 1654: 1649: 1642: 1640: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1628:mining empire 1621: 1619: 1616: 1613: 1609: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1579: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1561: 1559: 1554: 1552: 1548: 1542: 1538: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1522: 1520: 1515: 1512: 1508: 1507:Great Britain 1504: 1500: 1496: 1495: 1490: 1481: 1479: 1477: 1473: 1472: 1466: 1464: 1463: 1458: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1439: 1433: 1426: 1421: 1416: 1412: 1410: 1406: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1377: 1375: 1371: 1370:(1619–1683). 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1348: 1341: 1337: 1330: 1328: 1326: 1321: 1317: 1312: 1310: 1306: 1296: 1289: 1287: 1285: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1271: 1265: 1264:Enlightenment 1256: 1254: 1252: 1248: 1246: 1242: 1241: 1235: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1224:Great Britain 1221: 1213: 1211: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1177: 1175: 1172: 1168: 1167: 1161: 1159: 1158: 1153: 1149: 1144: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1125:Spanish Crown 1120: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1095: 1090: 1088: 1083: 1081: 1076: 1075: 1073: 1072: 1067: 1064: 1062: 1061: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1050: 1047: 1045: 1042: 1040: 1037: 1035: 1032: 1030: 1027: 1025: 1022: 1020: 1017: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1005: 1002: 1000: 997: 995: 992: 991: 990: 989: 985: 981: 980: 977: 970: 965: 959: 949: 944: 942: 937: 935: 930: 929: 927: 926: 920: 919: 908: 906: 905: 894: 893: 891: 890: 887: 886: 882: 881: 874: 871: 869: 866: 864: 861: 859: 856: 854: 851: 850: 844: 843: 833: 830: 825: 822: 820: 817: 815: 812: 807: 804: 802: 799: 794: 791: 786: 783: 782: 779: 774: 773: 763: 760: 755: 754:Blue Division 752: 747: 744: 739: 736: 731: 728: 727: 724: 719: 718: 708: 705: 700: 697: 692: 689: 684: 681: 676: 673: 668: 665: 660: 657: 652: 649: 648: 645: 640: 639: 629: 627: 623: 618: 615: 610: 607: 602: 599: 594: 591: 586: 583: 578: 575: 570: 567: 566: 563: 558: 557: 547: 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4479:Carlist Wars 4428: 4327:Italian Wars 4237: 4223: 4200: 4186: 4163: 4149: 4135: 4121: 4098: 4084: 4077: 4070: 4053: 4046: 4039: 4022: 4008: 3994: 3980: 3966: 3943: 3933: 3916: 3902: 3888: 3874: 3860: 3846: 3832: 3818: 3804: 3790: 3768: 3727: 3721: 3694: 3688: 3661: 3617: 3613: 3607: 3590: 3586: 3576: 3559: 3555: 3549: 3534: 3526: 3509: 3499: 3472: 3466: 3447: 3441: 3421: 3414: 3404:, retrieved 3382: 3325: 3318: 3276: 3224: 3217: 3175: 3168: 3157:. Retrieved 3153: 3143: 3116: 3074: 3070: 3046: 3010: 3004: 2996: 2987: 2979: 2974: 2965: 2932: 2925: 2884: 2881:The Americas 2880: 2846: 2842: 2836: 2824: 2797: 2791: 2764: 2758: 2739: 2711: 2673: 2636: 2588:(1): 21–56. 2585: 2581: 2575: 2556: 2538: 2508: 2502: 2494: 2489: 2464: 2460: 2454: 2421: 2417: 2411: 2399: 2391: 2386: 2378: 2373: 2368:, pp. 33–94. 2365: 2360: 2352: 2347: 2335: 2326: 2303: 2298: 2290: 2285: 2280:, III, 182–5 2277: 2273: 2272:, 581; Pitt: 2269: 2265: 2230: 2203: 2188: 2172: 2164: 2159: 2132: 2113: 2101: 2092: 2091: 2062:Amazon River 2052: 2010: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1956: 1952:Papal States 1928: 1919: 1903: 1878: 1869: 1863: 1859: 1848:Christianity 1841: 1826: 1813: 1801: 1793: 1776: 1773: 1770: 1758: 1746: 1742:Spanish Army 1735: 1726: 1717: 1708: 1700:Peninsulares 1691:Corregidores 1689: 1683: 1658: 1650: 1646: 1625: 1622:Buenos Aires 1614: 1611: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1586: 1582: 1572: 1562: 1555: 1543: 1539: 1523: 1519:mercantilist 1516: 1510: 1492: 1485: 1475: 1469: 1467: 1460: 1454: 1450: 1417: 1413: 1383: 1381: 1372: 1366:of France's 1364:mercantilism 1359: 1353: 1313: 1301: 1268: 1260: 1249: 1238: 1236: 1217: 1181: 1164: 1162: 1155: 1145: 1105: 1103: 1058: 1043: 909: 895: 883: 863:LGBT history 625: 512: 486: 468: 411: 401: 227: 147:Romanization 134:(206–27 BCE) 6515:Philippines 6480:El Salvador 6100:Capo d'Orso 5984:St. Quentin 5959:Rome (1527) 5618:Strategists 5368:Guadalajara 5295:New Navarre 5290:New Castile 5275:La Luisiana 5227:Puerto Rico 5217:Philippines 5174:New Granada 4864:Philippines 4825:(Uruguay), 4821:(Bolivia), 4771:New Granada 4711:Puerto Rico 4657: [ 4527:Territories 4347:Encomiendas 4067:Lynch, John 3077:(3): 7–34. 1837:Catholicism 1723:Agriculture 1714:Cartography 1653:tax-farming 1558:José Patiño 1423: [ 1318:, lost the 1316:Charles III 1270:afrancesado 973:History of 788:(1975–1978) 765:(1959–2011) 757:(1941–1944) 749:(1939–1945) 741:(1939–1977) 733:(1939–1965) 702:(1936–1939) 670:(1933–1936) 662:(1931–1933) 631:(1930–1931) 626:Dictablanda 620:(1923–1930) 604:(1914–1918) 588:(1886–1931) 580:(1885–1902) 572:(1874–1885) 549:(1873–1874) 541:(1872–1876) 533:(1870–1873) 525:(1868–1871) 492:(1854–1856) 482:(1846–1849) 474:(1844–1854) 464:(1840–1843) 456:(1833–1840) 448:(1833–1840) 425:(1823–1833) 417:(1820–1823) 407:(1814–1820) 366:(1810–1814) 358:(1808–1813) 327:(1707–1716) 319:(1701–1714) 311:(1700–1808) 303:(1580–1640) 295:(1556–1659) 287:(1516–1700) 279:(1492–1898) 271:(1482–1492) 268:Granada War 263:(1479–1516) 228:Reconquista 204:Middle Ages 55:History of 6661:Categories 6185:Somosierra 6175:Manila Bay 6049:Nördlingen 5989:Gravelines 5469:Columnario 5441:Currencies 5358:Concepción 5330:Audiencias 5305:New Toledo 5270:La Florida 5103:Corregidor 5067:Papal bull 4972:Antarctica 4880:Micronesia 4337:Golden Age 3959:Government 3562:(1): 3–7. 3491:1015274908 3406:2020-12-08 3159:2020-01-13 3135:1015274908 3029:1015274908 2816:1015274908 2783:1015274908 2692:1015274908 2249:1015274908 2151:1015274908 2088:References 2076:after the 1553:monopoly. 1489:Sacramento 1471:audiencias 1444:consulados 1438:consulados 1432:consulados 1378:Government 1325:monopolies 1184:Charles II 1157:peninsular 292:Golden Age 240:(718–1479) 232:(711–1492) 222:(711–1492) 219:Al-Andalus 76:Prehistory 30:See also: 6490:Nicaragua 6468:Guatemala 6378:Pichincha 6363:Chacabuco 6302:Pensacola 6247:Mataquito 6227:Cajamarca 6208:New World 6180:Trafalgar 6084:Alhucemas 5964:Landriano 5949:Comuneros 5935:Old World 5879:Joan Orpí 5599:Royalists 5373:Guatemala 5300:New Spain 5237:Venezuela 5212:Guatemala 5169:New Spain 5164:Columbian 5057:Exequatur 4957:Cape Juby 4811:Argentina 4634:New Spain 4568:Gibraltar 4332:Habsburgs 3746:755004262 3713:755004262 3680:755004262 3634:0018-2168 3620:(1): 63. 3599:1988-270X 3518:0120-2456 3353:cite book 3345:762983392 3304:cite book 3296:762983392 3252:cite book 3244:762983392 3203:cite book 3195:762983392 3099:146193888 3091:1548-5811 2917:147450268 2901:0003-1615 2863:145148932 2618:153452195 2602:0022-216X 2481:151456126 2446:149788933 2438:0018-2168 2377:Brading, 2364:Brading, 2270:Louis XIV 1898:diasporic 1809:Zacatecas 1761:Presidios 1696:intendant 1666:Cartagena 1630:that was 1612:visitador 1569:Canarians 1476:audiencia 1409:Venezuela 1388:New Spain 1232:Gibraltar 975:New Spain 699:Civil War 284:Habsburgs 214:(711–716) 191:(552–624) 183:(418–721) 175:(409–585) 6500:Colombia 6485:Honduras 6398:Asomante 6383:Ayacucho 6373:Carabobo 6348:Curalaba 6125:Ceresole 6019:Gembloux 5979:Mühlberg 5694:Mariners 5552:Military 5474:Doubloon 5459:Maravedí 5403:Santiago 5310:Paraguay 5036:Germania 4876:Caroline 4831:Malvinas 4815:Paraguay 4775:Colombia 4717:Trinidad 4584:Sardinia 4424:Bourbons 4114:Military 2381:, p. 34. 2341:interese 2211:Archived 2181:Archived 2058:Amazonas 2016:See also 1893:hegemony 1738:cabildos 1732:Military 1704:Criollos 1662:Veracruz 1643:Taxation 1578:Mantuano 1462:Criollos 1166:Criollos 1152:Criollos 1133:Habsburg 964:a series 962:Part of 885:Timeline 308:Bourbons 139:Hispania 46:a series 44:Part of 6632:Asiento 6603:Mustang 6463:Yucatán 6458:Chiapas 6338:Tucapel 6170:Passaro 6120:Algiers 6110:Preveza 6079:Tetouan 6074:Vitoria 6064:Bitonto 6004:Antwerp 5999:Lepanto 5954:Bicocca 5430:Economy 5353:Charcas 5348:Caracas 5242:Yucatán 5113:Regidor 5098:Alcalde 5026:Cabildo 4933:Tripoli 4872:Mariana 4819:Charcas 4795:(Peru, 4779:Ecuador 4742:Bonaire 4737:Curazao 4722:Jamaica 4650:Florida 4216:Society 3783:Economy 3762:General 3642:2513542 2909:1006909 2278:England 1978:Effects 1906:Jesuits 1881:Maroons 1763:in the 1668:, Lima/ 1636:Jesuits 1615:generál 1588:Tobacco 1573:pardos, 1531:Seville 1511:asiento 1309:mercury 1228:Menorca 1204:England 1200:Austria 1121: 1110:Spanish 612:(–1927) 609:Rif War 6610:Castas 6368:Boyacá 6343:Guiana 6333:Iguape 6257:Recife 6195:Mactan 6190:Annual 6155:Rocroi 6150:Leiden 6135:Djerba 6069:Bailén 6024:Ostend 6009:Azores 5604:Legión 5569:Tercio 5562:Armies 5464:Escudo 5393:Panamá 5388:Mexico 5383:Manila 5338:Bogotá 5123:Vecino 5118:Syndic 4949:Béjaïa 4909:Africa 4895:Tidore 4783:Panama 4747:Belize 4654:Mexico 4580:Sicily 4576:Naples 4538:Europe 4244: 4230: 4207: 4193: 4179:Church 4170: 4156: 4142: 4128: 4105: 4091: 4060: 4029: 4015: 4001: 3987: 3973: 3950: 3923: 3909: 3895: 3881: 3867: 3853: 3839: 3825: 3811: 3797: 3775: 3744: 3734: 3711: 3701: 3678: 3668: 3640: 3632: 3597: 3593:: 11. 3516: 3512:(30). 3489: 3479: 3454: 3429: 3397: 3343: 3333: 3294: 3284: 3242: 3232: 3193: 3183: 3133: 3123: 3097: 3089: 3027: 3017: 2940: 2915: 2907: 2899: 2861: 2814: 2804: 2781: 2771: 2746: 2718: 2690: 2680: 2652: 2616: 2610:156338 2608: 2600: 2563: 2515: 2479: 2444: 2436: 2264:Hill: 2247: 2237: 2195: 2149: 2139: 1948:Naples 1790:Mining 1753:Manila 1749:Havana 1678:silver 1674:Panama 1672:, and 1670:Callao 1632:Potosí 1610:, the 966:on the 827:(2017) 809:(2004) 796:(1978) 710:(1939) 694:(1936) 686:(1936) 678:(1934) 654:(1931) 596:(1898) 500:(1868) 382:(1813) 374:(1812) 350:(1808) 48:on the 6505:Chile 6473:Petén 6448:Aztec 6267:Bahia 6242:Penco 6232:Cusco 6160:Downs 6140:Tunis 6059:Ceuta 6044:Breda 5994:Malta 5974:Tunis 5969:Pavia 5483:Trade 5398:Quito 5363:Cusco 5202:Chile 4937:Tunis 4884:Palau 4801:Chile 4732:Aruba 4727:Haiti 4661:] 4590:Milan 4548:Spain 3638:JSTOR 3541:83–84 3095:S2CID 2913:S2CID 2905:JSTOR 2859:S2CID 2614:S2CID 2606:JSTOR 2477:S2CID 2442:S2CID 2044:Notes 1870:fuero 1865:fuero 1804:Pesos 1551:Cádiz 1535:Cádiz 1427:] 1284:Chile 1279:Dutch 1060:Casta 847:Topic 57:Spain 6510:Inca 6453:Maya 6388:Guam 6321:Lost 6093:Lost 6014:Mons 5454:Real 5378:Lima 5265:Cuba 5207:Cuba 5179:Perú 4955:and 4953:Ifni 4945:Oran 4868:Guam 4797:Acre 4793:Peru 4703:Cuba 4582:and 4242:ISBN 4228:ISBN 4205:ISBN 4191:ISBN 4168:ISBN 4154:ISBN 4140:ISBN 4126:ISBN 4103:ISBN 4089:ISBN 4058:ISBN 4027:ISBN 4013:ISBN 3999:ISBN 3985:ISBN 3971:ISBN 3948:ISBN 3921:ISBN 3907:ISBN 3893:ISBN 3879:ISBN 3865:ISBN 3851:ISBN 3837:ISBN 3823:ISBN 3809:ISBN 3795:ISBN 3773:ISBN 3742:OCLC 3732:ISBN 3709:OCLC 3699:ISBN 3676:OCLC 3666:ISBN 3630:ISSN 3595:ISSN 3514:ISSN 3487:OCLC 3477:ISBN 3452:ISBN 3427:ISBN 3395:ISBN 3359:link 3341:OCLC 3331:ISBN 3310:link 3292:OCLC 3282:ISBN 3258:link 3240:OCLC 3230:ISBN 3209:link 3191:OCLC 3181:ISBN 3131:OCLC 3121:ISBN 3087:ISSN 3025:OCLC 3015:ISBN 2938:ISBN 2897:ISSN 2812:OCLC 2802:ISBN 2779:OCLC 2769:ISBN 2744:ISBN 2716:ISBN 2688:OCLC 2678:ISBN 2650:ISBN 2598:ISSN 2561:ISBN 2513:ISBN 2434:ISSN 2245:OCLC 2235:ISBN 2193:ISBN 2147:OCLC 2137:ISBN 2108:and 1827:The 1816:Mita 1751:and 1119:lit. 1104:The 34:and 6215:Won 5942:Won 5050:Law 4947:, 4667:), 4648:), 3622:doi 3564:doi 3387:doi 3079:doi 2889:doi 2851:doi 2642:doi 2590:doi 2469:doi 2426:doi 1505:to 1501:to 1358:'s 1234:. 6663:: 4951:, 4943:, 4939:, 4935:, 4931:, 4927:, 4882:, 4878:, 4874:, 4870:, 4866:, 4829:, 4817:, 4813:, 4799:, 4785:, 4781:, 4777:, 4709:, 4705:, 4659:es 4652:, 4578:, 4315:, 4069:. 4038:. 3942:. 3740:. 3707:. 3674:. 3650:^ 3636:. 3628:. 3618:57 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