1448:. For the Anti-Apartheid Movement, Nelson Mandela's release was a moment of celebration, but it also started an enormously challenging period in which they struggled to maintain the momentum of the 1980s, and sustain public interest in South Africa. Historians Matt Graham and Christopher Fevre have argued that South Africa's transition proved to be the most challenging period in the Anti-Apartheid Movement's existence due to a decline in public interest, a reduction of its membership base, questions about its long-term future as an organisation, a poor financial situation, and the difficulty of explaining the fast-paced negotiations and the political violence to the British public. The Anti-Apartheid Movement assisted the ANC's election campaign through fundraising, lobbying, and public rallies. These activities were part of the international support provided for the ANC's victory in South Africa's
1412:, which hoped to secure his release in time for his 70th birthday in June 1988. There were four elements to "Freedom at 70": the Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute concert held at Wembley Stadium on 11 June; a rally in Glasgow to launch the Nelson Mandela Freedom March on 12 June; and the five-week long Freedom March from Glasgow to London, which finished with a rally in Hyde Park on 17 July 1988. These events attracted an unprecedented level of interest in the Anti-Apartheid Movement and the struggle against apartheid. For example, the Wembley Stadium concert was attended by about 100,000 people and an estimated 600 million people in more than 60 countries watched the event.
1397:, local council authorities, churches, and trade unions, to demand Mandela's release from prison and campaign for the end of apartheid in South Africa. A notable feature of the campaign across Britain was the renaming of buildings and streets after Nelson Mandela, which resulted in the UK having more streets named after him than anywhere outside of South Africa. The Free Nelson Mandela Campaign gained prominence when Glasgow's local authority gave Mandela the Freedom of the City in 1981, and a further eight cities and councils including Aberdeen, Dundee, and Sheffield followed this lead during the 1980s.
1383:
decided by a majority vote in the
General Assembly; to isolate the major trading partners of South Africa by persuading other Western countries to co-operate in action to the greatest feasible extent; and to find ways to promote public opinion and public action against apartheid, especially in the countries which were the main collaborators with the South African regime. This also meant that we built the broadest support for each measure, thereby welcoming co-operation rather than alienating governments and organisations which were not yet prepared to support sanctions or armed struggle.
56:
1432:
AAM as ‘the basis and heart of the movement’. The
British AAM created the overarching campaigns and policies to ensure a consistent anti-apartheid message, but it was the actions of the local groups that ensured they had nationwide coverage. As a result, anti-apartheid campaigns could be implemented in almost every locality, which intensified the visibility and impact. It also allowed the general public multiple opportunities to take individual actions against apartheid through local efforts such as picketing shops and venues. and boycotting products or organisations.
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1471:
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implications on the economies of South Africa, the UK, the US and the
Protectorates. Knowing that the strongest opposition to the application of sanctions came from the West (and within the West, the UK), the Committee made every effort to attract as wide and varied a number of speakers and participants as possible so that the conference findings would be regarded as objective."
429:
2231:: A digital archive of 90 hours of videos taken in South Africa in the late 1980s and early 1990s. This raw footage documents anti-apartheid demonstrations, speeches, mass funerals, celebrations, and interviews with activists that capture the activism of trade unions, students and political organisations, including the activities of the United Democratic Front.
1275:. Candidates were asked to state their position on economic sanctions and other punitive measures against the South African government. Most candidates who responded answered in the affirmative. Following the Labour Party's victory at the 1964 general election, after 13 years in opposition, commitment to the anti-apartheid cause dissipated. In short order,
1435:
The local groups had a lot of freedom to act against any connections with the apartheid regime in their localities. There were many diverse links to South Africa, and a key role of the local groups was to identify them, and then direct their campaign efforts against them. There existed a huge variety
1423:
The AAM was composed of a national office, local groups, and regional committees, as well as a wide range of affiliations to organisations across civil society. There was also a
Scottish Anti-Apartheid Committee (SCAAM) and a Welsh Anti-Apartheid Movement (WAAM) which co-ordinated activities in these
1286:
was "not in favour of trade sanctions partly because, even if fully effective, they would harm the people we are most concerned about; the
Africans and those White South Africans who are having to maintain some standard of decency there." Even so, Lisson writes that the "AAM still hoped that the new
1431:
The strength of the anti-apartheid cause in
Britain was aided by an extensive network of local and regional AAM groups. Initially these structures existed only in larger urban areas, but by the 1980s, almost every British town and city had an AAM local group. The local groups were described by the
1427:
The AAM structure allowed the movement to engage different constituents at different levels in the broader effort to isolate South Africa. The AAM’s national office was based in London, which was the centre of the movements decision making, where policies were devised, campaigns organised (such as
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occurred on 21 March 1960, when 69 unarmed protesters were shot dead by the South
African police. This triggered an intensification of action. The organisation was renamed the "Anti-Apartheid Movement" and instead of just a consumer boycott, the group would now "co-ordinate all the anti-apartheid
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The strategy was to press for a range of measures to isolate the regime, support the liberation movement and inform world public opinion; to continue pressing for effective sanctions as the only means for a peaceful solution, and at the same time to obtain action on other measures which could be
1262:
However, the conference was not successful in persuading the UK to take up economic sanctions against South Africa. Rather, the
British government "remained firm in its view that the imposition of sanctions would be unconstitutional "because we do not accept that this situation in South Africa
1233:
and called for imposing economic and other sanctions on South Africa. All
Western nations refused to join the committee as members. This boycott of a committee, the first such boycott, happened because it was created by the same General Assembly resolution that called for economic and other
1237:
Following the passage of this resolution, the Anti-Apartheid
Movement spearheaded the arrangements for international conference on sanctions to be held in London in April 1964. According to Lisson, "The aim of the Conference was to work out the practicability of economic sanctions and their
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The Conference established the necessity, the legality and the practicability of internationally organised sanctions against South Africa, whose policies were seen to have become a direct threat to peace and security in Africa and the world. Its findings also pointed out that in order to be
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In the 1980s, the international campaign to free Nelson Mandela from prison became a global cause. In close co-operation with the exiled leaders of the ANC, the British Anti-Apartheid Movement increasingly personalised the liberation struggle, with Mandela as its symbolic figurehead. The
1373:
Faced with the failure to persuade the West to impose economic sanctions, in 1966 the AAM formulated a strategy whereby they would shift toward spearheading "an international campaign against apartheid under the auspices of the United Nations." AAM's proposed strategy was approved by the
1330:
in 1965. The declaration was signed by 496 university professors and lecturers from 34 British universities to protest against apartheid and associated violations of academic freedom. They made a special reference to the issue of banning orders against two South African academics named
1195:, who took over from Rosalynde Ainslie as the AAM's Hon. Secretary in 1962, also represented the South African Sports Association, a non-racial body set up in South Africa by Dennis Brutus. In the same year, he presented a letter to the International Olympic Committee meeting in
2225:): An online archive of materials of the solidarity movement in the U.S. that supported the struggle against apartheid and for African freedom, including documents, posters, streamed interviews, T-shirts, photographs, campaign buttons, and remembrances.
1254:
The AAM was enthusiastic with the results of the conference for two key reasons. First, because of "the new seriousness with which the use of economic sanctions is viewed." Second, because the AAM was able to meet for the first time with the
1428:
Boycott Barclays or Free Nelson Mandela), and the high-level lobbying of politicians and business leaders occurred. The London office co-ordinated and directed much of the anti-apartheid campaigning across Britain.
214:
1408:" which reached number 9 in the UK music charts. In 1986, Artists Against Apartheid organised the Freedom Festival at Clapham Common in London, in which 250,000 people attended. The most famous event was
363:
309:
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constitutes a threat to international peace and security and we do not in any case believe that sanctions would have the effect of persuading the South African Government to change its policies"."
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1665:
75:
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and then by the General Assembly. This new partnership formed the basis for all future action against apartheid. The man originally responsible for the new strategy gives this summary:
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work and keep South Africa's apartheid policy in the forefront of British politics". It also campaigned for the total isolation of apartheid South Africa, including economic sanctions.
1882:
2249:
2158:
Matthew Graham & Christopher Fevre, ‘Mandela’s out so apartheid has finished’: the British Anti-Apartheid Movement and South Africa’s transition to majority rule, 1990-1994.
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was South Africa's largest foreign investor and South Africa was the UK's third biggest export market. The ANC was still committed to peaceful resistance. Armed struggle through
356:
2244:
1230:
196:
42:
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member states. In 1962, the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution calling on all member states to impose a trade boycott against South Africa. In 1963, the
1901:
1291:." But by the end of 1964, it was clear that the election of the Labour Party had made little difference in the government's overall unwillingness to impose sanctions.
539:
1250:
effective, a programme of sanctions would need the active participation of Britain and the US, who were also the main obstacle to the implementation of such a policy.
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124:
1077:
We are not asking you, the British people, for anything special. We are just asking you to withdraw your support from apartheid by not buying South African goods.
349:
288:
280:
272:
264:
256:
248:
240:
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2151:
Rob Skinner, ‘The Anti-Apartheid Movement: Pressure Group Politics, International Solidarity and Transnational Activism’ in N. Crowson, M. Hilton and J. McKay,
1445:
1311:
and other political trials to try to appease Afro-Asian countries and public opinion at home and abroad; by early 1965 the issue of sanctions had lost momentum.
506:
2206:
1625:
2259:
1187:
2269:
1662:
1304:
441:
1500:
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596:
100:
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A major part of the campaign revolved around music, which helped publicise Mandela and the anti-apartheid struggle to the British public. In 1984,
319:
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981:
95:
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897:
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451:
324:
2039:"'Mandela's out so apartheid has finished': the British Anti-Apartheid Movement and South Africa's transition to majority rule, 1990-1994"
1998:"'Mandela's out so apartheid has finished': the British Anti-Apartheid Movement and South Africa's transition to majority rule, 1990-1994"
671:
1449:
1226:
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exiles and their supporters. Nelson Mandela was an important person among the many that were anti-apartheid activists. Members included
1040:
551:
456:
2139:
1782:
1715:
1394:
1014:
581:
1505:
1485:
1456:
1375:
656:
626:
496:
491:
392:
2190:
2127:
The Foundations of Anti-Apartheid: Liberal Humanitarians and Transnational Activists in Britain and the United States, c. 1919-64
1682:
1327:
1321:
1090:
971:
601:
171:
148:
70:
31:
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and supporting South Africa's non-white population who were oppressed by the policies of apartheid. The AAM changed its name to
1495:
1415:
As a direct consequence of the 70th Birthday Tribute, the Anti-Apartheid Movement membership doubled to nearly 18,000 in 1988.
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Pledge that we shall not apply for or accept academic posts in South African universities which practise racial discrimination.
1222:
1212:
1171:
961:
586:
481:
232:
219:
80:
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and diversity in anti-apartheid campaigning across Britain, which reflected local economic, cultural, and social conditions.
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804:
681:
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55:
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1748:* Spotlight on South Africa, Dar es Salaam, 26 November 1965, reprinted by on the ANC Website for Historical Documents
1520:
819:
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516:
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90:
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in 1994, when South Africa achieved majority rule through free and fair elections, in which all races could vote.
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335:
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2218:
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1559:
1159:
956:
576:
779:
1199:, Germany about racism in South African sports. The result was a ruling that suspended South Africa from the
1799:
Klein, Genevieve (2009). "The British Anti-Apartheid Movement and Political Prisoner Campaigns, 1973–1980".
1563:
1167:
1033:
986:
754:
176:
85:
2134:
The Politics of Race in Britain and South Africa: Black British Solidarity with the Anti-Apartheid Struggle
1332:
1175:
686:
30:
This article is about the British organisation. For opposition to apartheid from within South Africa, see
1288:
1174:
called for a partial arms ban against South Africa, but this was not mandatory under Chapter VII of the
951:
941:
636:
556:
501:
181:
1110:
2038:
1960:
1155:
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918:
719:
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526:
466:
329:
136:
105:
1934:
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1200:
996:
142:
2019:
1961:"International Solidarity at the Grassroots: A Case Study of the British Anti-Apartheid Movement"
1826:
1754:
1086:
1026:
461:
412:
130:
1349:
We, the (undersigned) professors and lecturers in British universities in consultation with the
1303:
At the UN, Britain consistently refused to accept that the situation in South Africa fell under
1093:
parties. On 28 February 1960, the movement launched a March Month, Boycott Action at a rally in
704:
1663:"The Anti-Apartheid Movement, Britain and South Africa: Anti-Apartheid Protest vs Real Politik"
384:) was a British organisation that was at the centre of the international movement opposing the
2058:
1978:
1615:
1574:
1401:
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1163:
1138:
1082:
907:
621:
1920:
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2009:
1968:
1816:
1808:
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Protest against the practice of racial discrimination and its extension to higher education;
1094:
859:
809:
739:
1779:
1719:
1786:
1669:
1530:
1259:, a meeting that established a long-lasting working relationship between the two parties.
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966:
476:
1307:. Instead, in collaboration with the US, it worked for a carefully worded appeal on the
1585:
1525:
1515:
1476:
1134:
1098:
1070:
1054:
839:
829:
799:
784:
764:
759:
749:
724:
1686:
2238:
2023:
1830:
1605:
1595:
1510:
1393:
Anti-Apartheid Movement worked with a range of organisations in Britain, such as the
1308:
1279:
1102:
991:
864:
814:
486:
471:
1287:
Labour Government would be more sensitive to the demands of public opinion than the
1569:
1066:
1062:
892:
854:
844:
834:
734:
385:
2054:
2014:
1997:
1973:
1592:
successfully enforced strict international economic sanctions against South Africa
1455:
After the first democratic elections in South Africa, the AAM changed its name to
2153:
NGOs in Contemporary Britain: Non-State Actors in Society and Politics since 1945
1166:, and found willing allies in Canada, India and the newly independent Afro-Asian
1154:
The AAM scored its first major victory when South Africa was forced to leave the
2167:
1610:
1550:
1196:
1192:
794:
789:
774:
709:
314:
191:
17:
1883:"Crowds chanted on historic night as Dundee gave Nelson Mandela the city keys"
1812:
1545:
1535:
1470:
1466:
1336:
1271:
The Anti-Apartheid Movement tried to make sanctions an election issue for the
1106:
902:
869:
744:
729:
714:
571:
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1982:
1081:
The boycott attracted widespread support from students, trade unions and the
2185:
1490:
923:
887:
824:
428:
420:
388:
47:
2191:
Bodleian Library's Catalogue of the archive of the Anti-Apartheid Movement
1778:"AAM and UN: partners in the international campaign against apartheid" in
1751:"Academic Boycott of South Africa: Declaration by British Academics, 1965"
1346:
Academic Boycott of South Africa: Declaration by British Academics, 1965
1732:
C. Gurney, "A Great Cause: The Origins of the Anti-Apartheid Movement",
1234:
sanctions on South Africa, which at the time the West strongly opposed.
1685:. Bodleian Library of Commonwealth and A/frican Studies. Archived from
2076:
1821:
1058:
913:
2146:
Youth Activism and Solidarity: The Non-Stop Picket Against Apartheid
2120:
Activists beyond borders advocacy networks in international politics
1243:
International Conference for Economic Sanctions Against South Africa
2222:
1683:"Catalogue of the archive of the Anti-Apartheid Movement, 1956-98"
2180:
1902:"Nelson Mandela Dies: The Story behind his 70 Birthday Concert"
1357:
Protest against the bans imposed on Professors Simons and Roux;
1203:. South Africa was finally expelled from the Olympics in 1970.
1864:"Mandela's historic Glasgow trip remembered on 100th birthday"
1326:
The Anti-Apartheid Movement was instrumental in initiating an
2228:
2113:
Anti-Apartheid and the Emergence of a Global Civil Society
1444:
Mandela was released in February 1990, which started the
1562:
who succeeded in having South Africa expelled from the
1672:, Arianna Lisson, PhD Dissertation, 15 September 2000.
1097:. Speakers at the rally included Labour Party Leader
2155:(Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), pp.129-146.
2140:"The Anti-Apartheid Movement: A 40-year Perspective"
2106:
Anti-Apartheid: A History of the Movement in Britain
1959:
Graham, Matthew; Fevre, Christopher (15 July 2024).
1780:"The Anti-Apartheid Movement: A 40-year Perspective"
1716:"The Anti-Apartheid Movement: A 40-year Perspective"
2275:
Political organisations based in the United Kingdom
2037:Graham, Matthew; Fevre, Christopher (3 July 2022).
2196:Anti-Apartheid Movement Scottish Committee records
1919:Movement, The Anti-Apartheid (27 September 1989).
1231:United Nations Special Committee against Apartheid
1339:, who were two well-known progressive academics.
1846:"Nelson Mandela death: UK streets named Mandela"
2186:Liliesleaf Trust UK & Anti-Apartheid Legacy
1744:
1742:
1344:
1158:in 1961. It held a 72-hour vigil outside the
2168:https://doi.org/10.1080/13619462.2021.1976154
1446:negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa
1069:, Ros Ainslie, Abdul Minty and Nanda Naidoo.
1034:
357:
27:1959–1994 British anti-apartheid organisation
8:
2250:1994 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
1718:. South Africa House, London. Archived from
1626:Anti-Apartheid movement in the United States
1299:Lisson summarises the UN situation in 1964:
1229:, a non-binding resolution establishing the
1188:Apartheid-era South Africa and the Olympics
2205:Struggles for Freedom in Southern Africa:
1566:and further isolating the Apartheid regime
1041:
1027:
407:
364:
350:
38:
2245:1959 establishments in the United Kingdom
2013:
1996:Graham, Matt; Fevre, Christopher (2022).
1972:
1820:
1702:Refugees and Cultural Transfer to Britain
1658:
1656:
1654:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1501:International sanctions during apartheid
1410:The Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute
1217:International sanctions during apartheid
1921:"Report to the AGM Oct 1988 - Oct 1989"
1900:Hollingsworth, Tony (6 December 2013).
1774:
1772:
1638:
1581:Robert Hughes, Baron Hughes of Woodside
982:Music in the movement against apartheid
419:
41:
2207:The Anti-Apartheid Movement Collection
1699:Stefan Manz and Panikos Panayi (eds),
1057:, the Boycott Movement was founded in
215:1964 Conference for Economic Sanctions
197:UN Special Committee against Apartheid
7:
2265:Organizations disestablished in 1994
2201:Wales Anti-Apartheid Movement Papers
1881:Strachan, Graeme (31 October 2020).
325:Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute
220:1978 World Conference against Racism
1965:Journal of Southern African Studies
1801:Journal of Southern African Studies
1734:Journal of Southern African Studies
1369:Cooperation with the United Nations
457:Coloured vote constitutional crisis
2260:Boycotts of apartheid South Africa
1844:Wheeler, Brian (7 December 2013).
1395:International Defence and Aid Fund
1267:Making sanctions an election issue
96:International anti-apartheid music
25:
2270:Organizations established in 1959
2179:Anti-Apartheid Movement Archive:
1506:Academic boycotts of South Africa
1486:ACTSA: Action for Southern Africa
1457:ACTSA: Action for Southern Africa
1376:UN Special Committee on Apartheid
1257:UN Special Committee on Apartheid
393:ACTSA: Action for Southern Africa
1469:
1388:The Free Nelson Mandela Campaign
1328:academic boycott of South Africa
1322:Academic boycott of South Africa
1107:John Grigg, 2nd Baron Altrincham
1061:on 26 June 1959 at a meeting of
1010:
1009:
972:Internal resistance to apartheid
427:
172:Artists United Against Apartheid
149:Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act
54:
32:Internal resistance to apartheid
2229:Community Video Education Trust
1789:, E. S. Reddy, 25–26 June 1999.
1496:Disinvestment from South Africa
1223:United Nations General Assembly
1213:Disinvestment from South Africa
1141:would only begin a year later.
482:Church Street, Pretoria bombing
404:A consumer boycott organisation
1736:, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 123–144.
1:
2144:Gavin Brown and Helen Yaffe,
2055:10.1080/13619462.2021.1976154
2015:10.1080/13619462.2021.1976154
1974:10.1080/03057070.2024.2370654
1935:"Local anti-apartheid groups"
1241:The conference was named the
1073:would summarise its purpose:
283:(South-West Africa ceasefire)
187:Organisation of African Unity
131:Crime of Apartheid Convention
2255:Anti-apartheid organisations
2211:Action for Southern Africa (
2160:Contemporary British History
2043:Contemporary British History
2002:Contemporary British History
1053:In response to an appeal by
947:Apartheid in popular culture
291:(arms embargo strengthening)
267:(arms embargo strengthening)
2118:M. E. Keck and K. Sikkink,
1342:A part of the declaration:
1305:Chapter VII of the Charter
1207:Economic sanctions campaign
517:Saint James Church massacre
512:Assassination of Chris Hani
118:Instruments and legislation
2291:
1705:, Routledge, 2013, p. 163.
1541:Free South Africa Movement
1450:first democratic elections
1319:
1210:
1185:
522:1994 Bophuthatswana crisis
332:television programming ban
91:Free South Africa Movement
29:
1813:10.1080/03057070902919975
1404:released the hit single "
1316:Academic boycott campaign
1115:African National Congress
770:Winnie Madikizela-Mandela
336:Rugby union and apartheid
310:Elimination of Racism Day
48:apartheid in South Africa
2219:African Activist Archive
1590:Prime Minister of Canada
1560:Prime Minister of Canada
1419:Organisational structure
1282:told the press that his
1160:Commonwealth Secretariat
957:Cape Qualified Franchise
275:(mandatory arms embargo)
251:(voluntary arms embargo)
43:International opposition
2223:africanactivist.msu.edu
1621:United Democratic Front
1564:Commonwealth of Nations
1351:Anti-Apartheid Movement
1150:Commonwealth membership
987:Nostalgia for apartheid
378:Anti-Apartheid Movement
259:(sanctions feasibility)
177:Commonwealth of Nations
167:Anti-Apartheid Movement
101:International sanctions
86:Constructive engagement
1385:
1366:
1313:
1252:
1221:In November 1962, the
1121:Expansion and renaming
1079:
962:Disinvestment campaign
687:State Security Council
243:(Sharpeville massacre)
2166:(3), (2022) 323–354.
1380:
1301:
1295:Rejection by the West
1273:1964 general election
1247:
1182:Olympic participation
1075:
952:Apartheid legislation
942:Afrikaner nationalism
502:Cape Town peace march
492:Trojan Horse Incident
452:1948 general election
182:Halt All Racist Tours
2132:Elizabeth Williams,
1127:Sharpeville massacre
1105:, Conservative peer
850:Eugène Terre'Blanche
720:Mangosuthu Buthelezi
527:Shell House massacre
497:Khotso House bombing
467:Sharpeville massacre
137:Gleneagles Agreement
106:Milton King boycotts
2129:(Basingstoke, 2010)
2115:(Basingstoke, 2006)
1939:www.aamarchives.org
1668:30 May 2017 at the
1406:Free Nelson Mandela
1289:previous Government
1201:1964 Tokyo Olympics
1172:UN Security Council
997:Sullivan Principles
233:UN Security Council
143:Sullivan principles
2181:Forward to Freedom
2104:Roger Fieldhouse,
1785:9 May 2007 at the
1521:Michael C. Burgess
1245:. Lisson writes:
582:Conservative Party
462:1956 Treason Trial
125:UN Resolution 1761
1616:TransAfrica Forum
1575:Trevor Huddleston
1402:The Special A.K.A
1277:UK Prime Minister
1164:Marlborough House
1139:Umkhonto we Sizwe
1133:At the time, the
1111:Tennyson Makiwane
1051:
1050:
908:South-West Africa
374:
373:
16:(Redirected from
2282:
2092:
2091:
2089:
2087:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2034:
2028:
2027:
2017:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1976:
1956:
1950:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1931:
1925:
1924:
1916:
1910:
1909:
1897:
1891:
1890:
1878:
1872:
1871:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1824:
1796:
1790:
1776:
1767:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1753:. Archived from
1746:
1737:
1730:
1724:
1723:
1712:
1706:
1697:
1691:
1690:
1679:
1673:
1660:
1601:Randall Robinson
1556:John Diefenbaker
1479:
1474:
1473:
1095:Trafalgar Square
1043:
1036:
1029:
1013:
1012:
810:Albertina Sisulu
805:Benjamin Moloise
740:Arthur Goldreich
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389:apartheid system
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76:Sporting boycott
71:Academic boycott
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18:Boycott Movement
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2136:(London, 2015).
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1870:. 18 July 2018.
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1661:
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1531:Ethel de Keyser
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1440:After apartheid
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1227:Resolution 1761
1219:
1211:Main articles:
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2174:External links
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2148:(Oxford, 2018)
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2122:(Ithaca, 1998)
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2108:(London, 2005)
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2049:(3): 323–354.
2029:
2008:(3): 323–354.
1988:
1951:
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1911:
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1807:(2): 455–470.
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1103:Jeremy Thorpe
1101:, Liberal MP
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1063:South African
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540:Organisations
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315:"Biko" (song)
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81:Disinvestment
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37:
33:
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2119:
2112:
2105:
2084:. Retrieved
2080:
2071:
2046:
2042:
2032:
2005:
2001:
1991:
1964:
1954:
1942:. Retrieved
1938:
1929:
1914:
1905:
1895:
1886:
1876:
1868:The Scotsman
1867:
1858:
1849:
1839:
1804:
1800:
1794:
1759:. Retrieved
1755:the original
1733:
1728:
1720:the original
1710:
1701:
1695:
1687:the original
1677:
1579:Bob Hughes,
1570:David Ennals
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1191:
1168:Commonwealth
1156:Commonwealth
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1132:
1124:
1080:
1076:
1067:Vella Pillay
1052:
893:District Six
855:Desmond Tutu
845:Oliver Tambo
835:Helen Suzman
735:Bram Fischer
381:
377:
375:
166:
36:
1887:The Courier
1611:David Steel
1551:Ron Dellums
1333:Jack Simons
1197:Baden-Baden
1193:Abdul Minty
795:Thabo Mbeki
790:Govan Mbeki
780:D. F. Malan
775:Mac Maharaj
710:P. W. Botha
637:Broederbond
235:Resolutions
209:Conferences
192:TransAfrica
2239:Categories
1822:2263/14709
1633:References
1546:Ruth First
1536:Black Sash
1337:Eddie Roux
1176:UN Charter
903:Sophiatown
870:Jacob Zuma
755:Joel Joffe
745:Chris Hani
730:Ruth First
715:Steve Biko
572:Black Sash
2077:"History"
2063:1361-9462
2024:240599362
1983:0305-7070
1831:144155135
1491:Apartheid
1424:nations.
1091:Communist
924:Vlakplaas
888:Bantustan
825:Joe Slovo
421:Apartheid
320:Activists
65:Campaigns
1967:: 1–19.
1850:BBC News
1783:Archived
1666:Archived
1463:See also
1015:Category
919:Sun City
413:a series
411:Part of
2086:16 July
1944:22 July
1225:passed
1162:venue,
1113:of the
1087:Liberal
399:History
2061:
2022:
1981:
1829:
1761:4 June
1109:, and
1083:Labour
1059:London
914:Soweto
882:Places
699:People
647:COSATU
597:FOSATU
507:CODESA
442:Events
330:Equity
2213:ACTSA
2081:ACTSA
2020:S2CID
1827:S2CID
147:1986
141:1977
135:1977
129:1973
123:1962
2088:2024
2059:ISSN
1979:ISSN
1946:2024
1763:2007
1335:and
1215:and
1125:The
1117:. .
1089:and
682:SACP
672:SAMA
667:SAIC
662:SADF
657:SACC
552:APLA
376:The
2051:doi
2010:doi
1969:doi
1817:hdl
1809:doi
677:SAP
632:UDF
627:PAC
617:HNP
612:PFP
592:ECC
577:CCB
567:BBB
562:AWB
557:IFP
547:ANC
382:AAM
2241::
2164:36
2162:,
2079:.
2057:.
2047:36
2045:.
2041:.
2018:.
2006:36
2004:.
2000:.
1977:.
1963:.
1937:.
1904:.
1885:.
1866:.
1848:.
1825:.
1815:.
1805:35
1803:.
1771:^
1741:^
1641:^
1588:-
1558:-
1459:.
1353::
1178:.
1085:,
622:MK
607:RP
602:PP
587:DP
415:on
45:to
2221:(
2215:)
2090:.
2065:.
2053::
2026:.
2012::
1985:.
1971::
1948:.
1923:.
1908:.
1889:.
1852:.
1833:.
1819::
1811::
1765:.
1042:e
1035:t
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351:v
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
