553:
42:
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Johannes
Nicolaus Brønsted in Denmark and Thomas Martin Lowry in England both independently proposed the theory named after them. In the Brønsted–Lowry theory acids and bases are defined by the way they react with each other, generalising them. This is best illustrated by an equilibrium equation.
818:
The reverse of an acid–base reaction is also an acid–base reaction, between the conjugate acid of the base in the first reaction and the conjugate base of the acid. In the above example, ethanoate is the base of the reverse reaction and hydronium ion is the acid.
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41:
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1967:
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Lewis later wrote "To restrict the group of acids to those substances that contain hydrogen interferes as seriously with the systematic understanding of chemistry as would the restriction of the term
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the acid becomes stronger in this solvent than in water. Indeed, many molecules behave as acids in non-aqueous solutions but not in aqueous solutions. An extreme case occurs with
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The equilibrium sign, ⇌, is used because the reaction can occur in both forward and backward directions (is reversible). The acid, HA, is a
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2003:, a compound that can accept an electron pair. Lewis's proposal explains the Brønsted–Lowry classification using electronic structure.
1830:
1808:
Some non-aqueous solvents can behave as acids. An acidic solvent will make dissolved substances more basic. For example, the compound
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independently in 1923. The basic concept of this theory is that when an acid and a base react with each other, the acid forms its
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2153:
540:
which can become its conjugate acid, HB. Most acid–base reactions are fast, so the substances in the reaction are usually in
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The reactions between oxides in the solid or liquid state are excluded in Brønsted–Lowry theory. For example, the reaction
1514:
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One feature of the Brønsted–Lowry theory in contrast to
Arrhenius theory is that it does not require an acid to dissociate.
1371:
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375:
321:
288:
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2009:
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66:
111:
3064:(1923). "Einige Bemerkungen über den Begriff der Säuren und Basen" [Some observations about the concept of
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is an acid in both Lewis and Brønsted–Lowry classifications and show that both theories agree with each other.
397:
281:
131:
116:
136:
1362:
3001:
404:), while bases are defined as substances that dissociate in aqueous solutions to give OH (hydroxide ions).
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61:
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Some non-aqueous solvents can behave as bases, i.e. accept protons, in relation to Brønsted–Lowry acids.
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The essence of Brønsted–Lowry theory is that an acid is only such in relation to a base, and
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In this representation both the base, B, and the conjugate base, A, are shown carrying a
1342:{\displaystyle {\ce {3H+{}+ {\overset {(base)}{Al(OH)3}}<=> 3H2O{}+ Al_{(aq)}^3+}}}
3392:
3131:
2607:
is not covered in the Brønsted–Lowry definition of acids and bases. On the other hand,
2147:, a reaction that cannot occur in water because boron trifluoride hydrolizes in water.
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as it can act as an acid or as a base. In the image shown at the right one molecule of
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1996:
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71:
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1987:
created an alternative theory of acid–base reactions. The Lewis theory is based on
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244:
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101:
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2104:
of electrons and the proton, which is a Lewis acid, is transferred between them.
1647:, in liquid ammonia corresponds to the hydronium ion in water and the amide ion,
1984:
1817:
1796:
1787:
of carbon-containing molecules. Because DMSO accepts protons more strongly than
1357:
The hydrogen ion, or hydronium ion, is a Brønsted–Lowry acid when dissolved in H
976:
756:
556:
249:
200:
81:
1767:
where S stands for a solvent molecule. The most important of such solvents are
1171:{\displaystyle {\ce {{\overset {(acid)}{Al(OH)3}}{}+ OH- <=> Al(OH)4^-}}}
2266:
2000:
1992:
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since it behaves as an acid in water. However, it behaves as a base in liquid
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17:
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269:
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which can lose a proton to become its conjugate base, A. The base, B, is a
3012:
may be known as a compound of a basic oxide, MgO, and silicon dioxide, SiO
3008:
in the solid state may be called acids or bases. For example, the mineral
3434:
3325:
March's advanced organic chemistry: reactions, mechanisms, and structure
3637:
Whitten, Kenneth; Davis, Raymond; Peck, Larry; Stanley, George (2013).
3301:. Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, U.S. Archived from
3216:
Whitten, Kenneth; Davis, Raymond; Peck, Larry; Stanley, George (2013).
3009:
2428:
2140:
1664:
1502:
776:
568:
3400:
2522:
and that, when dissolved in water, ammonia functions as a Lewis base.
2124:
2120:
401:
337:
2722:, has been predicted to be a weak acid in the Brønsted–Lowry sense.
2859:{\displaystyle {\ce {SiO2(s) + 2H2O <=> Si(OH)4 (solution)}}}
2611:
acts as a base when it reacts with an aqueous solution of an acid.
2106:
975:
1983:
In the same year that Brønsted and Lowry published their theory,
1962:{\displaystyle {\ce {CH3COOH + 2HF <=> CH3C(OH)2+ + HF2-}}}
2424:
is acidic because hydrogen ions are given off in this reaction.
746:{\displaystyle {\ce {CH3 COOH + H2O <=> CH3 COO- + H3O+}}}
416:
383:
165:
56:
958:{\displaystyle {\ce {H3O+ + CH3 COO- <=> CH3COOH + H2O}}}
435:
With an acid, HA, the equation can be written symbolically as:
3379:
Hall, Norris F. (March 1940). "Systems of Acids and Bases".
2704:{\displaystyle {\ce {2H+ + MgO(s) -> Mg^{2+}(aq) + H2O}}}
2406:{\displaystyle {\ce {B(OH)3 + H2O <=> B(OH)4- + H+}}}
121:
3611:. Goyal Brothers Prakashan. p. 85. GGKEY:DKWFNS6PECF.
3504:(3rd ed.). Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p.
2427:
There is strong evidence that dilute aqueous solutions of
3616:
Masterton, William; Hurley, Cecile; Neth, Edward (2011).
3419:"Equilibria in the System Boron Trifluoride—Water at 25°"
3162:
Masterton, William; Hurley, Cecile; Neth, Edward (2011).
2960:
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2192:
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1911:
1845:
1783:, as these solvents have been widely used to measure the
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1301:
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1069:
948:
929:
866:
840:
729:
703:
647:
628:
340:(the hydrogen cation, or H). This theory generalises the
2990:{\displaystyle {\ce {Si(OH)4 <=> Si(OH)3O- + H+}}}
2249:{\displaystyle {\ce {4BF3 + 3H2O -> B(OH)3 + 3HBF4}}}
2416:
In this case the acid does not split up but the base, H
1625:{\displaystyle {\ce {NH3 + NH3 <=> NH4+ + NH2-}}}
2920:
2801:
2344:
2269:
is recognised as a Lewis acid because of the reaction
2123:." In Lewis theory an acid, A, and a base, B, form an
2044:
1882:
1711:
1569:
1491:{\displaystyle {\ce {H2O + H2O <=> H3O+ + OH-}}}
1432:
1268:
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900:
674:
476:
3608:
Goyal's IIT FOUNDATION COURSE CHEMISTRY: For Class-10
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2156:
2012:
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767:, is an acid because it donates a proton to water (
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3130:
2989:
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2703:
2597:{\displaystyle {\ce {2MgO + SiO2 -> Mg2 SiO4}}}
2596:
2512:{\displaystyle {\ce {H2O + NH3 -> OH- + NH+4}}}
2511:
2405:
2248:
2089:
1961:
1756:
1624:
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1170:
1023:Another example is illustrated by substances like
957:
745:
567:) to water in an equilibrium reaction to give the
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2090:{\displaystyle {\ce {HA + B <=> A- + BH+}}}
2052:
2051:
2034:
2033:
1890:
1889:
1872:
1871:
1757:{\displaystyle {\ce {HA + S <=> A- + SH+}}}
1719:
1718:
1701:
1700:
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1559:
1558:
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1439:
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1361:O and the hydroxide ion is a base because of the
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1112:
1111:
908:
907:
890:
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682:
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663:
522:{\displaystyle {\ce {HA + B <=> A- + HB+}}}
484:
483:
466:
465:
400:in aqueous solutions to give H (hydrogen ions or
2131:between A and B. This is shown when the adduct H
3327:(5th ed.). New York: Wiley. p. 328.
386:donate protons (H) while bases accept protons.
3374:
3372:
289:
8:
3472:(2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 187.
3658:Ebbing, Darrell; Gammon, Steven D. (2010).
3366:" 2nd ed. Pearson Prentice-Hall pp. 170–172
3284:Inorganic Chemistry in Non-Aqueous Solvents
3189:Ebbing, Darrell; Gammon, Steven D. (2010).
3104:Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry
3016:, as an acidic oxide. This is important in
1659:in ammonia, to the hydroxide ion in water.
795:is a base because it accepts a proton from
607:Consider the following acid–base reaction:
3526:General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry
3070:Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas
1012:while the other acts as an acid and loses
382:, independently, formulated the idea that
296:
282:
31:
3468:Housecroft, C. E.; Sharpe, A. G. (2004).
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3423:Journal of the American Chemical Society
1811:
1790:
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1007:
995:
810:
798:
790:
782:
770:
762:
551:
3590:(7 ed.). India: Nageen Prakashan.
3455:
3352:. New York: Academic Press. p. 69.
3269:
3137:. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp.
3029:
2903:
2784:
2327:
2111:Adduct of ammonia and boron trifluoride
2027:
1865:
1694:
1552:
1415:
1251:
1105:
883:
657:
459:
396:, acids are defined as substances that
223:
164:
34:
3664:. Cengage Learning. pp. 644–645.
3362:Miessler, G. L., Tarr, D. A., (1991) "
3299:"Bordwell pKa Table (Acidity in DMSO)"
3195:. Cengage Learning. pp. 644–645.
2127:, AB, where the electron pair forms a
1973:Comparison with Lewis acid–base theory
775:) and becomes its conjugate base, the
3412:
3410:
3323:Smith, Michael; March, Jerry (2001).
2259:The reaction above illustrate that BF
1799:, where a proton is extracted from a
27:Chemical theory about acids and bases
7:
3282:Holliday, A.K.; Massy, A.G. (1965).
2526:Comparison with the Lux–Flood theory
803:and becomes its conjugate acid, the
320:theory which was first developed by
3661:General Chemistry, Enhanced Edition
3619:Chemistry: Principles and Reactions
3417:Wamser, Christian A. (1951-01-01).
3192:General Chemistry, Enhanced Edition
3165:Chemistry: Principles and Reactions
3038:"Brønsted–Lowry theory | chemistry"
3568:Instant Notes in Organic Chemistry
25:
3222:. Cengage Learning. p. 350.
3168:. Cengage Learning. p. 433.
365:
356:
314:proton theory of acids and bases
40:
3500:The Nature of the Chemical Bond
1995:is a compound that can give an
1824:, a much more acidic solvent.
3550:. Greenwood Publishing Group.
2950:
2944:
2930:
2905:
2886:
2880:
2851:
2845:
2831:
2825:
2811:
2786:
2753:
2747:
2677:
2671:
2653:
2649:
2643:
2564:
2477:
2431:contain minute amounts of the
2374:
2368:
2354:
2329:
2291:
2285:
2212:
2206:
2198:
2054:
2029:
1925:
1919:
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1442:
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1324:
1318:
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1253:
1241:
1235:
1220:
1214:
1152:
1146:
1132:
1107:
1080:
1074:
1059:
1053:
980:The amphoteric nature of water
910:
885:
684:
659:
486:
461:
348:Definitions of acids and bases
1:
3381:Journal of Chemical Education
3100:"The uniqueness of hydrogen"
2420:O, does. A solution of B(OH)
3523:Stoker, H. Stephen (2012).
3350:Non-Aqueous Solvent Systems
1785:acid dissociation constants
1663:behave as acids, and metal
3710:
3586:Srivastava, H. C. (2003).
1976:
376:Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted
322:Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted
3348:Waddington, T.C. (1965).
3004:, oxides like MgO and SiO
2119:to substances containing
1000:acts as a base and gains
332:, and the base forms its
3605:Ramakrishna, A. (2014).
3571:. Taylor & Francis.
3565:Patrick, Graham (2004).
3082:10.1002/recl.19230420815
1635:Thus, the ammonium ion,
132:Self-ionization of water
117:Hammett acidity function
3547:The Basics of Chemistry
3544:Myers, Richard (2003).
3249:. Infobase Publishing.
3133:The Basics of Chemistry
3129:Myers, Richard (2003).
3116:10.1002/jctb.5000420302
3042:Encyclopedia Britannica
1363:autoionization of water
3588:Nootan - ISC Chemistry
2991:
2860:
2705:
2598:
2513:
2407:
2250:
2112:
2091:
1963:
1758:
1626:
1492:
1343:
1172:
981:
959:
747:
604:
523:
3694:Equilibrium chemistry
2992:
2861:
2706:
2599:
2514:
2408:
2251:
2110:
2092:
1979:Lewis acids and bases
1964:
1759:
1627:
1493:
1353:Non-aqueous solutions
1344:
1173:
979:
972:Amphoteric substances
960:
748:
555:
524:
310:Brønsted–Lowry theory
147:Frustrated Lewis pair
107:Equilibrium chemistry
97:Dissociation constant
67:Acid–base homeostasis
3643:. Cengage Learning.
3622:. Cengage Learning.
3529:. Cengage Learning.
3243:Lew, Kristi (2009).
2871:
2729:
2618:
2537:
2441:
2276:
2154:
2129:dative covalent bond
2010:
1989:electronic structure
1831:
1677:
1515:
1372:
1183:
1041:
826:
614:
563:, donates a proton (
442:
142:Lewis acid catalysis
3689:Acid–base chemistry
3470:Inorganic Chemistry
3435:10.1021/ja01145a134
3393:1940JChEd..17..124H
3364:Inorganic Chemistry
2962:
2916:
2898:
2843:
2797:
2776:
2745:
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2592:
2579:
2563:
2507:
2476:
2457:
2388:
2340:
2319:
2303:
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2224:
2194:
2174:
2040:
1957:
1939:
1913:
1878:
1847:
1707:
1620:
1602:
1565:
1547:
1531:
1463:
1428:
1407:
1388:
1337:
1303:
1264:
1232:
1166:
1118:
1071:
1025:aluminium hydroxide
950:
931:
896:
868:
842:
731:
705:
670:
649:
630:
542:dynamic equilibrium
472:
380:Thomas Martin Lowry
326:Thomas Martin Lowry
2987:
2942:
2935:
2878:
2856:
2823:
2816:
2764:
2733:
2701:
2684:
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2551:
2509:
2493:
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2403:
2366:
2359:
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2232:
2204:
2182:
2162:
2113:
2087:
2059:
1959:
1943:
1917:
1901:
1897:
1835:
1754:
1726:
1622:
1606:
1588:
1584:
1535:
1519:
1503:analogous reaction
1488:
1451:
1447:
1395:
1376:
1339:
1312:
1291:
1283:
1212:
1168:
1144:
1137:
1051:
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955:
938:
919:
915:
856:
830:
743:
719:
693:
689:
637:
618:
605:
519:
491:
318:acid–base reaction
62:Acid–base reaction
3671:978-0-538-49752-7
3650:978-1-133-61066-3
3629:978-1-133-38694-0
3597:978-93-80088-89-1
3578:978-1-135-32125-3
3557:978-0-313-31664-7
3536:978-1-133-10394-3
3479:978-0-13-039913-7
3401:10.1021/ed017p124
3334:978-0-471-58589-3
3305:on 9 October 2008
3286:. Pergamon Press.
3229:978-1-133-61066-3
3202:978-0-538-49752-7
3175:978-1-133-38694-0
3148:978-0-313-31664-7
3000:According to the
2979:
2966:
2949:
2941:
2937:
2885:
2877:
2850:
2830:
2822:
2818:
2779:
2767:
2752:
2736:
2699:
2687:
2676:
2659:
2648:
2641:
2629:
2583:
2570:
2554:
2547:
2496:
2483:
2467:
2460:
2448:
2395:
2373:
2365:
2361:
2322:
2310:
2290:
2282:
2235:
2211:
2203:
2197:
2185:
2165:
2145:boron trifluoride
2079:
2066:
2061:
2022:
2016:
1946:
1924:
1916:
1904:
1899:
1860:
1850:
1838:
1822:hydrogen fluoride
1769:dimethylsulfoxide
1746:
1733:
1728:
1689:
1683:
1667:behave as bases.
1609:
1591:
1586:
1538:
1522:
1480:
1467:
1454:
1449:
1410:
1398:
1391:
1379:
1323:
1315:
1306:
1294:
1285:
1245:
1240:
1219:
1211:
1194:
1151:
1143:
1139:
1094:
1084:
1079:
1058:
1050:
953:
941:
934:
922:
917:
872:
859:
846:
833:
735:
722:
709:
696:
691:
652:
640:
633:
621:
548:Aqueous solutions
544:with each other.
511:
498:
493:
454:
448:
409:physical chemists
336:by exchange of a
306:
305:
152:Chiral Lewis acid
16:(Redirected from
3701:
3675:
3654:
3633:
3612:
3601:
3582:
3561:
3540:
3510:
3509:
3503:
3490:
3484:
3483:
3465:
3459:
3453:
3447:
3446:
3414:
3405:
3404:
3376:
3367:
3360:
3354:
3353:
3345:
3339:
3338:
3320:
3314:
3313:
3311:
3310:
3294:
3288:
3287:
3279:
3273:
3267:
3261:
3260:
3240:
3234:
3233:
3213:
3207:
3206:
3186:
3180:
3179:
3159:
3153:
3152:
3136:
3126:
3120:
3119:
3092:
3086:
3085:
3058:
3052:
3051:
3049:
3048:
3034:
3002:Lux–Flood theory
2996:
2994:
2993:
2988:
2986:
2985:
2984:
2977:
2972:
2971:
2964:
2961:
2958:
2953:
2947:
2939:
2938:
2936:
2934:
2933:
2926:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2908:
2900:
2897:
2894:
2889:
2883:
2875:
2865:
2863:
2862:
2857:
2855:
2854:
2848:
2842:
2839:
2834:
2828:
2820:
2819:
2817:
2815:
2814:
2807:
2799:
2798:
2796:
2789:
2781:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2765:
2756:
2750:
2744:
2741:
2734:
2710:
2708:
2707:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2685:
2680:
2674:
2669:
2668:
2657:
2652:
2646:
2639:
2635:
2634:
2627:
2603:
2601:
2600:
2595:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2581:
2578:
2575:
2568:
2562:
2559:
2552:
2545:
2518:
2516:
2515:
2510:
2508:
2506:
2501:
2494:
2489:
2488:
2481:
2475:
2472:
2465:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2446:
2412:
2410:
2409:
2404:
2402:
2401:
2400:
2393:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2371:
2363:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2357:
2350:
2342:
2341:
2339:
2332:
2324:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2308:
2302:
2299:
2294:
2288:
2280:
2255:
2253:
2252:
2247:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2233:
2223:
2220:
2215:
2209:
2201:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2183:
2173:
2170:
2163:
2096:
2094:
2093:
2088:
2086:
2085:
2084:
2077:
2072:
2071:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2050:
2042:
2041:
2039:
2032:
2024:
2020:
2014:
1968:
1966:
1965:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1951:
1944:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1922:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1896:
1895:
1888:
1880:
1879:
1877:
1870:
1862:
1858:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1836:
1815:
1804:
1794:
1782:
1763:
1761:
1760:
1755:
1753:
1752:
1751:
1744:
1739:
1738:
1731:
1729:
1727:
1725:
1724:
1717:
1709:
1708:
1706:
1699:
1691:
1687:
1681:
1658:
1657:
1656:
1653:
1646:
1645:
1644:
1641:
1631:
1629:
1628:
1623:
1621:
1619:
1614:
1607:
1601:
1596:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1582:
1575:
1567:
1566:
1564:
1557:
1549:
1546:
1543:
1536:
1530:
1527:
1520:
1497:
1495:
1494:
1489:
1487:
1486:
1485:
1478:
1473:
1472:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1445:
1438:
1430:
1429:
1427:
1420:
1412:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1396:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1377:
1348:
1346:
1345:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1328:
1327:
1321:
1313:
1308:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1292:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1281:
1274:
1266:
1265:
1263:
1256:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1238:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1223:
1217:
1209:
1207:
1202:
1200:
1199:
1192:
1177:
1175:
1174:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1149:
1141:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1135:
1128:
1120:
1119:
1117:
1110:
1102:
1100:
1099:
1092:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1077:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1062:
1056:
1048:
1046:
1033:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1003:
999:
964:
962:
961:
956:
954:
951:
949:
946:
939:
932:
930:
927:
920:
918:
916:
914:
913:
906:
898:
897:
895:
888:
880:
878:
877:
870:
867:
864:
857:
852:
851:
844:
841:
838:
831:
814:
802:
794:
786:
774:
766:
752:
750:
749:
744:
742:
741:
740:
733:
730:
727:
720:
715:
714:
707:
704:
701:
694:
692:
690:
688:
687:
680:
672:
671:
669:
662:
654:
650:
648:
645:
638:
631:
629:
626:
619:
597:
591:
585:
579:
528:
526:
525:
520:
518:
517:
516:
509:
504:
503:
496:
494:
492:
490:
489:
482:
474:
473:
471:
464:
456:
452:
446:
394:Arrhenius theory
369:
360:
342:Arrhenius theory
298:
291:
284:
265:Non-nucleophilic
92:Buffer solutions
77:Acidity function
44:
32:
21:
3709:
3708:
3704:
3703:
3702:
3700:
3699:
3698:
3679:
3678:
3672:
3657:
3651:
3636:
3630:
3615:
3604:
3598:
3585:
3579:
3564:
3558:
3543:
3537:
3522:
3519:
3514:
3513:
3492:
3491:
3487:
3480:
3467:
3466:
3462:
3454:
3450:
3416:
3415:
3408:
3378:
3377:
3370:
3361:
3357:
3347:
3346:
3342:
3335:
3322:
3321:
3317:
3308:
3306:
3297:Reich, Hans J.
3296:
3295:
3291:
3281:
3280:
3276:
3268:
3264:
3257:
3246:Acids and Bases
3242:
3241:
3237:
3230:
3215:
3214:
3210:
3203:
3188:
3187:
3183:
3176:
3161:
3160:
3156:
3149:
3128:
3127:
3123:
3094:
3093:
3089:
3066:acids and bases
3062:Brönsted, J. N.
3060:
3059:
3055:
3046:
3044:
3036:
3035:
3031:
3026:
3015:
3007:
2976:
2963:
2869:
2868:
2727:
2726:
2721:
2716:silicon dioxide
2656:
2626:
2616:
2615:
2609:magnesium oxide
2535:
2534:
2528:
2480:
2439:
2438:
2423:
2419:
2392:
2274:
2273:
2262:
2152:
2151:
2138:
2134:
2117:oxidizing agent
2076:
2063:
2008:
2007:
1981:
1975:
1829:
1828:
1813:
1809:
1800:
1792:
1788:
1780:
1776:
1743:
1730:
1675:
1674:
1654:
1651:
1650:
1648:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1636:
1513:
1512:
1477:
1464:
1370:
1369:
1360:
1355:
1208:
1191:
1181:
1180:
1091:
1047:
1039:
1038:
1032:
1028:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
974:
869:
843:
824:
823:
812:
808:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
772:
768:
764:
760:
732:
706:
612:
611:
603:
595:
593:
589:
587:
583:
581:
577:
550:
538:proton acceptor
508:
495:
440:
439:
390:
389:
388:
387:
372:
371:
370:
362:
361:
350:
302:
127:Proton affinity
52:Acceptor number
35:Acids and bases
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3707:
3705:
3697:
3696:
3691:
3681:
3680:
3677:
3676:
3670:
3655:
3649:
3634:
3628:
3613:
3602:
3596:
3583:
3577:
3562:
3556:
3541:
3535:
3518:
3515:
3512:
3511:
3494:Pauling, Linus
3485:
3478:
3460:
3448:
3429:(1): 409–416.
3406:
3387:(3): 124–128.
3368:
3355:
3340:
3333:
3315:
3289:
3274:
3262:
3255:
3235:
3228:
3208:
3201:
3181:
3174:
3154:
3147:
3121:
3087:
3076:(8): 718–728.
3053:
3028:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3013:
3005:
2998:
2997:
2983:
2975:
2970:
2957:
2952:
2946:
2932:
2925:
2914:
2907:
2893:
2888:
2882:
2866:
2853:
2847:
2838:
2833:
2827:
2813:
2806:
2795:
2788:
2771:
2762:
2759:
2755:
2749:
2740:
2719:
2712:
2711:
2691:
2683:
2679:
2673:
2667:
2663:
2655:
2651:
2645:
2638:
2633:
2624:
2605:
2604:
2587:
2574:
2566:
2558:
2550:
2543:
2527:
2524:
2520:
2519:
2505:
2500:
2492:
2487:
2479:
2471:
2463:
2452:
2421:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2399:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2370:
2356:
2349:
2338:
2331:
2314:
2306:
2298:
2293:
2287:
2260:
2257:
2256:
2239:
2230:
2227:
2219:
2214:
2208:
2200:
2189:
2180:
2177:
2169:
2160:
2136:
2132:
2098:
2097:
2083:
2075:
2070:
2056:
2049:
2038:
2031:
2019:
1974:
1971:
1970:
1969:
1955:
1950:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1921:
1908:
1894:
1887:
1876:
1869:
1856:
1853:
1842:
1765:
1764:
1750:
1742:
1737:
1723:
1716:
1705:
1698:
1686:
1661:Ammonium salts
1633:
1632:
1618:
1613:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1581:
1574:
1563:
1556:
1542:
1534:
1526:
1507:liquid ammonia
1499:
1498:
1484:
1476:
1471:
1458:
1444:
1437:
1426:
1419:
1402:
1394:
1383:
1358:
1354:
1351:
1350:
1349:
1335:
1332:
1326:
1320:
1311:
1298:
1289:
1280:
1273:
1262:
1255:
1243:
1237:
1227:
1222:
1216:
1205:
1198:
1189:
1178:
1164:
1159:
1154:
1148:
1134:
1127:
1116:
1109:
1098:
1090:
1082:
1076:
1066:
1061:
1055:
973:
970:
966:
965:
945:
937:
926:
912:
905:
894:
887:
876:
863:
855:
850:
837:
754:
753:
739:
726:
718:
713:
700:
686:
679:
668:
661:
644:
636:
625:
598: Proton (
594:
592: Hydrogen
588:
582:
576:
549:
546:
530:
529:
515:
507:
502:
488:
481:
470:
463:
451:
433:
432:
429:conjugate acid
425:conjugate base
374:
373:
364:
363:
355:
354:
353:
352:
351:
349:
346:
334:conjugate acid
330:conjugate base
304:
303:
301:
300:
293:
286:
278:
275:
274:
273:
272:
267:
262:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
235:Brønsted–Lowry
229:
228:
221:
220:
219:
218:
213:
208:
203:
198:
193:
188:
183:
178:
176:Brønsted–Lowry
170:
169:
162:
161:
160:
159:
154:
149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
124:
119:
114:
109:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
46:
45:
37:
36:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3706:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3686:
3684:
3673:
3667:
3663:
3662:
3656:
3652:
3646:
3642:
3641:
3635:
3631:
3625:
3621:
3620:
3614:
3610:
3609:
3603:
3599:
3593:
3589:
3584:
3580:
3574:
3570:
3569:
3563:
3559:
3553:
3549:
3548:
3542:
3538:
3532:
3528:
3527:
3521:
3520:
3516:
3507:
3502:
3501:
3495:
3489:
3486:
3481:
3475:
3471:
3464:
3461:
3458:, p. 91.
3457:
3452:
3449:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3413:
3411:
3407:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3375:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3359:
3356:
3351:
3344:
3341:
3336:
3330:
3326:
3319:
3316:
3304:
3300:
3293:
3290:
3285:
3278:
3275:
3272:, p. 76.
3271:
3266:
3263:
3258:
3256:9780791097830
3252:
3248:
3247:
3239:
3236:
3231:
3225:
3221:
3220:
3212:
3209:
3204:
3198:
3194:
3193:
3185:
3182:
3177:
3171:
3167:
3166:
3158:
3155:
3150:
3144:
3140:
3135:
3134:
3125:
3122:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3091:
3088:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3057:
3054:
3043:
3039:
3033:
3030:
3023:
3021:
3019:
3011:
3003:
2981:
2973:
2968:
2955:
2923:
2912:
2891:
2867:
2836:
2804:
2793:
2769:
2760:
2757:
2738:
2725:
2724:
2723:
2717:
2689:
2681:
2665:
2661:
2636:
2631:
2622:
2614:
2613:
2612:
2610:
2585:
2572:
2556:
2548:
2541:
2533:
2532:
2531:
2525:
2523:
2503:
2498:
2490:
2485:
2469:
2461:
2450:
2437:
2436:
2435:
2434:
2430:
2425:
2397:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2347:
2336:
2312:
2304:
2296:
2272:
2271:
2270:
2268:
2264:
2237:
2228:
2225:
2217:
2187:
2178:
2175:
2167:
2158:
2150:
2149:
2148:
2146:
2142:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2109:
2105:
2103:
2081:
2073:
2068:
2047:
2036:
2017:
2006:
2005:
2004:
2002:
1998:
1997:electron pair
1994:
1990:
1986:
1980:
1972:
1953:
1948:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1906:
1885:
1874:
1854:
1851:
1840:
1827:
1826:
1825:
1823:
1819:
1806:
1803:
1798:
1786:
1774:
1770:
1748:
1740:
1735:
1714:
1703:
1684:
1673:
1672:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1662:
1616:
1611:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1572:
1561:
1540:
1532:
1524:
1511:
1510:
1509:
1508:
1504:
1482:
1474:
1469:
1456:
1435:
1424:
1400:
1392:
1381:
1368:
1367:
1366:
1364:
1352:
1333:
1330:
1309:
1296:
1287:
1271:
1260:
1225:
1203:
1196:
1187:
1179:
1162:
1157:
1125:
1114:
1096:
1088:
1064:
1037:
1036:
1035:
1026:
1021:
991:
987:
978:
971:
969:
943:
935:
924:
903:
892:
874:
861:
853:
848:
835:
822:
821:
820:
816:
806:
778:
758:
737:
724:
716:
711:
698:
677:
666:
642:
634:
623:
610:
609:
608:
601:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
547:
545:
543:
539:
535:
513:
505:
500:
479:
468:
449:
438:
437:
436:
430:
426:
422:
418:
415:
414:
413:
410:
405:
403:
399:
395:
385:
381:
377:
368:
359:
347:
345:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
312:(also called
311:
299:
294:
292:
287:
285:
280:
279:
277:
276:
271:
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
256:
253:
251:
248:
246:
243:
241:
238:
236:
233:
232:
231:
230:
226:
222:
217:
214:
212:
209:
207:
204:
202:
199:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
182:
179:
177:
174:
173:
172:
171:
167:
163:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
113:
110:
108:
105:
103:
100:
98:
95:
93:
90:
88:
85:
83:
80:
78:
75:
73:
72:Acid strength
70:
68:
65:
63:
60:
58:
55:
53:
50:
49:
48:
47:
43:
39:
38:
33:
30:
19:
18:Brønsted acid
3660:
3639:
3618:
3607:
3587:
3567:
3546:
3525:
3517:Bibliography
3499:
3488:
3469:
3463:
3456:Patrick 2004
3451:
3426:
3422:
3384:
3380:
3363:
3358:
3349:
3343:
3324:
3318:
3307:. Retrieved
3303:the original
3292:
3283:
3277:
3270:Patrick 2004
3265:
3245:
3238:
3218:
3211:
3191:
3184:
3164:
3157:
3132:
3124:
3110:(3): 43–47.
3107:
3103:
3096:Lowry, T. M.
3090:
3073:
3069:
3056:
3045:. Retrieved
3041:
3032:
3018:geochemistry
2999:
2713:
2606:
2529:
2521:
2433:ammonium ion
2426:
2415:
2265:
2258:
2114:
2099:
1982:
1816:is known as
1807:
1797:carbon acids
1773:acetonitrile
1771:, DMSO, and
1766:
1669:
1634:
1500:
1356:
1022:
985:
983:
967:
817:
755:
606:
586: Carbon
580: Oxygen
571:ion and the
537:
534:proton donor
533:
531:
434:
406:
391:
313:
309:
307:
234:
175:
102:Donor number
29:
2139:forms from
1985:G. N. Lewis
1818:acetic acid
988:. Water is
757:Acetic acid
557:Acetic acid
82:Amphoterism
3683:Categories
3309:2008-11-02
3047:2021-03-07
3024:References
2714:Dissolved
2267:Boric acid
2001:Lewis acid
1993:Lewis base
1977:See also:
1505:occurs in
1016:to become
1004:to become
990:amphoteric
986:vice versa
398:dissociate
260:Superbases
206:Superacids
112:Extraction
3640:Chemistry
3443:0002-7863
3219:Chemistry
2969:−
2931:⇀
2924:−
2913:−
2906:↽
2812:⇀
2805:−
2794:−
2787:↽
2654:⟶
2565:⟶
2486:−
2478:⟶
2385:−
2355:⇀
2348:−
2337:−
2330:↽
2199:⟶
2102:lone pair
2069:−
2055:⇀
2048:−
2037:−
2030:↽
1954:−
1893:⇀
1886:−
1875:−
1868:↽
1736:−
1722:⇀
1715:−
1704:−
1697:↽
1617:−
1580:⇀
1573:−
1562:−
1555:↽
1483:−
1443:⇀
1436:−
1425:−
1418:↽
1365:reaction
1279:⇀
1272:−
1261:−
1254:↽
1163:−
1133:⇀
1126:−
1115:−
1108:↽
1097:−
911:⇀
904:−
893:−
886:↽
875:−
805:hydronium
712:−
685:⇀
678:−
667:−
660:↽
573:hydronium
561:weak acid
501:−
487:⇀
480:−
469:−
462:↽
407:In 1923,
157:ECW model
137:Titration
3496:(1960).
3098:(1923).
2849:solution
316:) is an
3389:Bibcode
3068:].
3010:olivine
2429:ammonia
2141:ammonia
777:acetate
569:acetate
402:protons
392:In the
245:Organic
191:Organic
186:Mineral
3668:
3647:
3626:
3594:
3575:
3554:
3533:
3476:
3441:
3331:
3253:
3226:
3199:
3172:
3145:
3141:–161.
2125:adduct
2121:oxygen
1805:bond.
1665:amides
1029:Al(OH)
807:ion, (
600:hydron
596:
590:
584:
578:
575:ion.
565:hydron
338:proton
255:Strong
201:Strong
2718:, SiO
1999:to a
779:ion (
384:acids
250:Oxide
240:Lewis
227:types
216:Solid
196:Oxide
181:Lewis
168:types
3666:ISBN
3645:ISBN
3624:ISBN
3592:ISBN
3573:ISBN
3552:ISBN
3531:ISBN
3474:ISBN
3439:ISSN
3329:ISBN
3251:ISBN
3224:ISBN
3197:ISBN
3170:ISBN
3143:ISBN
2143:and
2135:N−BF
1991:. A
1849:COOH
1814:COOH
1239:base
1078:acid
933:COOH
801:COOH
765:COOH
632:COOH
559:, a
421:base
417:acid
378:and
324:and
308:The
270:Weak
225:Base
211:Weak
166:Acid
87:Base
57:Acid
3506:557
3431:doi
3397:doi
3139:157
3112:doi
3078:doi
2735:SiO
2640:MgO
2582:SiO
2553:SiO
2546:MgO
2234:HBF
1802:C−H
1501:An
871:COO
815:).
787:).
785:COO
708:COO
3685::
3437:.
3427:73
3425:.
3421:.
3409:^
3395:.
3385:17
3383:.
3371:^
3108:42
3106:.
3102:.
3074:42
3072:.
3040:.
3020:.
2948:OH
2940:Si
2884:OH
2876:Si
2829:OH
2821:Si
2675:aq
2658:Mg
2569:Mg
2495:NH
2482:OH
2466:NH
2372:OH
2289:OH
2210:OH
2164:BF
2078:BH
2015:HA
1945:HF
1923:OH
1903:CH
1859:HF
1837:CH
1810:CH
1781:CN
1777:CH
1775:,
1745:SH
1682:HA
1649:NH
1637:NH
1608:NH
1590:NH
1537:NH
1521:NH
1479:OH
1322:aq
1314:Al
1218:OH
1210:Al
1150:OH
1142:Al
1093:OH
1057:OH
1049:Al
1034:.
1027:,
1020:.
1018:OH
921:CH
858:CH
797:CH
781:CH
761:CH
759:,
695:CH
620:CH
510:HB
447:HA
427:+
423:⇌
419:+
344:.
122:pH
3674:.
3653:.
3632:.
3600:.
3581:.
3560:.
3539:.
3508:.
3482:.
3445:.
3433::
3403:.
3399::
3391::
3337:.
3312:.
3259:.
3232:.
3205:.
3178:.
3151:.
3118:.
3114::
3084:.
3080::
3050:.
3014:2
3006:2
2982:+
2978:H
2974:+
2965:O
2956:3
2951:)
2945:(
2892:4
2887:)
2881:(
2852:)
2846:(
2837:4
2832:)
2826:(
2778:O
2770:2
2766:H
2761:2
2758:+
2754:)
2751:s
2748:(
2739:2
2720:2
2698:O
2690:2
2686:H
2682:+
2678:)
2672:(
2666:+
2662:2
2650:)
2647:s
2644:(
2637:+
2632:+
2628:H
2623:2
2586:4
2573:2
2557:2
2549:+
2542:2
2504:+
2499:4
2491:+
2470:3
2462:+
2459:O
2451:2
2447:H
2422:3
2418:2
2398:+
2394:H
2390:+
2380:4
2375:)
2369:(
2364:B
2321:O
2313:2
2309:H
2305:+
2297:3
2292:)
2286:(
2281:B
2261:3
2238:4
2229:3
2226:+
2218:3
2213:)
2207:(
2202:B
2196:O
2188:2
2184:H
2179:3
2176:+
2168:3
2159:4
2137:3
2133:3
2082:+
2074:+
2065:A
2021:B
2018:+
1949:2
1941:+
1936:+
1931:2
1926:)
1920:(
1915:C
1907:3
1855:2
1852:+
1841:3
1812:3
1793:O
1791:2
1789:H
1779:3
1749:+
1741:+
1732:A
1688:S
1685:+
1655:2
1652:−
1643:4
1640:+
1612:2
1604:+
1599:+
1594:4
1541:3
1533:+
1525:3
1475:+
1470:+
1466:O
1457:3
1453:H
1409:O
1401:2
1397:H
1393:+
1390:O
1382:2
1378:H
1359:2
1334:+
1331:3
1325:)
1319:(
1310:+
1305:O
1297:2
1293:H
1288:3
1242:)
1236:(
1226:3
1221:)
1215:(
1204:+
1197:+
1193:H
1188:3
1158:4
1153:)
1147:(
1089:+
1081:)
1075:(
1065:3
1060:)
1054:(
1031:3
1014:H
1010:O
1008:3
1006:H
1002:H
998:O
996:2
994:H
952:O
944:2
940:H
936:+
925:3
862:3
854:+
849:+
845:O
836:3
832:H
813:O
811:3
809:H
799:3
793:O
791:2
789:H
783:3
773:O
771:2
769:H
763:3
738:+
734:O
725:3
721:H
717:+
699:3
651:O
643:2
639:H
635:+
624:3
602:)
514:+
506:+
497:A
453:B
450:+
431:.
297:e
290:t
283:v
20:)
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